Cash Crops

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Côte d'Ivoire became the first world producer of cocoa beans in 1970 by reducing forest cover and by losing biodiversity. The West-central region of the country was a former production site of cocoa, and contributed strongly to the annual supply of cocoa beans, but today, the plantations are old and the soils are poor, especially in the region of Daloa. To increase the yield of production, farmers use artificial fertilizers and the effect on cocoa trees is not really known. Our study aims to determine the agronomic characters improved by the application of the artificial fertilizer. In the plantations of the villages Dibobly, tien-oula and Zitta, non-experimental and experimental plots were installed and measures on cacao trees on a surface of 2 400m 2 were realized. The results showed that the cover of flowers by feet and the number of fruits had significantly increased with fertilizer. However, the fertilizer had no really effect on the size of fruits, the mass of fruits and the number of cocoa beans. Also, the varieties of cocoa trees like Forastero and Criollo, had a different productivity for the same application of fertilizer. The productivity of the cocoa trees depends of the quality of the fertilizer but also of the cultivated variety. The results could allow improving the quality of the fertilizer and use it consequently. RESUME: La Côte d'Ivoire est devenue depuis 1970, le premier producteur mondial de fèves de cacaoyer. Cette ascension s'est faite au dépend du couvert forestier et de la biodiversité. Le Centre-Ouest du pays, ancienne centre de production du cacao, contribue encore aujourd'hui à la fourniture annuelle de fèves de cacao, mais les plantations âgées et les sols épuisés ont entrainés une baisse du rendement, surtout dans la région de Daloa. Pour augmenter le rendement des plantations, le paysan à recours à l'utilisation d'engrais chimiques dont l'effet sur le cacaoyer n'est pas véritablement connu. Notre étude a pour but de déterminer les caractères agronomiques améliorés par l'application de l'engrais chimique. Dans les plantations des villages de Dibobly, Tien-oula et Zitta, des parcelles expérimentales et témoins ont été installées et des mesures sur des pieds de cacaoyers couvrant une surface de 2 400m 2 ont été réalisées. Les résultats ont montré que la couverture en fleurs des pieds et le nombre de cabosses ont significativement augmentés en présence d'engrais. Cependant, l'engrais n'a pratiquement pas eu d'effet sur la taille des cabosses, la masse des cabosses et le nombre de fèves. Aussi, les variétés de cacaoyers Forastero et Criollo, ont une productivité différente pour un même apport d'engrais. La productivité des plantations de cacaoyers est fonction de la qualité de l'engrais mais aussi de l'espèce cultivée. Les résultats pourraient permettre d'améliorer la qualité de l'engrais et de cibler son action pour une meilleure production cacaoyère. MOTS-CLEFS: Agrobiodiversité, agroforesterie, aménagement, culture de rente, économie. Effet des engrais chimiques sur les caractères agronomiques des variétés de cacaoyers dans la région de Daloa (Centre-Ouest, Côte d'Ivoire)

Agricultural Land Redistribution: Toward Greater Consensus addresses a major policy dilemma: how to benefit from the development gains agricultural land redistribution is expected to generate while avoiding the losses caused by the highly imperfect ways redistribution is generally implemented. The authors address this issue through a broad historical perspective and a world tour of case studies. They conclude that flexibility is needed when selecting transfer mechanisms, in particular seeking a balance between subsidized market transactions, land taxation, and expropriation; when introducing effective conflict resolution mechanisms during redistribution; when establishing secure property rights for beneficiaries; and when giving support to the new farmers so that they rapidly become competitive. The assessment is sobering; it points to actual gains as well as to numerous unresolved difficulties. The authors rightly note that the lack of solid impact evaluations complicates the task of identifying the best process for successful implementation. This book provides valuable information on a subject that remains incompletely understood, yet central to development.

