Transnational litigation

The extractive sector, with its potent cocktail of high financial stakes
and intricate global supply chains, has long been viewed as a fertile
ground for corruption. The allocation of licenses, concessions, and
contracts for exploration and extraction has been opaque, thus, creating
opportunities for corruption. Extractive projects are often based in
developing economies, including in Latin America and Sub-Saharan
Africa, where “some business could not in practice be transacted without
[bribery].”

Against this backdrop, the way we perceive corruption has
evolved from bribes being “tax deductible as a production cost” to being
a “global evil” that needs to be eliminated. In addition to international conventions seeking to combat bribery and corruption, there have been initiatives specifically aimed at targeting corruption in the extractive sector.

In these global efforts, arbitration can also play a pivotal role in
combating corruption, by providing a neutral platform for resolving
disputes that are untainted by domestic political and judicial interference.
This impartiality is critical in ensuring fair outcomes in corruption-related cases. Critical to this effort are also the arbitrators themselves. Indeed,
arbitrators possess broad discretion in conducting proceedings, by being
allowed to deny their jurisdiction, find claims inadmissible, or dismiss
the claim if investments or contracts have been tainted by corruption.
Arbitration awards also serve as an effective deterrent against corruption.
Per the New York Convention, these awards are currently enforceable in
172 countries. This enforceability is crucial for holding parties
accountable and ensuring compliance with anti-corruption measures.
Indeed, the (un)enforceability of rights and obligations for such
investments can be an effective enforcement mechanism for the industry
to make good on its promises to fight corruption.

The case of Union of India v AK Balaji (2018) revolves around the conduct of foreign law firms and lawyers in India. The Supreme Court clarified that foreign lawyers cannot practice law in India on non-controversial matters or issues unless they fulfill the requirements of the Advocates Act, 1961 and the Indian Bar Council Rules. However, there is no restriction on foreign law firms or lawyers temporarily visiting India to give clients legal advice on foreign law or their legal system The judgment confirmed that foreign lawyers India for arbitration of disputes arising out of international commercial contracts under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, may arise.This case marked a significant development in regulating the presence and practice of foreign lawyers in India, who ensured compliance with Indian law by allowing specific activities at defined criteria.

IPSA Meeting - Comparative Judicial Studies - University of Texas, Austin - 24-26 October 2024

Transnational Judicial Dialogue: A Comparative Exploration of National Courts’ Use of Foreign Precedents and the Case of Brazil

My research delves into the complex realm of judicial interaction across borders, with a primary focus on the Brazilian Supreme Court. It critically analyzes how this Court, among others, incorporates foreign judicial decisions into its constitutional rulings, thereby shaping its own constitutional interpretation. At the heart of this study lies a thorough investigation into the historical and political forces that have influenced the Brazilian Supreme Court's adoption of foreign precedents, with an emphasis on caselaw from the United States Supreme Court. But the research extends beyond the U.S.-Brazil legal axis, broadening its scope to include a diverse range of international influences. The objective is to understand the dynamics of how foreign legal principles, especially those emerging from various national and international courts, are integrated into the Brazilian constitutional framework.

Through an examination of landmark cases, this paper explores the evolution of the Brazilian Supreme Court's interpretative methods with the help of foreign sources. It assesses the extent to which foreign legal thought, derived from a myriad of jurisdictions, has been assimilated into the Court's reasoning and decision-making process. The study employs a blend of historical and political analysis to contextualize the Brazilian experience within the wider spectrum of global constitutionalism (globalization of constitutional law).

Furthermore, this research contributes to the understanding of judicial dialogue as a phenomenon in the realm of international law and comparative constitutionalism. It offers insights into how national courts, particularly in Brazil, navigate the complex interplay between domestic legal mandates and the ever-evolving corpus of international legal  principles. By doing so, it provides a nuanced perspective on the role of the Brazilian Supreme Court as both a receptor and a contributor in the transnational judicial conversation, illuminating its impact on the global judicial landscape.

