Fair Trade

Globalization, free trade, and individualization have opened up a worldwide marketplace for trading goods. The fair trade movement and other political consumerist endeavours view consumers as important active holders of responsibility for global welfare. Civil society and governments strive to teach consumers how political consumerism can be used as a push factor to change market capitalism. The market itself can also create an interest in political consumerism and, thereby, teach consumers about the political responsibility embedded in their shopping choices. When this happens, the market works as a pull factor for securing human rights. Questions can be raised about the significance of political consumers as a way to solve complex global problems. Political consumerism may be a fair-weather option that loses its attractiveness in times of downward private and corporate economic spirals. Parts of the fair trade movement believe that there are problems with sole reliance on voluntary consumer choice and using personal money and private capital to solve human rights problems by shopping them away. The exponential growth of voluntary codes of corporate conduct and labelling schemes has also created contradictory practices, incoherence in efforts, and superficial changes or what activists call ''sweatwash.'' Increasingly, many actors call on international law to create new standards that apply direct human rights obligations on corporations.

RÉSUMÉ
Comme toute innovation sociale, le commerce équitable (CÉ) est confronté au défi de son institutionnalisation sans que soit dénaturé son idée initiale (introduction). L’analyse de la trajectoire du CÉ permet de rendre compte de son processus d’institutionnalisation et des stratégies adoptées par les organisations du commerce équitable face au risque de dénaturation (partie 1). Le processus d’institutionnalisation est traversé par des tensions autour d’enjeux, lesquelles appartiennent à trois grandes familles de tensions (partie 2). À chaque famille de tension correspond un microprocessus de gestion de la tension auquel les acteurs ont recours face aux tendances qui tirent le CÉ trop loin de son projet initial. Mais force est aussi de reconnaître qu’il existe un double processus de réinvention de l’innovation et de reconfiguration institutionnelle (conclusion).

ABSTRACT
As every social innovation, Fair Trade faces the challenge of institutionalization without altering its initial idea (introduction). The analysis of the trajectory of the Fair Trade movement reveals the process of institutionalization and the strategies adopted by organizations to prevent the risks of alteration and dilution (part one). The process of institutionalization is subject to multiple tensions around the issues at stake, which can be aggregated into three broad families of tensions (part two). Each family of tensions corresponds to a micro-process of tension management that can be used by actors and stakeholders to control forces pulling the Fair Trade movement too far away from its initial project. These frameworks of analysis instruct us on the double process at play, where the innovation’s re-invention meets the institutional reconfiguration (conclusion).

The increasing disparity of income level among countries has triggered a global discussion on how to minimize wealth gap among nations. Developed countries continue to progress while the developing ones stagnate or deteriorate further. Recognizing the extent of the problem, socially aware citizens organized numerous movements aimed at addressing this alarming issue, thus, paving the way to the formation of Fair Trade (FT).

In the last two decades, the fair trade movement has undergone significant institutional changes. From an informal network of activists and producers, it has evolved into a structured set of actors whose collective adherence to ‘‘fair’’ principles is guaranteed by external certification programs. Focusing on the craft sector, this paper explores the impacts of both the material practice of certification (evaluation and monitoring)
and the semiotic practice of certification (product labeling). Drawing on a collaborative research experience with a craftswomen’s cooperative in the Ecuadorian Andes, it argues that the material practice of certification impedes artisans’ attempts to join the formal Fair Trade network, while the semiotic practice of certification limits fair trade’s ability to ‘‘lift the veil’’ of the commodity fetish, which was one of the central goals of the original movement.

Bob Thomson is the retired ex-founder and Managing Director (1994-2000) of Transfair Canada. He is currently working on a book on zero growth. Ian Hussey, a PhD student (Sociology, York University), was the founding co-director of the Canadian Students Fair Trade Network. Jean-Frédéric Lemay (Ph.D, anthropology) is researcher on trade and agriculture at the NGO, Équiterre (Montreal) and a postdoctoral researcher at the Université du Québec en Outaouais.

Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is a certification that has similar ambitions to the pro-poor tourism approach. accordingly it has been implemented as a way of contributing to sustainability and poverty relief in South Africa post apartheid. The aim of this paper is to 1) critically review and establish a clear understanding of FTTSA from a theoretical perspective and 2) explore practically from the producers perspective whether FTTSA has created value for impoverished black communities along the Eastern Cape. The research question that guides this aim is: Can FTTSA be a mechanism to reduce poverty in South Africa? The study uses a case study approach, as well as in-depth interviews with the owners/managers and casual conversations with the local people. Three FTTSA certified businesses were investigated during two phases of fieldwork along the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The results recognize that FTTSA businesses are indeed prioritizing the needs of the poor in three identifiable ways: including the poor in tourism decision-making, creating employment opportunities and stimulating entrepreneurship and providing skilful opportunities.

is a consultant who has been interested in the Maasai since meeting Chief Isaac ole Tialolo at a London event. She led operations at a climate change data firm after gaining a Master of International Development degree from King's College London and a Bachelor of Economics degree from the University of Bristol.

Ähnlich grundlegend ist die Einführung in die Perspektive der globalen Wertschöpfungsketten und die ihnen inhärenten Governance-Aspekte von Jutta Kister. Sie stellt eine grundsätzliche Diskrepanz der Fairhandels-Idee zwischen Werteorientierung und Integration in den Massenmarkt fest. Kister beschreibt in ihrem Beitrag die Methodik des Value Chain Mapping, einer graphischen Visualisierung und Beschreibung globaler Handelsverflechtungen, und leitet daraus Erkenntnisse über bestehende Machtasymmetrien ab. Damit werden die Gefahren deutlich, die mit einer Perpetuierung und Konventionalisierung der aktuellen Macht- und Steuerungsmechanismen einhergehen können.

While the market for fair trade products has been growing in many countries, this paper examines the French market where fair trade remains marginal but is experiencing growth. Using a modified Theory of Planned Behaviour framework the research examines consumer intention to purchase fair trade grocery products in order to explain the pertinent decision-making criteria of both consumers of and potential consumers of fair trade. Results reveal that concerned consumers should not be treated as one homogeneous group, rather, the distinct variations in the factors that influence their decision making must be considered when promoting, labelling and distributing fair trade products. Implications for both sustaining and developing the market for fair trade products in the future are highlighted and discussed.

This paper explores Israeli backpackers’ travel narratives, in which a profound self-change is recounted. These tourists are construed as narrators, whose identity stories, in which the powerful experience of self-change is constructed and communicated, are founded on, and rhetorically validated by the unique experiences of authenticity and adventure. The relation between the travel narrative, attesting to an external voyage toward an “authentic” destination, and the self-change narrative, attesting to an internal one, is examined in light of two major discourses in tourism: the semi-religious and the Romanticist. The paper addresses the sociocultural context, that of contemporary Israeli culture, against which the self-change narratives construct a collective notion of identity, and wherein they can be viewed as effective performances.

Within global food networks, multiple and diverse meanings of social justice, environmental sustainability, livelihoods, fairness and well-being (or ‘ethicality’) exist in parallel to those embedded in ethical sourcing schemes. This paper considers the dilemma facing ethical sourcing when consumer- or retailer-driven ethical values around social justice, environmental sustainability, livelihoods, fairness and well-being (or ‘ethicality’) - differ from the issues that women smallholder farmers may prioritise. Drawing on conventions theory and qualitative research with women French bean farmers in Kenya, the paper describes the ways in which meanings of ‘ethicality’ are highly gendered and context-specific. Findings suggest that women smallholders draw from a wide variety of domestic, civic and green conventions in order to make meaning of the livelihood outcomes that matter most to them within ethical trade networks. Only some of these are compatible with the market and industrial conventions currently underpinning fair and ethical trade.

One approach to bilingual education that has gained increasing support from parents, educators, and researchers in the United States is one in which English language learners and English proficient students share a classroom and receive instruction in both English and the dominant language of the English language learners. In most such two-way bilingual education programs, the stated goal is for

In recent decades, scholarship on post-conflict states in Africa has expanded exponentially as scholars voraciously document the recovery efforts of countries despoiled by wars, among them Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC),

German policy on sustainable development aims at encouraging the shaping of a more just and sustainable world marked by solidarity. Yet, it may also facilitate the perpetuation of existing hierarchies and the strengthening of certain societal or global spectra at the expense of others. This paper is a critique of neocolonial discourses and practices in the field of international development in Germany. Such a perspective recognises that colonialism is an ongoing process and that the “responsibility cannot be ignored by those who find themselves part of those societies which enforce [neocolonialism]”.[1] The objective is to explore in how far, and to what effect, German development endeavours broach or neglect neocolonial power relations. We provide insight into dominant narratives and omissions in three particular areas of international development by Germany: development education materials, North-South volunteer service, and fair trade.