This paper deals with some major economic issues concerning the Pacific plant kava, known in Fiji as yaqona. The plant is the source of the cerebral depressant beverage found throughout many of the Pacific Islands, which besides its daily use plays an important ceremonial and social role in the indigenous culture. This paper deals with yaqona cultivation and commercialisation in the Fijian peripheral island of Kadavu, from a perspective of more than 20 years. The findings suggest that the role of the plant as a major cash crop is even more important than it was in the first half of the 1980s. Moreover, the village semi-subsistence economy has become increasingly dependent on this crop as part of its survival strategy. The explanations offered are related to physical and ecological conditions and the associated agrotechnical advantages in Kadavu; marketing advantages and worsening terms of trade experienced by the Fijian periphery; and the lack of other economic opportunities in peripheral areas of Fiji, such as Kadavu -in turn, a function of core-periphery relationships. This is a response of the periphery to the increasing marginalisation within the Fiji state and may imply villagers' and communities' acceptance of their marginal position in the economy.

Somalia's history of conflict reveals an intriguing paradox--namely, many of the factors that drive armed conflict have also played a role in managing, ending, or preventing war. For instance, clannism and clan cleavages are a source of conflict--used to divide Somalis, fuel endemic clashes over resources and power, used to mobilize militia, and make broad-based reconciliation very difficult to achieve. Most of Somalia's armed clashes since 1991 have been fought in the name of clan, often as a result of political leaders manipulating clannism for their own purposes. Yet traditional clan elders are a primary source of conflict mediation, clan-based customary law serves as the basis for negotiated settlements, and clan-based blood-payment groups serve as a deterrent to armed violence. Likewise, the central state is conventionally viewed as a potential source of rule of law and peaceful allocation of resources, but, at times in Somalia's past, it was a source of violence an...

This paper provides a study of Alternative Trade Organisations (ATOs) as a medium for incorporating “fair trade” values into the lives of rural African farmers. By undertaking an analysis of the modes of production as well as the challenges faced by small, rural African farmers in accessing the world markets, this thesis analyses Fairtrade’s contribution, through the use of trade, towards the socio-economic development of African farmers.

Copyright Transfer Certificate Title of the Thesis-"Study on the performance of Aghani crop of kusmi lac on nutrient managed Zizyphus mauritiana under heavy rainfall condition" Name of the candidate-Brajesh Kumar Namdev Subject-Entomology Department-Entomology College-College of Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, (M.P.) Year of thesis submission-2013-2014 Copyright Transfer The undersigned Brajesh Kumar Namdev assigns to the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, all right under Copyright Act, that may exists in and for the thesis entitled "Study on the performance of Aghani crop of kusmi lac on nutrient managed Zizyphus mauritiana under heavy rainfall condition" submitted for the award of M.Sc. (Ag.) degree.

Communautaire et d'Appui aux Groupes Vulnérables (PDCAGV) pour leurs appuis dans la réalisation des études. Les remerciements vont au Représentant Résident ainsi qu'à l'ensemble du Bureau de la Banque mondiale à Bangui pour son soutien inestimable, également à Beth Zikronah Rosen (AFTPM) pour sa contribution dans la section sur les objectifs régionaux et la situation actuelle de la République Centrafricaine et enfin, à Markus Goldstein (Practice Leader, AFTPM) qui a orienté le travail à travers des conseils et recommandations. ABREVIATIONS ET ACRONYMES ACABEF Association Centrafricaine pour le Bien Être Familial ACAMS Association Centrafricaine pour le Marketing Social ACDA Agence Centrafricaine de Développement Agricole AFJC Association des Femmes Juristes Centrafricaines AFTCS spécialiste principal du développement social AGR Activité Génératrice de Revenus BAD Banque Africaine de Développement BINUCA Bureau Intégré des Nations Unies en Centrafrique CCA Country Program Action Plan CCC Communication pour un Changement de Comportement CDC Comité de Développement Communal CEA Commission Economique pour l'Afrique CEDEF Convention sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l'égard des femmes CFA Communauté Monétaire Africaine CIAF/CA Comité Inter Africain pour les Femmes de Centrafrique CIFAD Comité International des Femmes Africaines pour le Développement CIPD Conférence internationale sur la Population et le Développement CNLS Comité National de Lutte contre le Sida CRP Projet de réintégration communautaire