Among other things, I expect the research to reveal: 1) how the Brazilian Supreme Court has selectively incorporated foreign precedents into its constitutional jurisprudence, identifying the extent of influence from various national and international courts; 2) how the internal dynamics of the Court and the broader legal and political environment in Brazil encourages such judicial practices (transnational judicial dialogue); 3) the evolution in the interpretative methods of the Brazilian Supreme Court due to the integration of foreign principles and precedents (whether this could manifest in changes in legal reasoning, argumentation styles, and decision-making processes, etc); and 4) insights into the mechanisms and methodological processes through which judicial dialogue occurs, particularly how the Brazilian Supreme Court engages with and contributes to this dialogue.

In medical negligence litigation expert evidence has long played a dominant role. The trend towards the use of concurrent expert evidence is now well underway. However, for the lawyers and the doctors involved, the pathway is not yet familiar. Disputes have frequently arisen in the context of pre-hearing expert conclaves, given the adversarial nature of litigation and perhaps fuelled by fears of a less transparent process at this increasingly important stage. This article explains the concurrent expert evidence framework and examines areas of common dispute both in the conclaves and at trial, with a view to providing assistance to legal practitioners working in this area and the medical practitioners called upon to provide expert evidence in such litigation.

Any scientific intercession that has as objective, the understanding of the significances of the "principle of law" needs to have an interdisciplinary character, the basis for the approach being the philosophy of the law. In this study we fulfill such an analysis with the purpose to underline the multiple theoretical significances due to this concept, but also the relationship between the juridical principles and norms, respectively the normative value of the principle of the law. Thus are being materialized extensive references to the philosophical and juridical doctrine in the matter. This study is a pleading to refer to the principles, in the work for the law's creation and applying. Starting with the difference between "given" and 'constructed" we propose the distinction between the "metaphysical principles" outside the law, which by their contents have philosophical significances, and the "constructed principles" elaborated inside the law. We emphasize the obligation of the law maker, but also of the expert to refer to the principles in the work of legislation, interpretation and applying of the law. Arguments are brought for the updating, in certain limits, the justicenaturalistic concepts in the law. .

This examination seeks to provide an in-depth analysis of the intricate landscape of international commerce, specifically evaluating the comparative effectiveness and diverse challenges associated with different dispute resolution mechanisms. It primarily focuses on arbitration and litigation, presenting a detailed exploration that includes a variety of case studies, pertinent legal precedents, and empirical data from multiple jurisdictions around the globe. This paper aims to shed light on the most efficient strategies for resolving disputes, along with the legal frameworks that support these processes.

Furthermore, the study highlights the pressing necessity for integrating robust legal frameworks that can adapt to the unique challenges of international disputes. It advocates for the active participation of essential stakeholders, including attorneys general and judges, whose engagement is vital for elevating the overall effectiveness of dispute resolution mechanisms. The implications of these findings extend beyond the confines of international business, offering valuable insights into improving legal frameworks in any sector that involves cross-border interactions. In essence, this research constitutes a significant advancement in the field of international commercial law. It can influence enhancements in global trade dynamics and bolster economic stability. Additionally, the study establishes a solid foundation for best practices and policy recommendations to optimize dispute resolution processes across various international contexts, thereby facilitating smoother and more efficient global commerce.