Do export sanctions cause export deflection? Data on Iranian non-oil exporters between January 2006 and June 2011 shows that two-thirds of these exports were deflected to non-sanctioning countries after sanctions were imposed in 2008, and that at this time aggregate exports actually increased. Exporting firms reduced prices and increased quantities when exporting to a new destination, however, and suffered welfare losses as a result.

The vast majority of the books and articles that have been written over the past few centuries about trade policy in general and protectionism in particular have been written from a utilitarian perspective. Indeed, it would only be a slight overstatement to say that the only works written about protectionism have been written from a utilitarian perspective. The reason for this fact is that most analyses on protectionism are written either by economists or by people who adopt the ideas of economists to support their positions. And economists tend to be utilitarians. Those who have political agendas will tend to incorporate only those sources that support their own view and ignore or downplay opposing views, but even biased commentators use utilitarian arguments to support their positions. This paper takes a distinctly different approach. Rather than starting from a utilitarian premise, it begins from the premise that conduct that violates human rights is improper, then examines whether protectionism violates human rights. Part II presents an overview of the utilitarian approach to the examination of protectionism. Part III points out the deficiencies in the utilitarian approach and offers an alternative approach based on property, contract and association rights. The author concludes that the only trade policy that does not violate human rights is a policy of total, immediate and unilateral free trade. An extensive bibliography with links to more than 100 trade articles is also included.

In dit artikel wordt onderzocht of het verkopen van fairtradeproducten een goed instrument is om ethische principes werkelijkheid te maken. Globalisering brengt een hoop onrecht met zich mee terwijl binnen de Westerse maatschappij de opvatting heerst dat het belangrijk is duurzaam en eerlijk te handelen. Fair trade probeert hier een oplossing te bieden door producten te verkopen die gegarandeerd eerlijk zijn. Hoewel deze producten op zich niets verschillen van 'normale' producten, zijn ze toch altijd duurder. Koopt de consument deze producten wel en waarom?

Starbucks as a global company that reflect American values plays an important role in the trade of coffee industry. In February 2000, Starbucks partially adopted the Fair Trade and in early 2001 Starbucks fully adopt Fair Trade. This research seeks to examine the relationship between Starbucks as a symbol of globalization with Starbucks as a global corporation who adopt Fair Trade. This study also seeks to explain how any practical Starbucks Fair Trade as a whole and uncover the reasons behind Starbucks adopt Fair Trade. The research uses a case study method and using a primary and secondary reference sources in the form of books and journals. As a results, this study indicate that Starbucks has strong reasons that ultimately makes the company adopted the Fair Trade. The adoption of Fair Trade also known as CAFE Practices is apparently not spared from criticism of the observer of Fair Trade. Abstrak Starbucks sebagai korporasi global yang mencerminkan nilai-nilai Amerika berperan penting dalam perdagangan industri kopi. Mulai Februari 2000 Starbucks secara resmi mengadopsi Fair Trade dan pada awal 2001 secara sepenuhnya Starbucks mengadopsi Fair Trade. Penelitian ini berupaya untuk mengkaji kembali hubungan antara Starbucks sebagai lambang globalisasi dengan Starbucks sebagai korporasi global yang mengadopsi Fair Trade. Penulisan ini juga berupaya menjelaskan bagaimana praktik Fair Trade Starbuck secara keseluruhan dan mengungkap alasan-alasan dibalik Starbucks mengadopsi Fair Trade. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode studi kasus dengan menggunakan sumber sumber referensi primer dan sekunder baik berupa buku maupun jurnal. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa Starbucks memiliki alasan-alasan kuat yang pada akhirnya membuat perusahaan ini mengadopsi Fair Trade. Proses adopsi Fair Trade yang dikenal dengan istilah CAFE Practices ini ternyata tidak luput dari kritik para pemerhati Fair Trade.

