Pragmaticalization and Grammaticalization

The present volume contains a selection of papers presented at the Fifth International Symposium Russian Grammar: System–Usus–Language Variation, from September 22 to 24, 2021, at the University of Potsdam (Germany). The selected essays tackle the issues that arise when Russian Grammar meets new linguistic paradigms (such as corpus linguistics) and new challenges (such as heritage languages). The relevant findings are discussed with a particular focus on an updated version of the 1980 Academy grammar of Russian.
This collection of essays is dedicated to Alan Timberlake, Professor Emeritus
at the University of California, Berkeley (USA) and Special Lecturer in the Department
of Slavic Languages and Literatures at Columbia University (New York,
USA), on the occasion of his 75th birthday.
As the symposium was held online, more than two hundred participants,
speakers and listeners alike, from Russia, Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Armenia,
Turkey, Germany, Finland, Italy, the USA, Israel, Korea and China, were able to
attend. The symposium was the fifth in a series of annual “Russian Grammar”
symposia. The previous ones were held at the Pushkin Institute of Russian Language
(Moscow, 2016), the University of Helsinki (Helsinki 2017), St. Petersburg
State University (St. Petersburg, 2018) and K. D. Ushinsky Yaroslavl State Pedagogical
University (Yaroslavl, 2019).
In the virtual space of Potsdam, representatives of various academic schools
and communities discussed theoretical and practical aspects of studying and
teaching Russian grammar. The discussions at the previous symposia had focused
on the project of a new type of Academy grammar, Russian Grammar 4.0 (Moscow,
2016), the description, teaching and testing of the same (Helsinki, 2017), the
structural organization of language and processes of language functioning (St. Petersburg,
2018)

This book deals with discourse markers in the sociolinguistic context of Sicily (Italy). Proposing a broad sociolinguistic approach, two items are taken into account, 'arà' and 'mentri'. These elements are treated synchronically at first, to describe their functional and formal properties, then diachronically, to show how the discourse-marking uses have developed, and eventually from a sociolinguistic perspective, to account for how they are involved in language contact in the bilingual repertoire and how they acquire socio-symbolic value in the community. By integrating the structural, the historical, and the social perspectives, this book allows for a deeper understanding of discourse markers.

В монографии рассматриваются языковые средства реализации тактик коммуникативной стратегии убеждения в жанре послания президента парламенту, определяются хронотопные, структурные и функциональные признаки данного жанра, устанавливаются закономерности реализации прагматического потенциала грамматических категорий лица, времени и наклонения как средств формирования дискурс-картин мира и кортежного взаимодействия в выступлениях президентов Соединенных Штатов Америки и Российской Федерации. Основой для написания монографии послужило диссертационное исследование «Реализация коммуникативной стратегии убеждения средствами грамматических категорий (на материале политического дискурса)».

Василенко, Е.Н. Языковые средства убеждения в политическом дискурсе / Е.Н. Василенко. – Могилев : МГУ имени А.А.Кулешова, 2018. – 164 с.

The monograph considers the system of tactics and linguistic means used for realization of the communicative strategy of persuasion in such genre of political discourse as presidential address to parliament. The study reveals chronotopic, structural, and functional features of the genre and contains description of the pragmatic potential of the grammatical categories of person, tense, and mood in the realization of the communicative strategy of persuasion based on the addresses of the President of the United States to the Congress and the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly.

Cet article vise à caractériser un emploi particulier de la construction partir en + Nom indiquant approximativement que quelqu’un ou quelque chose commence une évolution orientée négativement. L’analyse proposée ici est sous-tendue par l’idée que, dans un continuum lexico-grammatical, des expressions telles que partir en vrille, en dépression, en menace, etc. possèdent des propriétés sémantiques et pragmatiques qui leur sont directement associées de manière non compositionnelle. Notre approche intègre les apports théoriques de la grammaire de constructions, la grammaticalisation, la grammaire émergente ainsi que l’appréhension de la construction du sens en tant que processus dynamique. Après une présentation sommaire du sémantisme de la préposition en, nous analyserons la construction [N0 Vpartir en N1] en examinant les rapports réciproques entre les éléments qui la composent. Une attention toute particulière sera accordée à l’interaction entre la préposition et son environnement linguistique. Une étude qualitative d’énoncés effectifs relevés sur le web nous permettra de (i) mettre en évidence qu’il s’agit d’une construction porteuse de sens ; (ii) identifier différents niveaux de figement (des formes figées comme partir en vrille aux séquences plus variables telles que partir en dépression, menace, etc.) ; (iii) proposer une organisation de ces structures dans un système complexe.