Gutnick erhob Verleumdungsklage vor dem Supreme Court in Victoria. Die Klageschrift wurde Dow Jones & Co Inc. an ihrem Geschäftssitz in New York zugestellt. Die Beklagte bemängelte die Unzuständigkeit australischer Gerichte. Sie berief sich darauf, daß der Artikel nicht in Australien veröffentlicht worden sei, weil sich dort nicht die Webserver befunden hätten, auf denen der Artikel bereit gestellt wurde. Sie beantragte daher, das anhängige Verfahren permanent auszusetzen oder die Klagezustellung in den USA für unwirksam zu erklären. Im ersten Rechtszug entschied der Supreme Court of Victoria gegen den Antrag der Beklagten 3. Der Court of Appeal in Victoria nahm einen Antrag auf Berufung nicht zur Entscheidung an 4. Der High Court of Australia nahm das Rechtsmittel gegen das erstinstanzliche Urteil an, erkannte es aber im Ergebnis für rechtens 5. Obwohl über die Begründetheit der Klage bislang noch nicht entschieden worden ist, waren sich alle Beteiligten im klaren, daß das Urteil des High Court vorentscheidend für den Ausgang des gesamten Verfahrens sein würde. Die Entscheidung über den Ort der Veröffentlichung betraf nicht nur die internationale Zuständigkeit, sondern bestimmte auch das anwendbare Sachrecht. Der Kläger hat bessere Aussichten, die Klage zu gewinnen, wenn der Sachverhalt in Victoria und nach victorianischem Recht beurteilt wird. Bei einer Klage vor US-amerikanischen Gerichten hätte sich der Beklagte auf den weiterreichenden Schutz der Meinungsfreiheit durch die amerikanische Verfassung berufen können. Die Zuständigkeitsfrage bestimmte daher mittelbar auch, ob Veröffentlichungen US-amerikanischer Medien, die im Ausland zugänglich sind, nach US-amerikanischen Standards zu beurteilen sind oder ob sie den oftmals strengeren Anforderungen ausländischen Rechts entsprechen müssen. Die Hauptstreitpunkte in Dow Jones & Co. Inc.v. Gutnick stellten damit drei getrennte, aber eng miteinander verknüpfte Fragen dar: a) Sind die Gerichte des Bundesstaates Victoria für den Prozeß international zuständig? Bejahendenfalls war weiter zu entscheiden, b) welches Recht auf den Rechtsstreit anwendbar ist und c) ob der erstinstanzliche Richter es unter dem Gesichtspunkt des forum non conveniens hätte ablehnen müssen, über die Klage zu entscheiden.

Элементарное правило справедливого судопроизводства - предоставление доступа истца, оппонирующего государственной машине, к доказательной базе в исключительном распоряжении государства.  Статья рассказывает, как в этом праве отказывают политически ангажированные суды в России в делах о "фейках" о российской армии и в США в делах о защите гражданских прав, в особенности - в делах о фальсификациях на выборах 2020 года, и в производных уголовных и гражданских делах.

With the emergence of global mechanism for toxic harm accountability, a transnational environmental justice regime is slowly rising. One of the ways in which its taking form is through transnational litigation schemes where corporations are being locally sued by the alleged victims of their overseas misbehaviours. Using a science and technology studies approach, this article deals with one of the most central components of those schemes: victimization devices. Such concept refers to the highly varied sociotechnical assemblages through which claims about toxic victimhood are mobilized in litigation-based schemes, usually including components such as toxicological evidence and testimonies from the affected people. In order to explore the complexities involved in transnationally mobilizing these devices, this article analyses the lawsuit presented in Sweden by inhabitants of Arica, Chile, against the local mining corporation Boliden for its alleged responsibility in dumping toxic waste...

This research studies the effect of Amicus Curiae submissions on rulings in investment arbitrations by the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID investment arbitration). This research uses empirical test on ICSID cases to explore how Amicus Curiae, the non-disputing parties, affects the final judgment of arbitration on both substantive and procedural aspects. Based on the theoretical guidance of influential people on the affected side and market supply and demand, this analysis probes the content, experience and current situation of related amicus curiae submissions. Outcome shows that Amicus can have persuasive effect on tribunal, but dependes on how much they are close to tribunal views, the social and specialized background of the Amicus Curiae and the kind of submissions. In this way it also illustrates the complexity of sustainability in investment arbitration... the study derives the absence of transparency, objectivity and neutrality inherent in the framework of regulation and recommends that ICSID principles be remodelled for a more liberal and sustainable mode in regulation to bring greater openness, fairness and probity in process of arbitration so as to ensure impartiality. The findings illustrate the urgent need for articulating a regulation that is designed to control Amicus Curiae participation and, equally vividly, reflect how court discretion holds the key to balancing an over the long-term effects of these interventions. This study sheds light on the nuanced idea of sustainability in investment arbitration while furthering our knowledge of the procedural and substantive factors affecting ICSID rulings.