This dissertation is a systematised and thematic study of Friedrich List’s economic approach, showing:
1) The fundamental importance of immaterial production factors, and
2) How ‘mental capital’ binds a multitude of issues together into a coherent system.
List’s system is simple in principle: ‘Spirit creates wealth’, and yet it is complex; the human spirit creates culture which creates wealth:
Mental capital creates innovation, constitutes and reshapes collaboration, which constitutes and reshapes nations and (defines and) creates wealth. Using List’s terminology:
1) The task of political economy is to contribute to individual and social progress: The goal is elevation of global civilisation by moral and material improvement.
2) Mental capital, individual and collective, is the prime source of wealth and constitutes the essence of;
3) The Confederation of Labour, which both constitutes and continuously reshapes the nation, both its civic institutions and the State.
4) The nation is the main vehicle for the individual person’s quest for freedom, happiness and wealth.
5) The ultimate confederation of Labour lies in global free trade, making the selfish colonial system as well as navies obsolete.
Ad 2) ‘Mental capital’ is the founding stone of List’s system. It alone can utilise the resources given by nature. List’s inspiration lies in contemporary German Idealism, and in a tradition with roots in Cameralist- and Renaissance statecraft, and the ancient Greeks.
Ad 3) Mental capital is the essence of the intergenerational ‘Confederation of Labour’: Knowledge, innovation, education, morality, trust, credit, social networks, traditions and institutions. Mental capital is fragile and needs to be wisely nurtured and protected against the gusts of the world markets, payment imbalance and economic crises. Physical capital move and perish less easily. According to List, this Confederation of Labour constitutes the nation as a market and as a national system of innovation and production, which reaches its furthermost potential in an urban-industrial civilisation or as List termed it: The Industrial System.
Ad 4) The Nation delivers collective services that an individual cannot – such as traditions, arts, freedom, security, and major investments. The nation resembles a large company, constituted by the Confederation of Labour.
It can only develop well through a carefully balanced development of all vital sections of agriculture, trade, and industry, and furthermore their efficient interconnection through state of the art institutions, standards, communications, and communication hubs: towns.
According to List, Adam Smith’s materialism led him to gross and fatal generalisations and to misunderstand the nature of capital. List claims that because intangible capital largely was ignored by the English Classical School, it therefore focused on increased division of labour through free trade; on increased accumulation of material capital through austerity and saving; and on curtailing population growth. Smith and the English Classical School largely ignored immaterial factors and therefore the roles of stability; - social cohesion; -co-operation; -civil society; - institutions; (such as the nation); and - economic regulation. Ironically, England was the nation that more than any had used every trick in the book of government intervention to promote industrialisation, and then prevent other nations from doing the same.

This paper examines the question of whether it is ethical for company officials to use the force of government to reduce or eliminate foreign competition, using the antidumping laws as a case study. This paper begins with a brief examination of the U.S. antidumping laws, then examines several ethical questions related to the antidumping laws. The main question to be addressed is whether, and under what circumstances, it is ethical for domestic producers to ask government to launch an antidumping investigation against a foreign competitor. Related questions to be examined include (1) Whether it is ethical to ask the government to launch an antidumping investigation even when the domestic company making the request knows that dumping has not occurred; (2) Whether it is ethical to ask for an antidumping investigation in cases where dumping (according to the definition of dumping) has occurred, where the effect is to help domestic producers at the expense of the general public. This paper will examine these questions by applying both utilitarian and non-utilitarian approaches. A bibliography with links to more than 100 articles on trade is also included. The full paper may be downloaded here. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2861273 BIO Robert W. McGee is an accounting professor and best-selling novelist who has published 58 nonfiction books and more than 700 scholarly articles. He is an attorney and CPA who has lectured or worked in more than 30 countries, and has earned 13 doctorates from universities in the United States and four European countries. The Social Science Research Network has ranked him as high as #2 in the world All-Time among accounting professors and #30 in the world All-Time among all social scientists. Various studies have ranked him #1 in the world for both business ethics and accounting ethics scholarship. He has won 19 gold medals in

Framed within the common goal of advancing trade justice and South-North solidarity, The Fair Trade Handbook presents a broad interpretation of fair trade and a wide-ranging dialogue between different viewpoints. Canadian researchers in particular have advanced a transformative vision of fair trade, rooted in the cooperative movement and arguing for a more central role for Southern farmers and workers. Contributors to this book look at the issues within global trade, and assess fair trade and how to make it more effective against the broader structures of the capitalist, colonialist, racist and patriarchal global economy. The debates and discussions are set within a critical development studies and critical political economy framework. However, this book will appeal to a wide range of readers, as it translates the key issues for a popular audience.