Mots Clés: construction, préposition, grammaticalisation, sens, grammaire émergente. 

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to characterize a particular use of the French construction partir en + Noun meaning approximately that somebody or something takes a wrong way. The analysis proposed here is based on the idea that, in a lexicon-grammar continuum, expressions such as partir en vrille, en depression, en menace, etc. have semantic and pragmatic properties directly associated with them in a non-compositional way. Our approach is grounded on concepts like Construction Grammar, grammaticalization, emergent grammar and the idea that construction of meaning is a dynamic process. After a brief presentation of the semantics of French preposition en, we focus on the construction [N0 Vpartir en N1] and examine the interplay of its component parts. Specific attention is paid to the interaction between the preposition and the elements that surround it. A qualitative study of utterances taken from the web allows us (i) to show that this construction is meaningful; (ii) to identify different levels of entrenchment (from idiomatic expressions like partir en vrille to sequences more variable like partir en dépression, menace, etc.); (iii) to propose an organization of these structures in a complex system.

Keywords: construction, preposition, grammaticalization, meaning, emergent grammar.

This work - an unpublished habilitation thesis - provides an overview of grammaticalization cycles in the Romance languages, including negation, tense, case, person and adverb-derivation. It it argued that grammaticalization is a relatively specific and homogeneous type of change distinct from other types of change, including reanalysis and pragmaticalization.

In the growing literature on discourse markers (DMs), they have often been reffered to in various different names: discourse particles, discourse operators, pragmatic markers, discourse connectives, pragmatic connectives, sentence connectives and cue phrases, which shows us, even at first glance that there is still no consensus in the academic community on their status and function. Nevertheless, many studies on the use of DMs in spoken, face-to-face communication have been undertaken, and some main characteristics of them agreed upon. Yet papers on DMs in the context of computer-mediated communication (CMC) are still scarce. We believe that specific traits of computer-mediated discourse, caused by the medium of internet can give us a different perspective on the topic of DMs, and finally lead us to better understanding of their formation (grammaticalization, pragmaticalization), functions and status.

This paper considers familiarizers, a special class of vocatives denoting solidarity and intimacy, as possible sources for pragmatic markers and discourse markers. We argue that affectivity plays a crucial role in the use of vocatives in general and especially in this functional development. More precisely, terms of address have the potential to intensify the affectivity displayed by the speaker. In this quality, they may be employed as linguistic strategies to enhance the expressive and illo-cutionary force of utterances. These expressive uses may be the source of several more peculiar functions related to turn and information management. While this holds for familiarizers as well as for vocatives in general, not interferring with the deictic force of addressing contained in the vocative form, in several languages there are familiarizers which undergo an inflationary use and end up as mere elements of discourse marking, emphasizing and delimiting sequential units such as turns, utterances, and intonation units. The deictic reference to the collocutor is virtually lost, which is shown by the typical fossilization of the masculine singular form in the newly derived functions. We illustrate this development with vocative-based markers in different languages with special focus on the familiarizers güey in Mexican Spanish and alter in German. Although their sociopragmatic indexicalities are far from identical, this comparative approach reveals some interesting similarities. In our view, a definition as 'pragmatic markers' is justified for vocative-based markers at any point of their evolution, while the term 'discourse marker' should be restricted to functions that are no longer directly inferable from the vocative's deictic and expressive qualities.

Both "je dis ça, je dis rien" and "(I’m) just saying" are known as “annoying phrases” in their respective languages, seemingly because of their being commonly overused in oral discourse. For this reason, they are usually assimilated to “gap fillers.” However, some linguists demonstrated how those supposedly “gap fillers” turned out to be significantly involved in the building of discourse coherence – “how speakers and hearers jointly integrate forms, meanings, and actions to make overall sense out of what is said” (Schiffrin, 1987). Although discourse markers have been dealt with quite extensively in the recent Francophone and Anglophone literatures, the two formulaic expressions have to date received only little attention.

Moroccan Arabic dialect has not a designed pronoun for Spanish usted/es but it has a wide range of ways and vocatives to show a similar courtesy attitude, which makes the teacher working with Moroccan students think about the most suitable way to teach clear contexts of use, helping students to find the equivalence in their language and systematizing its correct and spontaneous use, with a particular focus on its agreement with verbal, possessive determiners and pronouns. In a theoretical way, we aim to take a close look at the idea of oral verbal courtesy, its usual treatment at the Spanish as a foreign language classroom and the expression of courtesy using usted/es. In a practical way, we try to provide a framework of guidelines and didactic orientations in order to treat verbal courtesy at the Spanish as a foreign language classroom, and a series of activities designed to practise the use of usted/es and its grammatical implications, as well as its use in the meridional Spanish dialects, Canary Islands and Spanish America.