This research investigates the ethical conduct of Chiquita Brand International Inc. in Colombia between 1989 and 2004, a period marked by the country's prolonged internal conflict. It explores the complexities and contradictions of Chiquita's actions, focusing on the payments made to armed groups such as the FARC, ELN, and AUC to secure the protection of their operations. These payments, while intended to safeguard the company’s interests, inadvertently fueled the conflict by financing paramilitary activities. The paper also examines Chiquita's implementation of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives from 1998 onwards, aimed at improving the living and working conditions of their employees. Through a comprehensive analysis of both primary and secondary sources, this study aims to provide a nuanced understanding of whether Chiquita's actions in Colombia can be deemed ethical, acknowledging the subjective nature of ethical standards and the varying interpretations of their intentions and impacts. The findings highlight the ongoing debate over Chiquita's role in the Colombian conflict and suggest avenues for further research into the ethical responsibilities of multinational corporations operating in conflict zones.

This article offers a commentary, edition, transcription, and translation of a papal letter issued during Martin V’s pontificate to King Juan II of Castile: Per Litteras. Largely overlooked until now, Per Litteras is a highly interesting source because it leads us to start considering the phenomenon of papal judges delegate in the Crown of Castile in the Late Middle Ages. This paper begins by analysing Per Litteras’ contents. Given that the letter is undated, we will propose a date of production. We will then proceed to place it into the broader context of diplomatic exchanges between the Holy See and the Crown of Castile. Finally, we discuss how the document may help us understand papal delegated jurisdiction in late medieval Castile.

Analyzing how transitional justice (TJ) mechanisms address the role of economic and political elites in contexts of widespread violence is crucial for understanding their possible transformative impact. The type of challenges faced by TJ instruments when trying to deal with economic elites involved in human rights violations also reflects the extent and degree of these groups' power in a specific transitional context. Looking at the two main transitional justice processes in Colombia, this paper argues that accountability for these privileged actors tends to materialize in cases in which the alliances between different kinds of elites are threatened, or even collapse. However, as this article will show, judicial TJ mechanisms on their own can only have a very limited transformative impact on the accountability of economic elites and their liability for human rights violations in the absence of strong support by state institutions. TJ instruments can provide an exceptional framework to trigger and motivate meaningful transformations. Nonetheless, the concrete realization of these changes far exceeds the possibilities, capacity, and resources of TJ, which in and of itself cannot replace state institutions, especially an ordinary justice system that should continue to make progress on these cases.

The Ravenna Campus of the Department of Juridical Sciences of the University of Bologna (Italy) has been very active, in the past years, in the organisation of Summer Schools dedicated to issues of International, European and Comparative law. In this context, since 2019, Prof. Michele Angelo Lupoi has started a Program on Cross-Border Disputes, dedicated to the organization of summer schools, conferences, webinars on issues of transnational civil litigation. As a matter of fact, the relevance of cross-border civil litigation is growing. The diffusion of world-wide online activities and the globalisation of economic and financial activities lead to the spreading of transnational disputes, which involve issues of jurisdiction, private international law, available remedies, harmonisation of procedural rules. It is therefore fundamental, for both law students and law practitioners, to become accustomed with this dimension. This year’s program looks at cross-border litigation from a wider perspective, embracing transnational civil and commercial legal matters as well as international arbitration. While at the core of the program still lies the European space of justice, with its private and procedural international law regulations, the comparative and international perspectives are strengthened, with several lecturers from Third States. As usual, the approach is both theoretical and practical: as a matter of fact, lectures alternate with workshops which will involve the participants in the solution of cases and problems. The Faculty of the Summer School is composed of experts from different jurisdictions with very diverse professional backgrounds.