This paper is one of five case studies which is a part of a larger project looking at the various effects that trade and investment can have on innovation. This paper studies the effect of the ending of the Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA) on innovation in the Sri Lankan textile and clothing sector. The ending of the quota system under the MFA led to an increase in the US and EU markets which has motivated a large number of innovations in the Sri Lankan textile and clothing sector. Some large companies have become a total services provider while some are trying to establish their own brands. Product innovations with foreign partners, process innovations such as introduction of CAD/CAM and various marketing and organisational innovations have been implemented.

This article critically considers the `fit' between FairTrade consumption and conceptualizations of the reflexive project of selfhood. By outlining the ways in which FairTrade products are marketed, we argue that a particular and partial reflexivity is invoked and mobilized. Following from recent class debates which apply a Bourdieusian analysis to explore the operations of everyday class distinctions, we explore what such an analysis can offer to the project of critically mapping out the dynamics of this particular reflexivity and ethical consumption. However, FairTrade's emphasis on `just' consumption and invocation of a deserving farmer/worker allows some scope for problematization here too. By turning to an emerging literature on the `moral economy' we reach past the homogenizing tendency in some `new' class analyses to suggest possibilities both for a psychosocial imagining of ethical consumption and for fleshing out the conceptualization of a `situated reflexivity' demanded by recent social theory.

This Backgrounder is based on research that examined land use change in Costa Rica as a result of the global coffee crisis, posing the following questions: Why did some areas abandon coffee production while other areas were able to maintain production despite the collapse of coffee prices? How important were higher prices from Fair Trade in helping some farmers to continue producing coffee? What was the role of government support in helping farmers to remain in coffee production? And, lastly, what was the effect of agroecological practices in supporting small farmer persistence
in the face of crisis? This research shows that, in this case, Fair Trade premiums did little to foster small farmer resilience. In contrast, the adoption of agroecology—supported by the state—played a significant role in helping farmers to keep their land in coffee production.

Nestled in the Himalayan foothills of Northeast India, Darjeeling is synonymous with some of the finest and most expensive tea in the world. It is also home to a violent movement for regional autonomy that, like the tea industry, dates back to the days of colonial rule.

In this nuanced ethnography, Sarah Besky narrates the lives of tea workers in Darjeeling. She explores how notions of fairness, value, and justice shifted with the rise of fair-trade practices and postcolonial separatist politics in the region. This is the first book to explore how fair-trade operates in the context of large-scale plantations.

Readers in a variety of disciplines—anthropology, sociology, geography, environmental studies, and food studies—will gain a critical perspective on how plantation life is changing as Darjeeling struggles to reinvent its signature commodity for twenty-first-century consumers. The Darjeeling Distinction challenges fair-trade policy and practice, exposing how trade initiatives often fail to consider the larger environmental, historical, and sociopolitical forces that shape the lives of the people they intended to support.

The Fairtrade movement is a group of businesses claiming to trade ethically. The claims are evaluated, under a range of criteria derived from the Utilitarian ethic. Firstly, if aid or charity money is diverted from the very poorest people to the quite poor, or the rich, there is an increase in death and destitution. It is shown that little of the extra paid by consumers for Fairtrade reaches farmers, sometimes none. It cannot be shown that it has a positive impact on Fairtrade farmers in general, but evidence suggesting it harms others is presented. Many of the weaknesses are due to an attempt to impose political views on farmers and others.
Secondly, the unfair trading criteria require that sellers do not lie about their product, nor withhold information that might alter the decisions of a substantial proportion of buyers. It is argued that the system only can exist because of the failure of the Fairtrade industry to give the facts on what happens to the money and what it can be proved it achieves. This unfair trading compromises the reputation of charities in general.
Much of the trading may constitute the criminal offence of Unfair Trading in the EU.

