Adverbs

Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cinque, Guglielmo. Adverbs and functional heads : a cross-linguistic perspective / Guglielmo Cinque. p. cm.-(Oxford studies in comparative syntax) Includes bibliographical references and index.

Vinden we verkleinuitgangen enkel maar bij zelfstandige naamwoorden? Allerminst. Ook bijvoeglijke naamwoorden en bijwoorden kunnen zich in het Nederlands met een diminutiefsuffix tooien. We gebruiken allemaal wel eens verkleinwoordvormen als zachtjes en lichtjes, maar het verschijnsel is wijd verbreid en beperkt zich niet tot lieflijk taalgebruik.

This research is a corpus-based comparative analysis of circumstance adverbials in Pakistani English. The corpora used for this study are Pakistani Written English (PWE), BROWN and FROWN Corpora of American English (BF) and LOB and FLOB Corpora of British English (LF). The study is comparative analysis of 50 circumstance adverbials and it determines the frequency and position of circumstance adverbials in Pakistani English and how they vary from the native varieties of English. To study the frequencies of adverbials, software Ant cone 3. 2. 1 has been used whereas positions of circumstance adverbials have manually been studied. This research ultimately determines that there are significant differences in the patterns of occurrence of circumstance adverbials in Pakistani English in terms of frequency and position and these variances strengthen the hypothesis of Pakistani English being an independent variety.

The author refers to the history of the main streams in determining of the scope of the class of adverbs in the European grammars, discusses problems connected with distinguishing the adverb from the adjective and with distinguishing parts of speeches in general. She proposes to define adverb as it Jadwiga Wajszczuk did it in the book O metatekście, because this conception seems to be the most coherent.

Este artigo apresenta uma proposta para a derivação de advérbios terminados em mente no português brasileiro, considerando o processo de gramaticalização que essa forma vem apresentando a partir do latim clássico, língua em que mente se comportava como categoria substantiva. A análise é desenvolvida sob a perspectiva teórica da morfologia distribuída e construída a partir de duas ideias centrais: a) a formação dos advérbios terminados em-mente envolve domínios denominados fases; b) a ordem fixa para o item mente verificada hoje no português é resultado da perda de um traço [+F] dessa categoria, traço disponível no latim clássico.

Tradizzjonalment l-avverbju hu magħruf bħala l-parti tad-diskors li tispeċifika jew timmodifika t-tip ta’ azzjoni tal-verb. Madankollu l-avverbji jistgħu wkoll jimmodifikaw elementi li ma jaqgħux taħt il-verb, pereżempju l-aġġettivi, It-tifla ħelwa immens, ilprepożizzjonijiet,
Tela’ ’l fuq iżżejjed, u saħansitra avverbji oħra, Kiber wisq malajr
(Brother Henry 190). Bħalma jispjega Crystal (8), dan il-grupp ta’ kliem sar eteroġenju billi żdied miegħu għadd ta’ tipi ta’ kliem differenti, ngħidu aħna, intensifikaturi bħal tassew. Fi kliem ieħor, l-avverbju hu dak li jimmodifika kull element tas-sentenza, inkluż is-sentenza sħiħa, għall-kuntrarju tal-aġġettiv li jimmodifika biss in-nom. L-avverbju jista’ jimmodifika wkoll frażijiet jew anki sentenzi sħaħ, skont jekk jiġix integrat bejn l-elementi differenti tas-sentenza u jimmodifika wieħed jew tnejn minnhom biss, jew jekk jiħux ilforma ta’ sentenza subordinata avverbjali u b’hekk jimmodifika s-sentenza prinċipali kollha.