Mestranda em Ciência Jurídica do CPCJ/UNIVALI publicado em 29.06.2012 Resumo O presente artigo tem por escopo rememorar a história da construção dos Juizados Especiais Federais no Brasil e, por meio do método indutivo, pesquisar a repercussão e o impacto que esses Juizados causaram no direito fundamental do acesso à justiça, além de tratar de alguns dos pontos críticos para o pleno desenvolvimento dos Juizados Especiais Federais que ainda precisam de atenção e investimento.

QuetÚ INdIo J tkpIsi/IJ 'fu mMCll ¿, Ie]. sobre régimen de patentes de invención y modelos de utilidad, EL DERECHO del 5/6/92. JO v. GARIBOTI'O, JUAN CARLaI, Notas acerca del orden público: sus fundamentos y funciones,. Rev. PRUDENllA IURIS, Uca-Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas, Bs.As., abril 1983, p.113 Yss.-9 conflicto que' se sUlICite,a raÍ7:de cJesemOOl-ar el c.:aso en una' situación de derechos y obligaciones contrapuestos? {problema del Derecho p~eS810 adjetivo). (v. cap. VII-B) Las respuestas sondistiutas-lo veremos ...lás adelanle-~egún que los casos pcrtenezl'an al Derec.-hoPrivado o al PÚblic.'o. ' , Nuestra prcOc.•~pal'ión, c.~n esteCllsayo, sc.'c.'cutra 'eu lOs casos dclDc..~rlTho Privado. (casos ius,privatistas) que revistan la c.'alidad de intcmaeiollales, yen su ~Iación con el primero de los intcrrogant~s (¡.Qué Den~cho dgc el c."aso'!), Es 'ya clásica la distiitción~ referida a 'los' elementos personales (vgr. domicilio, nadonalidad, rcside.lc.'ia), reales, (los bienes y su loc."aJizadón) y condul'listas (c~lIlporta-'miento de los involucrados) que l"0 llformau todo c.'aso. ' Cuando los d irerentes ckmentos que integran el caso está n emplazados, se dcsarrollan o c.'ollc."retan en un pals, el caso SI; nos apa rec.•c como nal'Íoua l. Ellcambio, si cs,,!s ele mcntos se.eml,la1.alÍ, dc.',sarrollan o c."ouc."retan en más de un país, elc.•aso dl~viene en internacional " omultinadonal (el elcmcnto es inteniacioilal). ' La expresada difcl'cndadónentre los c."asos uadona les einlemaCionalcs t.>S insufiden ,te si no se la c.'omplcta l'on otro rdZOl18mÍl~nto. Para ello resulta de utilidad partir de una pregunta: ¡,basta la prescnl'Ía de un demento intcmal'Íonal (personal, n~al (1 <:onduc.1ista) para que el caso que lo contenga sea, internal'Íonal'! ' , Si la respuesta fuera af'imlativa, nos hallaríall1<ls ante la ,posibilidad de que exista l/U 'l'aso intemadonal objetivo, algo similar al delito ntrttlrtl/ que rastreaba la esc.'ucla detcnninista del Derecho Penal 11, Lo cierto y corriente es que un caso es o no internadOl181 según la perspectiva del sistema norn18tivo (Derecho) que lo califique, sistema que, por otro lado,puedevariar de. criterio en fundó n de la época (vgr.la nacionalidad l'omo e1ementoqtie internadonali711ba el caso C{ln arreglo a las Reglas Generales que precedían al Código de Comercio, elaborado el siglo pasado por Vélez Sarslield y Al'Cvedo yque fue ley de la República-año 1862-' , fue sustituida por el elemento personal domió/io en el CiKligo Civil),. , En un caso donde aparezca, vgr. un protagonista o un lugar de celcbración extra njeros,. un sistema jurídico (Derecho) podrá considerar a esos elcmentoscolllo internacionales y por ende a ptos para produci r efel'tos o consccue ncia s jurid kas espeda les; en tanlo que otro sistema no les acordad relevancía jurídica alguna y lo tratará como• un casona.cionaJ. Aun en el supuesto de que a través de un Dercl'ho convencional (Tratado) universal se unitbriuaron los elementos que han de dar interntlcionalidad al caso, esta ;n¡erntlciona lidtld no será en sí objetiva, sino derivada de un derec.'ho universal unifonue que así lo dice y que, con el tiempo, puede ser moditkado. Si bien es dcrto que la decisión que una l"omunidad adopta sobre un determinado elemento le puede daralcasosu condición de nacional o multinaciOl18I, nodebcmos perder