Riassunto: L'articolo intende arricchire il profilo dell'italiano di Napoli descrivendo alcuni tratti pragmatici propri della varietà regionale. Si approfondisce dapprima la poli-funzionalità del marcatore di discorso mo ci vuole. In seguito, si descrivono le funzioni pragmatiche di altri tre tratti: la formula di scusa non mi dire niente; il segnale pragmatico ti trovi?, domanda coda che marca e mitiga un'interrogativa orientata positivamente; la locuzione avverbiale la verità, adoperata per mitigare un'asserzione o per segnalare la contrapposizione di una risposta rispetto ad altre risposte attese dall'interlocutore. Per questi tre tratti, inoltre, si forniscono notizie utili alla ricostruzione dello sviluppo diacronico. Il paragrafo conclusivo mette in rilievo altri tratti pragmatici della varietà che meritano di essere esaminati. Abstract: The article aims at enriching the profile of Neapolitan Italian by describing some pragmatic traits of the regional variety. Firstly the multi-functionality of the discourse marker mo ci vuole is analyzed in deep. Next, the author describes the pragmatic functions of other three traits: the excuse-formula non mi dire niente; the pragmatic marker ti trovi?, a question tag that marks a positively-oriented question; the adverbial la verità, used to mitigate an assertion or to signal the opposition of an answer towards other answers expected by the interlocutor. For these three traits useful notices about the diachronic development are provided. The concluding paragraph highlights other pragmatic traits of the variety that deserve to be examined.

Student essay (Bachelor of Arts). C-uppsats.

This research looks at the typically Honduran words in the lyrics of 25 songs of two Honduran composers, Guillermo Anderson and Paul Hughes, also known as Polache. The secondary  sources in this research are Spanish dictionaries both about regional and general terms and as complementary sources include several on-line publications. This research is a
chronological comparison of the words cuyamel, encachimbado, mable, campeño and
turunca. This work presents exclusively the changes in meaning during 1897-2012.

Key words: Honduran Spanish, diachronical, Anderson, Hughes, Polache, Membreño

En este trabajo se hace un estudio diacrónico sobre los hondureñismos teniendo como objeto de análisis los textos de 25 canciones de dos compositores hondureños, Guillermo Anderson y Paul Hughes, alias Polache. Las fuentes secundarias son diccionarios de regionalismos y de español estándar y como fuentes complementarias diversas publicaciones en línea. El estudio es una comparación cronológica de los conceptos cuyamel, encachimbado, mable, campeño y
turunca. El trabajo se limita a presentar los cambios conceptuales en el período comprendido desde 1897 hasta 2012.

Palabras clave: hondureñismos, diacrónico, Anderson, Hughes, Polache, Membreño

List Construction Markers in Russian: Riformulative Signals, General Extenders... I vse takoe
This paper offers a descriptive survey of list markers in contemporary Russian, i.e. discourse markers that signal the presence of a list and at the same time fulfil specific semantic and pragmatic functions, such as generalization (и все такое ‘and things like that’, или что-то в этом роде ‘or something’), exemplification (типа ‘such as/kind of’, например ‘for example’) or reformulation of the list content (так сказать ‘so to speak, вернее ‘more precisely’).
It also explores the structural and functional properties of general extenders (Overstreet 1999) within the framework of CxG, focusing particularly on the process of lexicalization and grammaticalization of the discourse marker и все такое ‘and things like that’. The survey allows to make some generalisations about the multifuncionality
of these discourse marker from both a monolingual and a contrastive perspective.

This dissertation investigates the rise of epistemic expressions in relation to different types of language change, viz. lexicalization, grammaticalization and pragmaticalization. Four case studies from the domain of epistemic modality in the Mainland Scandinavian languages, i.e. Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, are discussed. These case studies are concerned with the modal auxiliaries ‘must/may’, the interrogative/epistemic adverb ‘I wonder’, the epistemic adverb ‘maybe’, and the discourse marker ‘I think.’ These epistemic phenomena pose problems for traditional analyses within the framework of grammaticalization studies, because they are all at the interface of (most current definitions of) grammaticalization, lexicalization and pragmaticalization.