Fil-każ tal-Malti ma sarx ħafna studju fuq l-avverbji. Fil-fatt ħafna grammatiċi (Cachia 125-29; Cremona 229-300; Sutcliffe 193-199; Brother Henry 190-91) kemm isemmuhom fuq fuq u jinnutaw li jinqasmu, fost l-oħrajn, f’avverbji taż-żmien, bħal għada, f’tal-post, bħal hemm, f’tal-mod, bħal bil-mod, f’tal-kwantità/grad, bħal immens, f’tan-negazzjoni, bħal ma ... xejn, jew f’tal-mistoqsija, bħal kif. Ħafna grammatiċi bikrin (Cremona 228-30; Brother Henry 190; Zarb 294) iqisu l-avverbju fil-Malti bħala kategorija grammatikali li taqa’ taħt il-partiċella. L-iskop ta’ din it-teżi hija li nfittex ilkunċett tal-avverbju fiex jissarraf fil-Malti u kif iġibu ruħhom il-kliem u l-frażijiet kollha lijaqgħu taħt din il-kategorija. Biex nagħmel dan, l-ewwel se nibda billi niċċara l-kunċett tal-avverbiju billi nesplora kif jiġi użat fid-deskrizzjoni grammatikali ta’ lingwi differenti.
Għażilt li niffoka fuq tliet lingwi, l-Ingliż, it-Taljan u l-Għarbi, u nara kif l-avverbju jidher f’dawn il-lingwi biex b’hekk inkun nista’ nqabbel id-differenzi u s-similaritajiet interlingwistiċi. Għażilt dawn it-tliet lingwi l-għaliex minħabba li għandhom tradizzjoni
twila u estensiva ta’ riċerka grammatikali u minħabba li fl-istorja lingwistika ta’ pajjiżna, dawn it-tliet ilsna kellhom l-aktar kuntatt ma’ tagħna u allura setgħu jaffettwawh b’xi mod jew ieħor.
Fejn jidħlu t-transliterazzjonijiet bl-Għarbi ma stajtx nagħti l-gloss bħalma hu mistenni minħabba li l-kotba li kont qed nikkonsulta ma taw l-ebda ħjiel tal-elementi individwali
tas-sentenza, anzi ħafna drabi l-eżempji li kienu jagħtu kienu bl-Għarbi biss, allura kienet sfida għalija, li ma naqrax bl-Għarbi biex neqleb l-eżempji bl-alfabett Latin u biex nipprova nsib it-tifsira ta’ kull kelma individwali li kienet użata. Fejn kien hemm bżonn
biex il-punt li nkun qed niddiskuti joħroġ akar ċar, niżżilt ukoll il-kategorija grammatikali tat-transliterazzjoni.

Fejn jidħlu l-eżempji, fejn ħassejt li kelli niġbed l-attenzjoni lejn xi parti partikolari ta’ sentenza jew frażi li kont qed inġib bħala eżempju, għamilt dan billi qtajt linja taħtha.

This paper will examine the translatability of adverbs whose form, function and distribution differ in the two languages concerned. It will also deal with the following: (a) different translation types and techniques employed in the translation of adverbs and adverbial constructions from English to Tagalog, and vice-versa; (b) various translation issues that might be encountered in the translation of these constructions in different levels of grammar; and (c) the implications of the scope and limit of the translatability of these constructions.

This thesis explores the properties of adjectives and adverbs in Inuit (Eskimo-Aleut), with focus on the Inuktitut dialect group. While the literature on Eskimoan languages has claimed that they lack these categories, I present syntactic evidence for two classes of adjectives, one verb-like and another strictly attributive, as well as a class of adverbs. These categories are then employed to diagnose more general properties of the language including headedness, word-formation, adjunct licensing, and semantic composition.

In the first half of Chapter 2 I demonstrate that verb-like adjectives can be differentiated from verbs insofar as only the former are compatible with a particular copular construction involving modals. Similarly, verb-like adjectives can combine with a negative marker that is incompatible with genuine verbs. This contrast is further corroborated by an inflectional distinction between verb-like adjectives and verbs in the Siglitun dialect. A second class of strictly-attributive adjectives is argued for on the basis of stacking, variable order, optionality, and compositionality. The second half of the chapter examines semantic restrictions on membership in the strictly-attributive class whereby only adjectives with subsective and privative denotations are attested. These restrictions are explained by the proposal that Inuit lacks a rule of Predicate Modification, with the result that only adjectives with semantic types capable of composing with nouns via Functional Application can compose directly with nominals. Furthermore, to explain why this restriction does not extend to verb-like adjectives it is proposed that when these modify nominals, they are adjoined DP appositives and compose via Potts’s (2005) rule of Conventional Implicature Application.