Global climate constitutionalism is seen as a possible legal answer to the social and political unwillingness of states to effectively tackle climate change as a global problem. The constitutionalisation of international climate law is supposed to ensure greater participation of non-state actors such as NGOs or individuals and a rollback of state sovereignty where states do not care about meeting their climate commitments. This book addresses the question of whether non-state actors such as NGOs or individuals create international climate law through so-called climate change litigation. Against the background of Peter Häberle's theory of the “open society of constitutional interpreters”, four selected cases (Urgenda v Netherlands, Leghari v Pakistan, Juliana v United States of America, Future Generations v Colombia) are used to examine how actors not formally recognized as subjects of international law (re)interpret national and international law and thereby contribute to the constitutionalisation of the international climate law regime.

Resumen: Tras más de medio siglo de aplicación eminentemente pública del Derecho de la Competencia, estamos asistiendo a un impulso de la aplicación privada, que permite a los perjudicados por conductas anticompetitivas reclamar daños y perjuicios ante los tribunales civiles. Tanto la Directiva 2014/104/CE como su transposición en España por el RD Ley 9/2017 significan grandes avances en este ámbito. El objeto del presente trabajo es el análisis y valoración crítica de los primeros pronunciamientos judiciales que han tenido lugar resolviendo estas reclamaciones, derivadas principalmente de cárteles (azúcar, seguro decenal, sobres de papel). Se prestará especial atención a los informes periciales de valoración del daño, así como la diferente eficacia de las acciones follow-on y las stand-alone. Palabras clave: aplicación privada, acciones de daños, Directiva, estimación del daño, acciones stand-alone.

The practice of maritime law, perhaps more than most fields, involves parties resident throughout the world. The majority of shipowners maintain offices outside the United States in diverse locales such as Greece, Turkey, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Charterers and commercial interests can be found almost anywhere a ship may call. Because most U.S. companies rely upon some type of imported products, U.S. trading partners run the gamut from Europe to South America to East Asia. Parties and witnesses are disbursed throughout the world, particularly with most non-U.S. registered vessel crewmen hailing from the Middle East, Latin America, India, the Far East, and the Philippines. Since 1990, more ship officers have come from the countries of the former Soviet Bloc. It is unusual to find owners and managers, much less crewmen, resident in Western Europe or the United States. The nature of the maritime business makes it inevitable that much litigation, usually taking place in federal court, involves issues of service of process for the summons and complaint on foreign entities, and that discovery involves efforts to depose witnesses overseas and to collect documents, materials, and information from foreign jurisdictions. This Article is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the subject of transnational service of process and discovery. Many articles, in fact whole books, have been written on various aspects of these issues. However, none seem to cover the entire subject. Voluminous case law addresses various aspects of this subject. This Article provides an introduction and overview for practitioners. In addition to identifying the principal sources of law governing these matters, this Article also seeks to identify particular issues that may prove particularly troubling when navigating the treacherous channels of the service and discovery processes.