This policy note reviewed the status of farm machinery in the Kyrgyz Republic. Agricultural productivity, particularly in terms of grain yields, is low because of underinvestment. This note finds that a significant deficit in agricultural machinery is hindering sector productivity. The Kyrgyz Republic has fewer tractors per hectare than any comparable country, with a deficit estimated at 40 percent. The deficit of combine harvesters, estimated at 45 percent, is even more critical. When the age of agricultural machinery is taken into account, the underinvestment becomes even more acute. The reduced domestic production of wheat exacerbates food security concerns. Inadequate access to credit and small farm size are the main factors that constrain farm mechanization. The policy note presents three sets of short- to medium-term policy options to: i) promote the demand for farm machinery, by developing credit lines for agricultural productive assets, leasing, facilitating access to second...

This paper explores how the elimination of Madagascar's Vanilla Marketing Board (VMB) in 1993 affected prices paid to farmers, incentives, and indicators of poverty and inequality using household survey data and simulation analysis. Following the reforms, margins between FOB and farmgate prices have narrowed down and analysis of changes in poverty and inequality based on household surveys suggests a reduction in poverty and a muted supply response. A counterfactual analysis based on the observed reduction in intermediation margins shows that, however limited, increase in competition among intermediaries has contributed to raise purchase prices and the cash income of vanilla farmers. After taking into account the reduction in Madagascar's monopoly power on the world vanilla market implied by the elimination of the VMB, the induced rise in producer prices is estimated to have lifted about 20,000 individuals out of poverty.

Abstract:  This paper deals with some major economic issues concerning the Pacific plant kava, known in Fiji as yaqona. The plant is the source of the cerebral depressant beverage found throughout many of the Pacific Islands, which besides its daily use plays an important ceremonial and social role in the indigenous culture. This paper deals with yaqona cultivation and commercialisation in the Fijian peripheral island of Kadavu, from a perspective of more than 20 years. The findings suggest that the role of the plant as a major cash crop is even more important than it was in the first half of the 1980s. Moreover, the village semi-subsistence economy has become increasingly dependent on this crop as part of its survival strategy. The explanations offered are related to physical and ecological conditions and the associated agrotechnical advantages in Kadavu; marketing advantages and worsening terms of trade experienced by the Fijian periphery; and the lack of other economic opportunities in peripheral areas of Fiji, such as Kadavu – in turn, a function of core–periphery relationships. This is a response of the periphery to the increasing marginalisation within the Fiji state and may imply villagers' and communities' acceptance of their marginal position in the economy.

The paper reviews the trends in poverty, economic policies and growth in a sample of African countries during the 1990s, drawing on the better household data now available. Overall, experiences have varied: some countries have seen sharp falls in income poverty, while others have witnessed marked increases. In some countries economic growth has in the aggregate been ‘pro-poor’, and in others not. But the aggregate numbers hide systematic distributional effects. Taking both macro and micro perspectives of growth and poverty in Africa, the paper draws four key conclusions. First, economic policy reforms (improving macroeconomic balances and liberalizing markets) appear conducive to reductions in poverty. Second, market connectedness is crucial to enable participation in the gains from economic growth. Some regions and households by virtue of their sheer remoteness have been left behind when growth picks up. Third, education and access to land emerge as key private endowments to help h...

This paper uses new data on agricultural policy interventions to examine the political economy of agricultural trade policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. Historically, African governments have discriminated against agricultural producers in general (relative to producers in non-agricultural sectors), and against producers of export agriculture in particular. While more moderate in recent years, these patterns of discrimination persist. They do so even though farmers comprise a political majority. Rather than claiming the existence of a single best approach to the analysis of policy choice, we explore the impact of three factors: institutions, regional inequality, and tax revenuegeneration. We find that agricultural taxation increases with the rural population share in the absence of electoral party competition; yet, the existence of party competition turns the lobbying disadvantage of the rural majority into political advantage. We also find that privileged cash crop regions are particular targets for redistributive taxation, unless the country's president comes from that region. In addition, governments of resource-rich countries, while continuing to tax export producers, reduce their taxation of food consumers.