This thesis presents a novel model of analysis and a unified account of language change centered on the notion of a composite change. A composite change is composed of formal reanalysis and semantic re-interpretation, accompanying primitive changes at different linguistic levels (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, discourse/pragmatics), and the concomitants of these (micro-)changes. These (micro-)changes cluster with respect to their converging properties (=interfaces), but stand out in case they are diverging properties (=unique properties). This is the essence of the clustering approach to language change. Clusters of correlated changes may correspond to a composite change traditionally labeled ‘grammaticalization’, ‘lexicalization’ or ‘pragmaticalization’, but they may also pattern in alternative ways. This is what happens in the case studies in the present thesis.

The case studies in this dissertation defy strict categorization. Therefore, it is  proposed to give up the idea that linguistic changes can be assigned to predefined categories. Instead, it is argued that it is more sensible to reduce lexicalization, grammaticalization and pragmaticalization to their basic mechanisms of change, primitive changes and the concomitants of these (micro-)changes. The advantage of a clustering approach, as opposed to categorization, is that one can identify prototypical and marginal instances of lexicalization, grammaticalization and pragmaticalization, as well as the interfaces between these different types of language change.

The vocative is a still rather underexplored linguistic element which has justifiably been described as ‘peripheral’ in traditional systemic linguistics. Yet, it is of central relevance in the concrete linguistic interaction, where its functions are indispensable from a pragmatic as well as from a sociolinguistic perspective.
The first part of the thesis is dedicated to a basic characterization of the category ‘vocative’ which grounds on a functional definition as a nominal, free form of address. This implies firstly a comprehensive critical analysis of the existing literature from the most diverse linguistic approaches. The next step is the attempt of an alternative characterization of the vocative on sociolinguistic principles which focuses on the concept of affective stance. The vocative is understood as its manifestation in a twofold way: as an element of expressivity and of the relational work between the interactants. In both functions, processes of routinization and desemanticization can frequently be observed, the outcomes of which are discourse marking functions continuously gaining in relevance.
This theoretical framework is the basis for the subsequent empirical analysis of a corpus of spoken Spanish (C-ORAL-ROM) with a special focus on the distribution of vocatives in different kinds of contextes and their affinity to specific characteristics of conceptional orality in communication. Another feature of interest are gender-specific differences in vocative production and the routinization of certain generic vocative forms. Both aspects are finally revisited in the context of the existing literature and examined in view of their sociopragmatic indexicalities. Instead of ‘grammaticalization’ or ‘pragmaticalization’, the term ‘routinization’ is proposed for the development of pragmatic markers which are frequently based on vocatives.

In this paper I talk about aspects of Michael Halliday's approach to language and communication that are important to all linguists, but have been overlooked in some other approaches. These include the recognition of the linguistic functional structures as being the relations between the elements of the structure and the idea that the structure as a totality influences the interpretation; the recognition of interpersonal, logical, textual, and ideational meaning structures; the recognition of different constructions for manifesting transitivity; the recognition of the difference between Token and Value in the use of reference phrases; the recognition of the importance of functional explanation in description; and the recognition of the importance of theme-rheme and the separation of theme-rheme and given-new (information focus). In the process I will also point out aspects of Halliday's approach that have influenced other approaches, and aspects that relate to concepts in other approaches, such as the role of the construction to understanding. I would also like to discuss how the concept of "projection" from Interactional Linguistics can inform Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL).

This dissertation considers type noun constructions (TNCs) in Norwegian and Swedish. Type noun constructions are constructions which contain a word that originally denoted ‘type/kind/category’. TN(C)s and their development have been studied in several languages, such as English (e.g. Aijmer 2002, Traugott 2008, Brems 2011), Russian (Kolyaseva and Davidse 2018) and the Romance languages French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian (e.g. Mihatsch 2010, 2016, Voghera 2013). As seen in studies of TNCs in other languages, the North Scandinavian TNCs have developed many new non-compositional meanings and functions and have several idiosyncratic morphosyntactic properties. Based on a variety of Norwegian and Swedish corpora of written and spoken language, this study gives an overview of the morphosyntactic properties and meanings and functions of the Norwegian and Swedish TNCs with the TNs slags, sorts and typ(e). The study further explores the motivation behind the particular development of these constructions. It considers how we can use ideas of the nature of the construct-i-con to account for particular morphosyntactic properties of the specific constructions and how they differ in the closely related languages Norwegian and Swedish. Cross-linguistic influence between similar constructions in different European languages are also considered, as well as how this can be accounted for in a usage-based cognitive construction grammatical framework. It is reasonable to assume that the cross-linguistic similarities between constructions with TNs also are related to inherent properties of TNs that made them susceptible to particular kinds of changes. Their general, abstract and relational meaning is considered important as well as how the categorising potential make them susceptible for use in contexts with certain frequent associations and inferences.