In Chapter 3 I argue for a class of adverbs, presenting evidence including degree modification, variable ordering, speaker-oriented meanings, and the ability to modify additional categories. Finally, data from adverb ordering is used to compare syntactically oriented and semantically oriented approaches to adjunct licensing and verbal-complex formation. I present arguments in favour of a right-headed analysis of Inuit in which the relative position of adverbs inside polysynthetic verbal-complexes is primarily determined by semantics, supporting Ernst (2002), contra cartographic approaches such as Cinque (1999).

Abstract:  The paper compares the English clausal negators not and never, focusing on the problem of characterizing the constituency of the negative particle not.  It summarizes the traditional criteria for the categorial classification of not and never, as these are the two basic formal means of clausal negation in English, and in some contexts they can be used as functional equivalents. Then it provides an analysis of those elements in a current generative framework.  The study argues that although not is a head of a negative “polarity projection” (P) in both clausal and phrasal negation structures, the lexical item not is not merged in the tree in the same way. Phrasal negation is a structure which adjoins a P headed by "not" to another phrasal constituent, while clausal negation is the merge of a  head "not" which projects the clause into P. This distinction is able to explain the intervention effect of not on verbal morphology. The study also uses the notion of late insertion of grammatical elements, which is the reason why the so called particle not can have head-like characteristics even though it is adjoined as a maximal projection P.

Kitap, üç bölümden oluşmaktadır. Giriş başlığı altında zarfların genel özellikleri ve çözüme ulaştırılamamış sorunları üzerinde durmaya çalışılmıştır. I. Bölüm başlığı altında zarflar, yapıları bakımından ele alınmış, gerek zarf öncesi duruma gerekse zarf oluşturmak için kullanılan biçimbirimlere göre belirlenmeye ve sınıflandırılmaya çalışılmıştır. Zarflar yapıları bakımından “yalın” ve “türemiş” yapılı tekli zarflarla “yalın+yalın”, “türemiş+türemiş” ve “yalın+türemiş/türemiş+yalın” yapılı birleşik zarflar biçiminde ayrılmış ve örneklerle gösterilmiştir.  II. Bölüm başlığı altında zarflar işlevleri bakımından değerlendirilmiş, taranan edebi eserlerden seçildiği belirtilen yaklaşık 3000 örnekten hareketle ve yapısal özelliklerine bağlı kalınarak 22 tek işlevli (niteleme, zaman, yer-yönelme, sebep, nicelik, sıralama, birliktelik, benzetme, tekrar, karşılıklılık, karşıtlık, vasıta, karşılaştırma, görelik, doğrulama, kesinlik, yeterlik, gösterme, ihtimal, sınırlandırma, şart ve ekleme işlevli) ve 3 çok işlevli (zaman-niteleme, yer-niteleme ve zaman-yer işlevli) olarak sınıflandırılmıştır.

Определение семантической ориентации слов необходимо для
правильной оценки содержания высказываний в средствах массовой информации,
прессе, Интернете, в письменной и устной речи. Особенный интерес
представляют качественные наречия, выражающие оценку, интенсивность,
направленность действия. В данной работе предлагается модель, основанная на
представлении набора синонимов, зафиксированных в русских словарях, в виде
графа, и предлагаются методы определения семантической ориентации наречий
для трех основных размерностей семантического дифференциала. Оценка в
сравнении со словарными данными показывает эффективность полученных мер.
Ключевые слова: оценочность, граф, связность, семантический дифференциал,
синонимия, антонимы, главные компоненты.