The World Bank Research Observer is intended for anyone who has a professional interest in development. Observer articles are written to be accessible to nonspecialist readers; con tributors examine key issues in development economics, survey the literature and the lat est World Bank research, and debate issues of development policy. Articles are reviewed by an editorial board drawn from across the Bank and the international community of econo mists. Inconsistency with Bank policy is not grounds for rejection.

This article examines the effects of commercialisation of agriculture on land use and work patterns by means of a case study in the Nyeri district in Kenya. The study uses cross sectional data collected from small-scale farmers in this district. We find that good quality land is allocated to non-food cash crops, which may lead to a reduction in non-cash food crops and expose some households to greater risks of possible famine. Also the proportion of land allocated to food crops declines as the farm size increases while the proportion of land allocated to non-food cash crops rises as the size of farm increases. Cash crops are also not bringing in as much revenue commensurate with the amount of land allocated to them. With growing commercialisation, women still work more hours than men. They not only work on non-cash food crops but also on cash crops including non-food cash crops. Evidence indicates that women living with husbands work longer hours than those married but living alone, and also longer than the unmarried women.

Married women seem to lose their decision-making ability with growth of commercialisation, as husbands make most decisions to do with cash crops. Furthermore husbands appropriate family cash income. Husbands are less likely to use such income for the welfare of the family compared to wives due to different expenditure patterns. Married women in Kenya also have little or no power to change the way land is allocated between food and non-food cash crops. Due to deteriorating terms of trade for non-food cash crops, men have started cultivation of food cash crops with the potential of crowding out women. It is found that both the area of non-cash crops tends to rise with farm size but also the proportion of the farm area cash cropped rises in Central Kenya.

Bihar is the third most populous state in India with over 100 million inhabitants. The state’s economy is dominated by agriculture: it constitutes 19.2 percent of state’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs nearly 75 percent of the labor force. 92.8 percent of the farmers in Bihar are small and marginal (small holders), which is much higher than the all India average of 83.5 percent2. In addition, only 29 percent of households own any land and the average landholding size is approximately one acres3. Furthermore, Bihar’s agriculture productivity is one of the lowest in India. For instance, the average productivity of paddy and wheat, the two major crops of the state, is much lower than the national average. The productivity of smallholders is further lower than the state average. Agriculture productivity in Bihar also affects food security as 88 percent of Bihar’s poor depend on farming for subsistence. Currently, programs that have not customized and adopted technologies for s...

Bihar's agriculture sector employs more than eighty percent of the labor force and more than fourfifths of these farmers are small and marginal. They have one of the lowest agricultural productivity in India that has not increased due to several constraints. Jeevika, a project jointly supported by the World Bank and the Government of Bihar, has piloted, customized and eventually scaled-up several innovative livelihood interventions to improve the well-being of poor households in Bihar. A number of innovative aspects account for the success of these livelihoods programs in the state. Foremost among these is the fact that it was implemented through community-driven and community-owned institutions. The institutional platform that was facilitated by the project has enabled the creation of a single-window system at the doorstep of small and marginal farmers. Farmers can now demand better services from the public sector, access credit from commercial banks, and experiment and customize various technologies. This note will focus on System of Crop Intesification' (SCI), which has evolved from a well-known farming methodology called System of Rice Intensification. It has been customized and adopted for wheat, green gram, oil seeds and vegetables in Bihar. The participant farmers have witnessed 86% increase in rice productivity and 72% increase in wheat productivity. The profitability of rice cultivation has increased 2.5 times and has almost doubled for oil-seeds. Since 2008, implementation of SCI has contributed to an additional income increase of around US$10.7 million.

1 Kiiza and Lwasa (2008) claim the proportion of farmers using certified seed grew from 35.5 percent in 2005 to 52 percent in 2007. This seems very high but takes no account of how much certified seed each farmer uses and what proportion it is of all planting material used. Judging by the low sales of certified seeds, it seems likely that many farmers use a small proportion of certified seed on a single crop such as maize or vegetables. Later reports (AGRA 2011a; Mubangizi et al. 2012) repeat the 10-15 percent figure. The reality is that, despite many studies and reports and support to the NSCS, no one has authoritative data.