This Article analyses the jurisdictional powers of the Court of Justice of the European Union (ECJ) in respect of Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) measures both under pre-Lisbon Title VI TEU and post-Lisbon under Title V of Part Three TFEU. In Part One, it assesses the deficiencies of the pre-Lisbon system. In particular it analyses the negative consequences for legitimacy arising from the restrictions on justiciability in respect of pre-Lisbon JHA measures in light of case law of the ECJ and the European Court of Human Rights. In Part Two, it outlines the genesis and substance of the reforms in the Treaty of Lisbon, including a summary of the transitional regime that will to apply to the jurisdiction of the ECJ over the pre-Lisbon acquis. In conclusion, the Article assesses the effectiveness of the Treaty of Lisbon jurisdictional reforms from the perspective of compliance with the rule of law.

jurisdiction when the case involving foreign elements is brought before Thai courts. However, the statutory provision on choice of court agreements was deleted from the CPC in 1991 because of the concern over the abuse of choice of court agreements by financial institutions and traders in choosing the courts closed to their headquarters or principal places of business, which were often detrimental to consumers. 8 Due to the absence of a choice of court provision, the validity of a choice of court agreement under Thai laws is highly uncertain, and party autonomy in choice of court is severely restricted. In 1996, the Thai Supreme Court held in its decision no. 951/2539 (1996) that a choice of foreign court agreement as the exclusive forum for litigation was contrary to Section 4 of the CPC 9 and was therefore null and void. More recent Supreme Court decisions such as decisions no. 3537/2546 (2003), no. 583/2548 (2005), and no. 3281/2562 (2019) seem to confirm the validity of a non-exclusive choice of court agreement designating foreign courts, which still allowed an option for the parties to bring an action before Thai courts. The Court held that a non-exclusive choice of court agreement was permitted under the general principle of international law and was not contrary to Thailand s public policy. Nonetheless, it is difficult to conclude that universally accepted principles for a choice of court agreement have emerged internationally, especially under the current circumstance in which few countries have ratified the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements. 10 Therefore, the general principle of international law cannot afford a realistic solution in Thailand. Furthermore, none of the Thai 8

Farmer, and Victor Romero for their patient tutoring and insightful comments. I would also like to thank my research assistants, Todd Getgen and Wendy Wunsh, for the many hours of work they put into this article. These wonderful people deserve most of the credit and none of the blame.

In the process of industrial life, a significant portion of technical inventions are made by employees employed in the industry. Inventions can be made by employees working under private law as well as public law, and Turkish legislation provides for the employees to be rewarded by their employers. This article sets forth the key issues on employee inventions pursuant to the Industrial Property Code numbered 6769 (“IPC”) and the Regulation on Employee Inventions, Inventions Made within the Higher Education Institutions and Inventions Made within the Projects Supported by the Public Authorities numbered 30195 (“Regulation”).

Under Turkish law, the ownership of rights on employee inventions is not granted to the employee or the employer in absolute terms. The IPC adopts a complex system. Accordingly, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, the right to request a patent on employee inventions belongs to the employer. If the employer obtains the right to request a patent, the employer is obliged to pay a fee to the employee. The IPC and the Regulation on Employee Inventions, Inventions Made in Higher Education Institutions and Inventions Occurred in Public Supported Projects stipulate certain principles and principles regarding the determination of the said fee.

The statutes and rules governing proceedings before the International Court of Justice, World Trade Organization panels, and International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes tribunals are silent on the question of evidentiary privileges. Moreover, there is no established international law of procedure and evidence to which the disputing parties and tribunals can refer. Yet questions regarding privileges have been presented to them, and as the number of cases brought before them increases, such questions are likely to become even more common. How should international tribunals decide claims of privilege presented to them? This article will argue that there are two approaches to answering this question: (i) a choice of law approach, by which the law of a domestic jurisdiction is selected and applied; and (ii) an approach which would lead to the development of international rules of privilege. The latter approach is favoured because privileges reflect the public policy of the state that creates them and international tribunals do not have a mandate to enforce the public policies of any one state. On the contrary, their mandate is to enforce the policies of the international community as reflected in international law. This is not to say that there is nothing to be learned from domestic rules of privilege. Accordingly, the article will explore how domestic rules can help in establishing an international law of privileges. It will examine rules and policy rationales adopted by a few representative jurisdictions for the protection of types of information that are likely to be relevant for the adjudication of disputes brought before international tribunals, such as classified government information, communications involving in-house counsel and government lawyers, and proprietary information.