The paper addresses the issue of categorization and category membership with respect to the functional class of discourse markers. In the course of the paper I will review possible criteria for discourse marker status and examine them from the perspectives of three alternative hypotheses about the development of discourse markers: grammaticalization theory; its modified version, the pragmaticalization hypothesis; and the cooptation hypothesis. The characteristics outlined in the paper suggest that the functional class of DMs constitutes a radial category either in the light of grammaticalization / pragmaticalization or the cooptation hypothesis, thus, a network model along the lines of Pelyvás (1995) is the most appropriate way of characterizing individual DMs in terms of prototypicality.

Este artículo tiene en cuenta una dicotomía básica, desarrollada por Koch en varios trabajos, entre reglas idiomáticas y reglas discursivas dentro de lo que desde Coseriu se ha considerado el nivel histórico-idiomático del lenguaje, para dar cuenta desde un enfoque variacional de los rasgos lingüísticos presentes en los fragmentos “orales” en estilo directo que se insertan en la documentación judicial hispánica de los siglos XVI y XVII. Los textos analizados corresponden a actas inquisitoriales y autos indianos, hallados en el Archivo Histórico Nacional de Madrid y el Archivo General de Indias de Sevilla, respectivamente, cuya localización dispersa a lo largo del dominio variacional del español, en los planos geográfico y cronológico, no impide que, desde un punto de vista concepcional, se puedan considerar conjuntamente.
En esta ocasión estudiamos dos marcadores del discurso de diferente naturaleza, "mira" y "pues", que se asemejan por su carácter marcadamente conversacional y su empleo recurrente en estos fragmentos. Como mostramos en la parte final del trabajo, llegan a usarse para estructurar una conversación reproducida, indicar la toma o cambio de turno conversacional o señalar “frontera” de estilo directo.

Partiendo de un estudio previo sobre las interjecciones primarias en las comedias de Plauto en el que se ofrecía una definición restrictiva de esta categoría, el presente trabajo aborda las interjecciones secundarias en ese mismo corpus. Tomando en consideración los conceptos dinámicos de gramaticalización, pragmaticalización y subjetivación, se propone tanto una explicación para la evolución de ciertas unidades –(me)hercle, (ede)pol, (m)ecastor, pro Iuppiter, di boni, malum, age, obsecro, etc.–, como un análisis de sus usos discursivos en el corte sincrónico elegido. La perspectiva adoptada, eminentemente pragmática, tiene en cuenta el valor operativo de estas unidades, su combinación con distintos actos de habla y su permeabilidad al contexto en que se profieren.

The chapter addresses instances of 'war gewesen' (i.e. BE-PRET + BE-PARTII) in the colloquial register of Modern High German which display the form of a pluperfect but seem to be used in an absolute-deictic function of a general past tense. Based on an empirical analysis of the relationship between 'war gewesen' and the grammaticalization of (plu)perfect constructions, it is argued with respect to the auxiliation of 'sein' (BE) that the participle 'gewesen' functions as an extension mechanism such as described analogously for double perfect forms (DPF) and denotes the EXISTENCE of a state of being.

The assumption made in the present paper is that phraseology and grammaticalization are distinct areas, which nevertheless have many linguistic criteria in common. To support this view, particular attention is paid to parentheticals that are characterized by mutual association between their lexical constituents and grammatical patterning. More particularly, the paper is devoted to the constructional approach of (reduced) parenthetical clauses in present-day French, with a focus on the tu vois ‘you see’ construction. Parentheticals are defined here in terms of synchronic gradience, according to their degree of association strength observable in present-day use, and in terms of diachronic gradualness, resulting from successive evolving steps in language change. Questioning the nature of the link that exists between the various processes of language change at play for the construction, the concept of functionalization is also introduced, in line with emergentist and lexico-grammatical view of language.

The diachrony of Ancient Egyptian allows us to study the emergence of a few discourse markers. Two case studies show an evolution that traditional grammaticalization approaches would term counter- directional. They also illustrate the role played by formal analogy together with pragmatic inference in shaping specific outcomes of change. A model for describing the semantics of discourse markers is proposed, which can account for their polysemy in terms of an underspecified lexical core meaning and contextual parameters. Their characteristic function is seen as relating a discourse segment with some point of reference. The variation of the latter, especially its explicit or implicit character, results in different uses that are typical for such markers. The impact of the proposed approach on a grammaticalization analysis of discourse markers is briefly evaluated.