The goal of this case study is to explore the meaning of now. The upshot of this exploration is a glimpse of how the meanings of tense and temporal adverbs interact. I begin with a brief overview of temporal anaphora and distinguish various analyses of temporal adverbs based on the observation that they can be discourse transparent. Subsequently, I consider the view that now is a temporal pronoun that is discourse transparent. This analysis faces several problems and we proceed to look at two analyses that attempt to fix them, ultimately adopting the view that now seeks salient result states. In light of this view, I briefly consider: (i) whether now is perspectival in nature and (ii) what we can learn from looking at how now is translated into other languages. I end the case study by discussing outstanding questions concerning the interaction between temporal adverbs and aspect.

El propósito de este trabajo es estudiar αὖ y αὖθις en los textos de los historiadores griegos. Αὖθις funciona prototípicamente como un adverbio, mientras que algunos estudiosos consideran que αὖ es más bien una partícula. Ambos elementos es-tán relacionados etimológicamente y se usan como marcadores del discurso en contextos similares. Mi intención es demostrar que tanto αὖ como αὖθις pueden describirse en el corpus que he utilizado como adverbios temporales con usos discursivos, que, por lo demás, son propios de las denomina-das partículas en griego antiguo. Su función como marcadores del discurso es la de ordenadores que estructuran series de miembros paralelos

Adverb placement is one of the frequently discussed but not yet resolved issues on word order variation. Numerous proposals have been made to explain the order of adverbs and other material based on semantic features or structural requirements. The structural implementation of adverbs in the GB-tradition was made via adjunction. So adverbs undergo a quite free placement in this approach. Others consider adverbs as specifiers of functional heads. This perspective leads to a more restrictive ordering of adverbs but also to a higher amount of functional phrases. Information structure was also assumed to be one important factor: There is a clear preference to separate old and new information by focus sensitive adverbs in German or indicate the topic status of subjects and objects via subject, object < adverb. To sum up: Adverbial positions and their proper interpretation cannot follow from semantics or syntax alone but rather from the interface of these two components. Such interface effects on adverb placement between information structure and prosody are of main interest for the thesis. Results from a corpus study for spontaneous speech and a production task experiment are presented to show a strong correlation between the prosodic prominence and adverb placement in embedded clauses in German. I argue that the pre-focal position for adverbs comes to prevent a stress clash on the phonological phrase level of two lexically headed and therefore informatively enriched phrases, namely subject and object, or object and main verb. The idea for the interface is that the match between syntax and semantics requires a higher prosodic prominence on lexical categories plus the highest prominence for focused constituents. The prosodic structure dislikes stress clashes on different prosodic levels (syllables, words, phrases) and needs a rhythmic alternation, which leads to better contrasts and a faster parsing of information. To satisfy this alternation material can be deaccented or, if possible, reordered. So, the optimal word order for embedded sentences in German is the one with accented lexical phrases (usually subject as topic and object as focus) and a non-accented adverb in-between them.

The Cosentino dialect has produced a vast literature that dates back to the 15th century. Most of the research conducted on this dialect has focused on the spoken language in terms of acoustic phonetics and, more recently, on the structural configurations which underlie the distribution of agreement of adjectival adverbs of manner. However, studies on the literary varieties of Cosentino are lacking, both from a synchronic and a diachronic perspective. The present article aims at providing a classification of the Cosentino adverbs used in the recent translation of Saint-Exupéry’s The Little Prince, which can serve as a basis for further investigation and comparison.

This study investigated the effects of using sentence order techniques on learning adverbs
(i.e., frequency, manner, time, and place) among Iranian pre-intermediate students. To
perform this study, 30 pre-intermediate participants were non-randomly selected and divided
into two equal groups of control and experimental. Then, they took a teacher-made pretest
of grammar in order to determine how well they knew the adverbs of frequency, manner,
time, and place before the treatment. The experimental group was taught the grammatical
patterns of sentence order techniques like the use of form and functions of adverbs and their
positions in the sentences. The control group received the traditional method of teaching
adverbs including exercising of grammar, pattern practice, etc. Finally, the participants took
the posttest. Independent and paired samples t-tests were used to compare the means of the
pretest and the posttest in both groups. The findings revealed that the experimental group
significantly improved in the posttest. Implications of the study suggest that using new
technology, especially sentence order techniques, may enhance learners' learning regarding
adverbs at the pre-intermediate level.