del contrato internacional: ¿único o plural? La circulación internacional de bienes y servicios encuentra en el contrato internacional un vehículo adecuado para instrumentar las relaciones jurídicas entre los sujetos que en ella intervienen. Al presentar elementos de extranjería que lo conectan con diferentes países y sus sistemas jurídicos, el contrato internacional plantea un problema: ¿cuál es el derecho que lo regula? El Derecho Internacional Privado es el que se ocupa de resolver ese problema utilizando principalmente el método conflictual,' en el que la norma de conflicto elige un punto de conexión para localizar la relación jurídica en el país donde dicho punto se ubica, y determinar así la ley del contrato. Dado que el contrato es una unidad, parece lógico que esté sometido a una ¡ex contractus única que determine integralmente su régimen jurídico. Sin embargo, por más seductora que pueda parecer la idea de que el contrato internacional esté sometido a una sola ley, esto no siempre es así. Se admite que el régimen del contrato no sea único. 3 En efecto, en el Derecho Internacional Privado de fuente internacional y de fuente interna de distintos países encontramos normas de conflicto que regulan diversos aspectos del contrato internacional. Tomemos por ejemplo la Convención interamericana sobre derecho aplicable a los contratos internacionales, celebrada en México en 1994 (CM): además de las normas destinadas a determinar el derecho aplica

Las colecciones de Documentos de Trabajo del CIDE representan un medio para difundir los avances de la labor de investigación, y para permitir que los autores reciban comentarios antes de su publicación definitiva. Se agradecerá que los comentarios se hagan llegar directamente al (los) autor(es).

The advent of independence in most Southern African countries ushered in a new political dispensation emphasising democratic governance as the hallmark of a modern polity. Institutions evolving from this thrust are perceived as modern in contrast to those that are or were based on ascribed status-traditional institutions. In community-based natural resource management (CB N R M), post-independence governments have either condoned or legislated for the complete replacement of traditional institutions by modern institutions of governance. This 'discard approach', based on governments' perception of traditional institutions of governance as undemocratic and archaic, has deprived CB N R M of change with continuity. This resulted in either total or semi-marginalisation of traditional institutions in CBNRM thereby fomenting conflict, confusion and semi-anarchy. In this paper we review literature from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Zambia to obtain insights on how the relationship between traditional and modem institutions of governance in the post-independence era affect CBNRM. On the basis of the insights, we argue that successful and sustainable CBNRM neither hinge on the discard approach nor exclusive reliance on modern institutions of governance. Th e forging of partnerships in CBNRM between the two institutions of governance seems to hold a more promising approach to sustainable CBNRM .

Numero 125 Mayo - Agosto 2009 ISSN 0041 8633 EL DERECHO APLICABLE A LOS CONTRATOS INTERNACIONALES EN LOS ESTADOS DEL MERCOSUR * THE LAW APPLICABLE TO INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTS IN MERCOSUR STATES Maria Mercedes ALBORNOZ ** Mercosur has no single legal framework for international contracts. Instead, different member countries apply their own systems of private international law. This paper shows that the current situation undermines party autonomy and how member states, often unable to resist the pressures of international trade, accept arbitration rules that allow for the choice of the law applicable to the substance of the dispute. It also argues that this fact gradually promotes the idea that contractors can agree on the law applicable to international contracts. Descriptors: international contract, applicable law, party autonomy, proximity, lex mercatoria , international arbitration, Mercosur, Latin America. * Articulo recibido el 3 de noviembre de 2008 y aceptado para su publicacio...