Este artículo realiza una aproximación metateórica a los estudios sobre gramaticalización de marcadores discursivos (MD). Identifica algunos fundamentos básicos compartidos por quienes buscan unos principios explicativos lo más generales posibles de los procesos de gramaticalización, discute la relación de esta teoría con los conceptos de generalidad y nomicidad, expone la oposición epistemológica entre explicacio-nes causalistas y explicaciones finalistas, y analiza, a partir de ella, el problema de las concep-ciones implícitamente determi-nistas del fenómeno de la grama-ticalización, frente a las que se propone la aprehensión metateó-rica de las explicaciones de estos procesos de gramaticalización de MD como instancias del prototi-po de explicación racional.

Desde un punto de vista semánticofuncional
se distingue entre los adverbios que modifican
al núcleo verbal de la oración, y aquellos
que no cumplen funciones nucleares sino que inciden
sobre toda una oración o proposición, o incluso
operan sobre un segmento más reducido,
palabra o construcción, pero siempre desde una
posición periférica (Kovacci 1986, 1992, 1999;
Wotjak 1996). Este trabajo se centra en un adverbio
que pertenece a esta última clase de adverbios,
particularmente, al grupo de los adverbios del modus.
Desde una aproximación holística que aúna
los aportes de diversos estudios sobre la semántica
y expresión de la modalidad epistémica y la evidencialidad
(Rodríguez Espiñeira 2010, Squartini
2001), los adverbios periféricos (Kovacci 1986,
1999); específicamente, modales y evidenciales
(Müller 2007), y sobre el metadiscurso (Hyland
2005), se indagan los usos del adverbio probablemente
en textos periodísticos de opinión con el
fin de analizar las conceptualizaciones que se expresan
y las funciones metadiscursivas realizadas.
El trabajo gira en torno a la idea de que el uso y la
selección que efectúa el hablante de construcciones
con el adverbio periférico probablemente se corresponden
con diferentes tipos de conceptualizaciones
que ponen en evidencia funciones discursivas
y metadiscursivas específicas. El corpus
está constituido por cuarenta y cuatro (44) textos,
artículos de opinión y notas editoriales, publicados
en tres periódicos de la provincia de Mendoza
(Argentina) durante el año 2011. En la primera
parte del trabajo se presenta una escueta caracterización
de los adverbios periféricos, centrando la
atención en el adverbio probablemente. En la segunda
parte se indagan los aspectos epistémicos y evidenciales de este adverbio, y, finalmente, en la
tercera parte, se intenta establecer las funciones
discursivas y metadiscursivas de probablemente,
asociadas a las diferentes conceptualizaciones y
vinculadas con la función prototípica del adverbio
en este tipo de discursos: relativizar el grado de
certeza del dictum que, aunque elevado, no alcanza
el grado de certeza absoluta.

Or in Old French and jetzt in Modern German are temporal adverbs that can also function as modal aprticles and as discourse markers. This paper tries to explore the differences between discourse markers and modal particles both from a synchronic and a diachronic point of view.

This paper investigates the properties and the diachronic development of a poorly described Italianconstruction vedersi “to see oneself” followed by the infinitive, with the aim of defending its Recipient passiveinterpretation. From the recent typological literature (Malchukov et al. 2010) there emerges a clear tendencyacross languages for behavioral properties to comply with coding properties of arguments: this means that ina language that follows an indirective coding pattern like Italian the passivization of the Recipient argument is not allowed. The correlation is, however, not absolute (as recognized by Malchukov et al. 2010:46). The case under scrutiny represents a special strategy whose motivations are to be searched for, on the one hand, in the tendency for Recipients to be human and topical and to take the subject role in passivization (Haspelmath 2015), and on the other at the pragmatic level in a response to the need for expressing the (mostly negative) subject affectedness. Corpus based data from Modern Italian has been used to illustrate the semantic classes of predicates involved and their dominant maleficiary uses. The diachronic analysis illustrates the grammaticalization path leading from the reflexive construction, in which vedersi has a perceptive meaning, to a Recipient passive construction through texts from Old to Modern Italian, and it will also account for the gradual emergence of a passive interpretation in specific pragmatic contexts. The semantic expansion of the Recipient construction beginning in the late 19th century, through its ability to attract a variety of ditransitive predicates, can also be documented.
The earlier but parallel development of a Theme passive in the construction vedersi + past participle (GiacaloneRamat 2017) confirms the main lines of change and  suggests a new assessment of passivization patterns in Modern Italian.