В русском языке не происходит формирования новой части речи. Постулированный Щербой механизм формирования КС недостоверен; уровень обособления слов, подводимых под КС в современном русском языке, не дает права строить эволюционную шкалу, конечным пунктом которой является консолидация предикативов как единого дистрибутивного класса с инвариантной семантикой. Вместе с тем, гипотеза о КС полезна для изучения динамики словообразовательных и собственно
синтаксических процессов, связывающих различные группировки прилагательных и наречий между собой. Предикативы с финалью –о, имеющие слабую валентность на дат.п.  лица, образуют семантический класс «слов ситуативного признака, требующих одушевленного субъекта состояния». Это позволяется получить классификацию производящих основ кратких прилагательных, способных порождать предикативы, выделить подклассы актантов поляризованных основ (гневный, *мне гневно), способных предицировать признак предмета/лица, но не признак ситуации и выделить дефектные словообразовательные пары. Корреляция русских предикативов на –о и производящих
основ прилагательных является системно более важным фактором, нежели корреляция предикативов на –о и наречий образа действия на –о; соотношение между последними может быть описано в терминах диатезных преобразований.

Adverbios temporales como conectores con valor consecutivo en griego antiguo 1 José Miguel JIMÉNEZ DELGADO Universidad de Sevilla [email protected] Recibido: 9-5-2012 Aceptado: 20-12-2012 SUMARIO I. Introducción. II. Estado de la cuestión. III. Adverbios temporales griegos que funcionan como conectores consecutivos: datos y análisis. IV. De lo temporal a lo consecutivo. V. A modo de conclusión. VI. Bibliografía.

The findings for adverbs and adverbial phrases in a naturalistic corpus of Miami Haitian Creole-English code-switching show that one language, Haitian Creole, asymmetrically supplies the grammatical frame while the other language, English, asymmetrically supplies mixed lexical categories like adverbs. Traces of code-switching with an English frame and Haitian Creole lexical categories suggest that code-switching is abstractly BIDIRECTIONAL. A quantitative methodology that codes the language-indexation of the token in addition to the surrounding lexical items was used for all mixed (e.g. xYx/yXy, xYy/yXx, yYx/xXy) and unmixed (xXx/yYy) adverbs. Discourse position, especially the left-periphery, is found to be a significant factor in adverb code-switching. Sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic analyses which acknowledge the 'low' status of one language and the 'high' status of the other explain better the frequency of mixed English adverbs in a Haitian Creole frame and the rarity of mixed Haitian Creole adverbs in an English frame than a minimalist approach, such as MacSwan's (1999 and subsequent work), which uses phi-feature valuation and entails asymmetry without bidirectionality. While I provide confirmation for Matrix Language Frame approach, I emphasize that trace bidirectional data need to be accounted for by a theory that is grounded in the sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic realities.

This is a multi-faceted corpus study of the adverbs of frequency 'always' and 'never', in which their meanings (exaggerated or literal), tense-aspect preferences, and functions (specifically, the function of always or never followed by the progressive) across genres are all investigated. I also
briefly investigate the maximizers 'utterly', 'completely', 'totally', and 'fully'. Using four corpora and quantitative and qualitative methods, I show that 'always' and 'never' are not as straightforward as they appear. On the contrary, their distribution, meaning, and use are highly dependent on
context, both in a larger sense (i.e., genre, pragmatic concerns) and a more specific, local sense (i.e., the immediate linguistic environment, including the verbs, tense-aspect, etc.). For example, I argue that concerns about accountability explain the observed rates of exaggeration across different types of news articles and across academic journals in different fields, and that social concerns involving politeness explain the finding that the grammatical subject in complaints is more often third person than second person. Throughout, it is shown that a cognitive-functional approach is the most useful for understanding how these very common words are used.

Desde hace varias décadas, la lingüística se ha interesado por la caracterización de la evidencialidad, entendida como un mecanismo mediante el cual el emisor inserta en su enunciado marcas explícitas sobre la fuente de la cual ha obtenido la información.