In diesem Aufsatz geht es mir darum, einen verantwortungsethischen Ansatz in der Konsumentenethik zu entwickeln, der jüngste Debatten zu Kollektivierungs und Institutionalisierungspflichten zusammenführt. Erstens werde ich dafür argumentieren, dass die Zuschreibungskriterien für individuelle Kollektivierungspflichten, die am Beispiel kleinformatiger unstrukturierter Gruppen entwickelt werden, auch von großräumigen Gruppen (hier: Konsument*innen) erfüllt werden. Daher vertrete ich zweitens die These, dass jeder Einzelperson qua Mitwirkende in der 'Gruppe' aller Konsumierenden eine je individuelle Pflicht zugeschrieben werden kann, gemeinsame Handlungen gegen ausbeuterische Marktstrukturen zu organisieren. Drittens und ausblickend werde ich zeigen, dass ethischer Konsum bereits als eine politische Handlung verstanden und gerechtfertigt werden kann, die darauf abzielt, Compliance mit politischen Reformen zu signalisieren und andere dazu aufzufordern. In Beiträgen zu globaler Gerechtigkeit wird häufig von einer Pflicht zur Institutionalisierung ausgegangen. Unter nichtidealen Bedingungen, so die vorherrschende Überzeugung, bestehe die Pflicht von Staaten und einzelnen Akteuren darin, legitime und funktionstüchtige supranationale Institutionen aufzubauen. Gleiches gilt für den noch jungen Zweig der globalen Ethik, deren theoretische Herausforderung in der besonderen Komplexität der von ihr behandelten Probleme liegt. Typische Herausforderungen wie die Mitigation des Klimawandels, die Bekämpfung von Weltarmut und Armutsmigration oder die Beendigung internationaler Ausbeutungsverhältnisse lassen sich nicht einfach im konventionellen Rahmen einer auf Individualpflichten basierenden Ethik beantworten. Notwendig sind vielmehr großräumig und robust koordinierte, sprich institutionalisierte Verantwortungsverhältnisse. Entsprechend wird auch hier geradezu reflexartig eine Kollektivierungspflicht ins Spiel gebracht, globale Institutionen -oder funktionale Äquivalente auf internationaler Ebene -zu gründen. Daneben wird in der handlungstheoretischen Debatte zur persönlichen Verantwortung in unstrukturierten Gruppen ebenfalls von einer Pflicht zur Kollektivierung gesprochen. Wenn zufällig Umherstehende mit einem Missstand (wie einem Unfall) konfrontiert werden, der sich nur in gemeinsamen Handlungen (joint actions) beseitigen ließe, hätte jede der Anwesenden für sich eine Pflicht, ein konzertiertes Vorgehen zu initiieren -also ein gemeinsames Vorgehen und gegebenenfalls die Bildung eines kollektiven Akteurs zu organisieren. 2 Schwenkenbecher erhalten, wofür ich mich herzlich bedanken möchte. Mein Dank gilt auch den beiden Gutachter*innen der Zeitschrift für Praktische Philosophie, die mir beispielhaft gründliche und produktive Vorschläge zur Überarbeitung an die Hand gegeben haben. 2 Ich verwende die Ausdrücke 'strukturierte Gruppen', 'Kollektive' und 'Institutionen' weitgehend bedeutungsgleich: Sie verweisen auf eine Gruppe mit einer klaren Entscheidungsprozedur und Kommunikationsstruktur, die die Fähigkeit hat, kollektive Absichten zu bilden und kollektive Handlungen effektiv umzusetzen. In der sozialontologischen Frage, ob Kollektive Pluralsubjekte bilden oder ob es sich um Gruppen von Einzelpersonen mit überschneidender Intentionalität (oder WirIntentionen) handelt, werde ich mich weitgehend agnostisch verhalten. Vgl. zum anspruchsvollen Begriff eines Plural bzw. KollektivSubjekts Insgesamt geht es mir in diesem Aufsatz darum, einen verantwortungsethischen Ansatz in der Konsumentenethik zu entwickeln. 3 Dazu werde ich Debatten zu Kollektivierungspflichten, Konsumentenethik und politischer Verantwortung zusammenführen. 4 Erstens werde ich dafür argumentieren, dass die Zuschreibungskriterien für individuelle Kollektivierungspflichten, die am Beispiel kleinformatiger unstrukturierter Gruppen entwickelt wurden, auch von großräumigen Gruppen (hier: Konsument*innen) erfüllt werden. Daher vertrete ich zweitens die These, dass jeder Einzelperson qua Mitwirkende in der 'Gruppe' aller Konsumierenden eine je individuelle Pflicht zugeschrieben werden kann, sich an gemeinsamen Handlungen gegen ausbeuterische Marktstrukturen zu beteiligen. Drittens und ausblickend werde ich zeigen, dass ethischer Konsum vornehmlich als eine politische Handlung zu rechtfertigen ist, die darauf abzielt, faire Kooperationsstrukturen zu kreieren. Dies ist ein weit reichendes und in diesem Aufsatz keinesfalls abschließend durchzuführendes Programm. Mein Beitrag zur Konsumentenethik wird vor allem in einer konzeptionellen Klärung individueller Kollektivierungspflichten bestehen (12). Nachdem ich mögliche Einwände gegen meine Konzeption entkräftet habe (3), werde ich sie auf den Gegenstandsbereich ethischen Konsums übertragen (4) und im Ergebnis für die politische Verantwortung von Konsument*innen argumentieren, globale Ausbeutungsstrukturen durch ihre aktive Compliance mit supranationalen Reforminitiativen zu beseitigen (5). die Beiträge von Bratman, Gilbert, Miller/Tuomela, Searle (allesamt in Schmid/Schweikard 2009); sowie die hilfreichen Unterscheidungen in Gerber (2010). 3 Allgemein macht ein verantwortungsethischer Ansatz eine positive und zukunftsbezogene Verpflichtung zur wechselseitigen Sorge explizit, die sich aus besonderen Beziehungsverhältnissen ergibt. 4 Für eine ähnliche Zusammenführung vgl. Lawford-Smith (2015). 5 Vgl. dazu die Voraussetzungen für geteiltes kollektives Handeln in Bratman (2009). 6 Wenn ich hier und im Folgenden von gemeinsamen Handlungen (joint actions) spreche, folge ich der meines Erachtens plausibelsten Version von Pettit/Schweikard (2009, 562). Demnach handeln mehrere Individuen gemeinsam, genau dann, wenn a) sie jeweils für sich beabsichtigen, dass sie die Handlung ausführen; b) sie jeweils für sich beabsichtigen, ihren Teil zu dieser Handlung beizutragen; c) sie jeweils für sich glauben, dass die anderen beabsichtigen, ihren Teil beizutragen; d) sie jeweils für sich beabsichtigen, ihren Teil beizutragen, weil sie dies glauben. Die Autoren verzichten dabei gezielt auf die sehr viel anspruchsvollere und daher auch strittigere Annahme einer kollektiven Intentionalität.