El presente trabajo estudia la pragmaticalización de hasta cuándo, expresión que, en su uso denotativo, evoca una orientación prospectiva hacia el término de un intervalo temporal. Sostenemos que, por su particular fuerza ilocutiva, la secuencia interrogativa puede subjetivizarse comportándose como un marcador discursivo (Martín Zorraquino y Portolés Lázaro, 1999; Traugott y Dasher, 2004; Dostie y Putch, 2007, entre otros). En contextos dialogales, aparece en empleos que no solo prescinden de una respuesta informativa de contenido temporal sino que, marcando particularmente la perspectiva del hablante, no dan espacio a réplica y asumen una función conversacional. Es nuestro objetivo proponer una primera caracterización del comportamiento semántico-pragmático de estos usos subjetivizados que no registran descripción en la literatura de especialidad. Encuadrada en el enfoque cognitivo-prototípico, nuestra hipótesis de investigación se sustenta en los conceptos de gramática emergente (Hopper, 1987), subjetivización (Traugott y Dasher, 2004; Traugott, 2010) y pragmaticalización (Dostie, 2004). Mediante el análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo de un corpus escrito de 267 empleos de hasta cuándo en posición inicial (español peninsular e hispanoamericano, CREA, 31-03-2014), (i) se caracteriza el comportamiento semántico pragmático de la expresión identificando, como valores interaccionales, la marcación de disconformidad y la urgencia de cese; (ii) se especifica el entorno lingüístico en el que se presenta el empleo subjetivizado de la secuencia; (iii) se describen los contextos típicos para tales usos; (iv) se identifican los dominios cognitivos activados por estos empleos así como el perfilamiento de los estados de cosas escenificados en el intervalo temporal. Adicionalmente, se analiza el frecuente empleo de la expresión en interrogaciones retóricas altamente persuasivas.