In this paper we will deal with allende and aquende, both medieval adverbs. We will study them etymologically, semantically and functionally. Unlike others, these adverbs have happened unnoticed in many historical grammar studies. Therefore, we will revise in this study the etymological proposals together with the development of an exhaustive analysis of the mentioned adverbs all through the Middle Ages. Bearing in mind the hypothesis that these elements own  an adverbial category, we will study the possibility of treating them as double-sized forms: adverb and preposition

In Turkish adverbs are auxiliary wards that qııa/ijy/quantify not only verbs but also adjectives and adverbs. Thus adverbs can form a word group like adjectives, İn a determinative and determined manner, namely "determinative group" when they become a determinant of noun based adjectives or adverbs. Here in this article (adverb+adjective), (adverb+adverb), "determinative group" is represented.

Nous nous intéresserons, dans cette étude, à certains adverbes en -ment souvent réunis sous l’appellation d’intensifs, qui nous offrent un champ de manœuvre prometteur : l’habituelle étiquette de l’intensité sera-t-elle en effet appropriée pour tous les items analysés ?

Nous procèderons, dans une démarche contrastive, à l’analyse de trois sous-classes d’adverbes appartenant à la catégorie des adverbes en -ment qualifiés d’intensifs, sans aucunement prétendre à l’exhaustivité ni quant au nombre de sous-classes analysées, ni quant au nombre d’éléments qui en font respectivement partie.
Une première sous-classe est constituée par des adverbes morphologiquement dérivés d’adjectifs qualifiants extrinsèques qui a priori semblent marquer ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler le haut degré. Ce sont, par exemple, extrêmement ou considérablement. La deuxième réunit un nombre limité d’éléments, des adverbes morphologiquement dérivés d’adjectifs qualifiants intrinsèques qui, selon certaines sources, ont acquis une valeur intensive dérivée de leur emploi en tant qu’épithète antéposée au nom. Il s’agit entre autres de rudement ou de drôlement. La troisième enfin est formée par des adverbes résultant d’une formation délocutive, comme diablement, fichtrement ou bigrement, dont la valeur intensive est l’écho de celle véhiculée par l'énonciation des interjections qui en sont la base.

Nous commencerons par un rapide état des lieux, afin de voir comment sont caractérisés ces adverbes dans les principales grammaires et études sur le sujet. Nous nous intéresserons également aux propriétés syntaxiques et relationnelles distinguant ces adverbes qui semblent équivalents sur un plan sémantique. Nous tenterons de démontrer, par le biais des divergences observées quant à l’origine de la valeur intensive et aux spécificités d’emploi des différents adverbes résultants, qu’il convient de ne pas réduire lesdites divergences à la seule étiquette de l’intensité. Certains se spécialisent dans la quantification ou le haut degré et sont donc représentables en termes scalaires. Il conviendra sans doute alors de réserver la dénomination d’intensité aux phénomènes bipolaires. Nous nous pencherons plus particulièrement sur la sous-classe des adverbes délocutifs, remarquables du fait qu’ils prouvent que l’intensité se conserve dans la dérivation illocutoire.

Probably the final pre-print version of my edition of Antipater of Tarsus. The testimonia for physics and logic are not clearly about Antipater of Tarsus and they have been excluded from this edition, unlike the testimonia for his life and logic. This supersedes the revised version of my doctorate. The main differences are in the later parts of the Dialectic section.

Following (Huggard 2011) Hittite does attest wh-in-situ in that there is no obligatory wh-movement to the specifier of the highest CP projection. However, pace (Huggard 2011), Hittite wh-in situ does not involve wh-phrases in the base-generated position. It is syntactic movement out of vP to a low position within the CP layer. Wh-words merge in the same position as focus (Spec,FocP) and then optionally scramble further on to Spec,ForceP. Relative pronouns, bare existential quantifiers and subordinators merge in Spec,QP and then scramble optionally to Spec,TopP or Spec,ForceP. The feature that wh-words satiate in Spec,FocP is +focus and the feature that relative pronouns satiate in Spec,QP is +quantifier.