The evolution of economic policies in Kenya dates back to the colonial era (period preceding 1954) that was characterized by settler targeted government assistance and exclusion of indigenous populations from commercial agriculture. The post liberalization era began in 2003 under which the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation (ERS-WEC), Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA) are being implemented. Trade liberalization was initiated through the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) of the transition period. These consisted of a set of policies designed to make production and resource allocation more efficient. The broad aim was to shift the economy from the inward oriented import substitution policy to a more open outward orientated policy which will encourage exports and imports of goods and services. Another aim of the SAPs was to encourage privatization, public sector reforms and the support of the private sector. The beginning of SAPs in the country w...

In Ethiopia, village surveys were conducted in six villages and two expert workshops were organized to discuss the organization of the study and to evaluate the draft results. Based on household surveys, focus group discussions, and institutional stakeholder interviews, we assessed household vulnerability, analyzed the strategies households adopt to reduce the hazards faced, and evaluated the assistance households receive from institutions. Vulnerability profiles were formulated, which show that household vulnerability differs substantially among and within villages. The size and diversity of income and the ability to flexibly decide on alternative measures to mitigate the adverse climate effects, which depends on, for example, level of education and dependency ratio, have effects on the adaptation options households adopt and the type of institutional assistance they receive. This report presents the results of the World Bank-funded project on Costing Adaptation through Local Insti...

In organic vegetable systems green manure crops play an
important role as a nitrogen source, but they cover the soil for
several months without producing a direct income. Globe
artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) provides both heads to be
harvested and particularly abundant plant residues to be
possibly incorporated into the soil, so it may play a double
role of cash and cover crop. This paper describes an on-farm
study in which seed-propagated artichoke, cultivated as an
annual crop, preceded zucchini squash and lettuce cultivated
in sequence within a vegetable organic system. Artichoke
produced about 7 t ha-1 of saleable heads and left, after
harvest, 50.3 t ha-1 of fresh biomass usable as green manure.
Zucchini squash and lettuce following artichoke showed a
significant increase in yield when artichoke residues were
incorporated into the soil. Furthermore, a residual positive
effect of green manure on soil fertility was detected after
lettuce harvest.

Contents: Development news. Toward a pro - poor trade agenda. Trade reform for economic growth and poverty reduction. Mainstreaming trade for poverty alleviation - A Cambodian experience. Farm fallacies that hurt the poor. Agricultural protectionism - debt problems and the Doha Round. GATS negotiations must focus on services liberalization - the case of SADC. More favorable treatment of developing countries - toward a new grand bargain. An international investment agreement - promise and potential pitfalls. Trade facilitation, WTO rules, and capacity building - What's at stake? China and the WTO - policy reform and poverty reduction.

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

G lobal and national-level policy makers have been embracing financial inclusion as an important development priority. The G20 made the topic one of its pillars at the 2009 Pittsburgh Summit (G20 2009). By fall 2013, more than 50 national-level policy-making and regulatory bodies had publicly committed to financial inclusion strategies for their countries (World Bank 2013a, AFI 2013). And the World Bank Group in No. 92

Tous droits réservés 1 2 3 4 12 11 10 09 Le présent ouvrage a été rédigé par les services de la Banque internationale pour la reconstruction et le développement/Banque mondiale. Les constatations, interprétations et conclusions qui y sont présentées ne reflètent pas nécessairement les vues des Administrateurs de la Banque mondiale ou des pays qu'ils représentent. La Banque mondiale ne garantit pas l'exactitude des données contenues dans ce rapport. Les frontières, les couleurs, les dénominations et toute autre information figurant sur les cartes du présent rapport n'impliquent de la part de la Banque mondiale aucun jugement quant au statut juridique d'un territoire quelconque et ne signifient nullement qu'elle reconnaît ou accepte ces frontières. D Dr ro oi it ts s e et t l li ic ce en nc ce es s Le contenu de cette publication fait l'objet d'un dépôt légal. Aucune partie de la présente publication ne peut être reproduite ou transmise sans l'autorisation préalable de la Banque mondiale. La Banque internationale pour la reconstruction et le développement/Banque mondiale encourage la diffusion de ses études et, normalement, accorde sans délai l'autorisation d'en reproduire des passages. Pour obtenir cette autorisation, veuillez adresser votre demande en fournissant tous les renseignements nécessaires, par courrier,