Die Erforschung diskursstrukturierender Elemente (DSEs) -in den jeweiligen slavistischen Einzelphilologien unter so unterschiedlichen Termini wie komentarz metatekstowy, diskursivan marker oder modal'naja častica firmierend -hat in der Slavistik eine längere Tradition. Die vorliegende Publikation greift eine spezifische Unterart von diskursstruktierenden Elementen, nämlich jene mit einem infiniten verbum dicendi als Basis, heraus und setzt die bereits gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zu ihrer Genese (vgl. Birzer 2012 a zum Altkirchenslavischen; Birzer 2012 b und Birzer 2013zum Russischen; Birzer im Druck a zum Kroatischen und Birzer im Druck c zum Polnischen) und ihren Funktionen (vgl. v.a. Birzer 2015 a und accepted) in einzelnen slavischen Sprachen miteinander in Zusammenhang. Weiters werden die Spezifika der untersuchten slavischen DSEs typologisch eingeordnet und hinsichtlich der Rolle von Sprachkontakt bei ihrer Entwicklung beleuchtet. Abschließend wird der Frage nachgegangen, inwiefern die Entstehung der untersuchten Elemente als Grammatikalisierungs-, Lexikalisierungs-oder Pragmatikalisierungsprozess charakterisiert werden kann. Der Beitrag gliedert sich folgendermaßen: Kap. 1 gibt einen sprachübergreifenden Überblick über die generellen Merkmale von diskursstrukturierenden Elementen, während Kap. 2. auf die Methodik eingeht. Die Methodik betrifft einerseits die Abgrenzung des Forschungsgegenstands, wozu Erkenntnisse aus der Konstruktionsgrammatik und das Instrumentarium der Moskauer Semantischen Schule herangezogen wurden (Kap. 2.1.), und andererseits die Datenerhebung für die synchrone, v.a. aber für die diachrone Analyse, da diachrone Daten nach wie vor nur eingeschränkt zugänglich sind (Kap. 2.2.). Kap. 3. erläutert, wie auf dieser Basis die DSEs für diese Untersuchung in den einzelnen Objektsprachen identifiziert wurden und in welchem Bezug sie jeweils zueinander stehen. Die nachfolgenden Kapitel sind der theoretischen Verortung gewidmet und diskutieren die Rolle von Sprachkontakt (Kap. 4.) sowie die Einordnung der untersuchten Phänomene hinsichtlich Grammatikalisierung, Lexikalisierung und Pragmatikalisierung (Kap. 5). (2012 b) für Russisch, Birzer (in print a) für Kroatisch und Birzer (in print b) für Polnisch nachgelesen werden, weshalb an dieser Stelle von einer erneuten Thematisierung abgesehen werden soll. infiniter verba dicendi, sondern auch die bisher als Diskursmarker, pragmatische Marker oder Diskurspartikel bezeichneten Einheiten umfasst. Die Merkmale zur Identifikation von DSEs sind gestuft in allgemeine Merkmale, die auf alle DSEs zutreffen, sowie Merkmale, die spezifisch für die DSEs auf der Basis infiniter verba dicendi sind und sich somit aus den (morpho)syntaktischen Spezifika dieser Untergruppe ableiten. Die allgemeinen Merkmale stimmen weitestgehend mit den Merkmalen überein, die Rathmayr (1985) für Partikeln in der Funktion von Pragmalexemen beschrieben hat; im folgenden sollen jedoch auch die Parallelen zu Ansätzen aus der Allgemeinen Sprachwissenschaft bzw. der linguistischen Forschung zu anderen, nicht-slavischen Objektsprachen dargelegt werden. Die nachfolgenden Merkmale sind allgemeine Merkmale von DSEs: a) syntaktische Integration in eine Äußerung (host utterance) Dieses Kriterium ist insofern wichtig, als Fischer (2006: 8-9) darauf hinweist, dass auch ganze Sätze diskursstrukturierende Funktion haben können und somit die Gesamtmenge aller diskursstrukturierender Elemente theoretisch infinit ist. Auch Fraser (2006: 189) nennt die syntaktische Integration als ein grundlegendes Merkmal. Die von Rathmayr genannten, nachfolgenden Merkmale der Irrelevanz für die Proposition und die fehlende Fokussierungsmöglichkeit durch Fragen implizieren, dass auch Rathmayr von der syntaktischen Integration als Grundvoraussetzung ausgeht. Allerdings muss darauf hingewiesen werden, dass die syntaktische Integration nur eine relative ist, was sich im Kroatischen und Polnischen -anders als im Russischen, zu dem Rathmayr (1985) gearbeitet hat -an der Positionierung der Enklitika ablesen lässt. Im Kroatischen weisen die Enklitika den sogenannten Zweitstellungseffekt auf, d. h. sie folgen nach dem ersten Syntagma bzw. können dies, sofern es aus mehreren (betonten) Elementen besteht, auch spalten, indem sich das Enklitikon an das erste betonte Wort anlehnt. Letztere Variante wird im kroatischen Standard empfohlen; die Umsetzung unterliegt jedoch, wie Reinkowski (2001) zeigt, Schwankungen. Zudem gelten für initiale Phrasen Ausnahmen, da Enklitika zum einen nicht an Elemente angelehnt werden können, die durch eine Pause und somit orthographisch durch ein Komma abgetrennt sind (Reinkowski 2008: 132). Zum anderen ist die Enklise nach langen initialen Phrasen nicht möglich (‚heavy constituent constraint' nach Radanović-Kocić 1996: 435). Da die beiden letztgenannten Merkmale für DSEs im allgemeinen relevant sind und auf unsere Untergruppe im besonderen zutreffen, ist zu erwarten, Seite 3 von 54

Resumen: Este artículo se ocupa del concepto de ciclicidad y de su aplicación a los cambios de índole pragmática. En la primera parte, se revisa el concepto de ciclo semántico-pragmático propuesto por Hansen (2014, 2018, 2020), se propone una redefinición y se caracteriza el ciclo a partir de una serie de rasgos básicos. En la segunda parte, se ilustra la propuesta con el estudio de un caso: el reemplazo de macho por tío en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Macho se utilizaba como vocativo desde al menos la década de los cincuenta; dos décadas más tarde, tío comenzó a emplearse como vocativo en contextos similares a macho, se popularizó entre los jóvenes hasta el punto de reemplazar en gran medida a macho; con el paso de los años se ha expandido al grupo etario medio-mejor dicho, estos hablantes han continuado utilizando tío/a-, de modo que se ha consolidado la tendencia dispar en la frecuencia de uso-creciente en tío/a, decreciente en macho-de la que resulta un cambio sin retorno, que permite hablar de ciclo semántico-pragmático.

American languages distinguish generally between inalienable and alienable possession (always or contextually), by means of different marks (juxtaposition, affixation, possessive pronouns, noun incorporation, possessor ascension...). In these language families, cognitive mappings can give account of how possession can be expressed by metaphoric extensions of other semantic relations, such as transitive or locative links. However, we can find also cases that seem to fit into the inverse mechanism: possession as a source domain (pseudo-possession), mapped onto other conceptual spheres, including transitive and locative relations (though bi-directional transfers would contradict the asymmetric conceptual path assumed by cognitive grammar postulates).