Employee buy-in is a key factor in ensuring small- and medium-size enterprise (SME) engagement with corporate social responsibility (CSR). In this exploratory study, we use participant observation and semi-structured interviews to investigate the way in which three fair trade SMEs utilise human resource management (and selection and socialisation in particular) to create employee engagement in a strong triple bottomline philosophy, while simultaneously coping with resource and size constraints. The conclusions suggest that there is a strong desire for, but tradeoff within these companies between selection of individuals who already identify with the triple bottomline philosophy and individuals with experience and capability to deal with mainstream brand management – two critical employee attributes that appear to be rarely found together. The more important the business experience to the organisation, the more effort the organisation must expend in formalising their socialisation programmes to ensure employee engagement. A key method in doing this is increasing employee knowledge of, and affection for, the target beneficiaries of the CSR programme (increased moral intensity).

Miller have both written engaging analyses of the global agriculture/food system and its alternatives. Within this general subject area, the authors take interest in different foci and use different theoretical frameworks in their analyses. The result is two analyses that seem more complementary than competitive, which together offer us a comprehensive understanding of the global capitalist food regime and many food movements and initiatives producing alternatives to it. Albritton is a renowned political economist and Professor Emeritus in the Department of Political Science at York University who offers us a Marxist analysis of one of the central contradictions of our time: why are so many in the West over--fed and over weight to the point of obesity while many more of the rest are malnourished and starving to death? His project delivers a critical analysis of the global food regime, how it is organized to d, or fed predominantly junk food), and how it is a major contributor to the killing of the planet through its dependence on petroleum and the extensive use of arable land for the production of non--food crops and products, such as tobacco, cotton, and ethanol. The purpose of his project is not to explicate the myriad of alternative food movements and initiatives and the messy work they undertake in trying to make change. This is where Edible Action comes in. Miller is a popular educator whose academic training in anthropology and environmental studies is complemented by her almost twenty years of experience in the alternative food, agriculture, and co--op sector. She is a gifted storyteller who teaches us about the ills of

The increase in concern for ethical issues among consumers has been well-documented in literature. The context of clothing, however, remains less developed. Research and the media have highlighted sweatshop labour concerns in clothing as pertinent issues impacting consumer decision-making, however, this market remains under-developed restricting choice in this area. This paper details findings from interviews that explore behavioural intention to avoid sweatshop labour in clothing choice and resultant behaviour.