The impacts of carbon payments and income taxes on curbing tropical forest loss are analyzed under a market equilibrium framework. The supply of cleared forest land was derived by using a two-period utility maximization model when the carbon sequestration of a private forestholder is credited. The land demand was derived from the profit maximization problem of a cash-crop farmer. The model was applied to data from the humid Chaco eco-region of Paraguay. The results indicate that taxes on cash-crop and forestry incomes may in fact be ineffective in curbing forest loss. Carbon payments, however, would effectively reduce forest clearing. In the context studied, a carbon payment of €30 per ton of carbon would limit deforestation to 10% of existing forest cover. A reversible carbon crediting system, in which a forestholder can redeem a credited forest, seems to substantially increase, at least in the short run, the effectiveness of carbon payments. Carbon payments could also complement the tax on cash-crop income in curbing tropical forest loss. An effective policy to combat tropical deforestation should, therefore, jointly consider forestry and cash-crop sectors.

The case for promoting export-oriented cash crops in Africa has generally been based on their direct potential contribution to agricultural productivity and small farmer incomes. A relatively neglected avenue of research concerns the synergistic effects that cash cropping can have on other household activities, including food production. The conventional view that cash crops compete with food crops for land and labour neglects the potential for cash crop schemes to make available inputs on credit, management training, and other resources that can contribute to food crop productivity, which might otherwise no1 be accessible to farmers if they did not participate in cash crop programs. This article builds on previous research by hypothesising key pathways by which cash crops may affect food crop activities and empirically measuring these effects using the case of cotton in Gokwe North District in Zimbabwe. Analysis is based on instrumental variable analysis of survey daVa on 430 rural households in 1996. Results indicate that-after controlling for household assets, education and locational differences-households engaging intensively in cotton production obtain higher grain yields than non-cotton and marginal cotton producers. We also find evidence of regional spill-over effects whereby commercialisation schemes induce second round investments in a particular area that provide benefits to all farmers in that region, regardless of whether they engage in that commercialisation scheme. The study suggests that the potential spill-over benefits for food crops through participation in cash crop programs are important to consider in the development of strategies designed to intensify African food crop production.

The objective of the Wetlands Conservation Project is to improve sustainable management of priority wetland ecosystems as part of the national framework of conservation in Sierra Leone and in close consultation and active participation of local communities living in the vicinity of the wetland ecosystems. The framework will describe eligibility criteria for resettlement of affected households or businesses in the planned projects; categories of affected persons and measures for restoration of living standards and livelihoods; provide for compensation payments on the basis of market replacement costs; identify potential circumstances within the targeted wetland areas where resettlement, access restriction and compensation issues could arise; recommend an appropriate institutional framework for the implementation and tracking of the resettlement framework in these areas; prepare a manual for implementing resettlement schemes; and describe dispute resolution mechanisms. Monitoring mech...

This report is based on qualitative research data collected during field visits between July and November 2007 in three districts in Northern Kenya, namely Isiolo, Baringo/East Pokot and Garissa. Research areas were selected to gain insight into conflict and legal dynamics among a variety of ethnic groups and in differing ecological and political environments. Research tools mainly consisted of semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation. New research tools, such as legal aid days, were piloted during the study. About 80 interviews were conducted with a broad range of resource individuals, ranging from formal authorities to peace committee members, NGOs, CSOs, informal authorities, women groups, youth groups and others. The research team worked in district capitals and remote locations in order to observe peace meetings and communal life in general.

Abstract The chapter analyses how USAID created a new institutional framework in several Central American nations, designed to support many aspects of structural adjustment but especially focused on the promotion of non-traditional exports, both agricultural and industrial. Among the purposes of this new institutional structure were the privatization of state owned enterprises, the liberation of capital markets and the creation of business led organizations to which the functions of government agencies could be passed. The ...