This article examines how The wealth of nations (1776) was transformed into an amorphous text regarding the imperial question throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Adam Smith had left behind an ambiguous legacy on the subject of empire: a legacy that left long-term effects upon subsequent British imperial debates. In his chapter on colonies, Smith had proposed both a scheme for the gradual devolution of the British empire and a theoretical scheme for imperial federation. In response to the growing global popularity of protectionism and imperial expansionism, the rapid development of new tools of globalization, and the frequent onset of economic downturns throughout the late Victorian and Edwardian eras, turn-of-the-century proponents of British imperial federation formed into a formidable opposition to England's prevailing free trade orthodoxy – Cobdenism – a free trade ideology which famously expanded upon the anti-imperial dimensions of The wealth of nations. Ironically, at the turn of the century many advocates for imperial federation also turned to Smith for their intellectual inspiration. Adam Smith thus became an advocate of empire, and his advocacy left an indelible intellectual mark upon the burgeoning British imperial crisis.

Fair trade is a fast-growing alternative market intended to bring better prices and greater social justice to small farmers around the world. But what does a fair-trade label signify? This vivid study of coffee farmers in Mexico offers the first thorough investigation of the social, economic, and environmental benefits of fair trade. Based on extensive research in Zapotec indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Brewing Justice follows the members of the cooperative Michiza, whose organic coffee is sold on the international fair-trade market, and compares them to conventional farming families in the same region. The book carries readers into the lives of coffee-producer households and communities, offering a nuanced analysis of fair trade’s effects on everyday life and the limits of its impact. Brewing Justice paints a clear picture of the dynamics of the fair-trade market and its relationship to the global economy. Drawing on interviews with dozens of fair-trade leaders, the book also explores the movement’s fraught politics, especially the challenges posed by rapid growth and the increased role of transnational corporations. It concludes with recommendations to strengthen and protect the integrity of fair trade. This updated edition includes a substantial new chapter that assesses recent developments in both coffee-growing communities and movement politics, offering a guide to navigating the shifting landscape of fair-trade consumption.

El comercio justo es un mercado alternativo internacional en rápido crecimiento que busca promover una mayor justicia social para los pequeños productores y ofrecer mejores precios para sus productos. Este estudio de los productores de café en México es el primero en analizar detalladamente los beneficios sociales, económicos y medioambientales del comercio justo. Basado en un extensa investigación etnográfica en comunidades indígenas Zapotecas de la Sierra Juárez de Oaxaca, Cosechando Justicia explora vívidamente la vida de los socios de la cooperativa Michiza, cuyo café orgánico es vendido en el mercado internacional de comercio justo, comparándola con la de los productores de café convencional en la misma región. El libro introduce a los lectores en la cotidianidad de los hogares productores de café en esta región, y ofrece un análisis detallado de los impactos y los límites del comercio justo en la vida diaria de los campesinos y sus comunidades. Cosechando Justicia presenta un retrato claro y conciso de las dinámicas del mercado de comercio justo y sus relaciones con la economía global. Este estudio también explora los intrincados aspectos políticos del movimiento, particularmente las contradicciones y los retos que han surgido como resultado del incremento en la participación de empresas transnacionales bajo el símbolo de comercio justo. El libro concluye con recomendaciones enfocadas en fortalecer y proteger la integridad del comercio justo.

Globalization, either directly or indirectly (e.g. through structural adjustment reforms), has called for profound changes in the previously existing institutional order. Some changes adversely impacted the production and market environment of many coffee producers in developing countries resulting in more risky and less remunerative coffee transactions. This paper focuses on customization of a tropical commodity, fair-trade coffee, as an approach to mitigating the effects of worsened market conditions for small-scale coffee producers in less developed countries. fair-trade labeling is viewed as a form of "de-commodification" of coffee through product differentiation on ethical grounds. This is significant not only as a solution to the market failure caused by pervasive information asymmetries along the supply chain, but also as a means of revitalizing the agricultural-commodity-based trade of less developed countries (LDCs) that has been languishing under globalization. More specifically, fair-trade is an example of how the same strategy adopted by developed countries' producers/ processors (i.e. the sequence product differentiation -institutional certificationadvertisement) can be used by LDC producers to increase the reputation content of their outputs by transforming them from mere commodities into "decommodified" (i.e. customized and more reputed) goods. The resulting segmentation of the world coffee market makes possible to meet the demand by consumers with preference for this "(ethically) customized" coffee and to transfer a share of the accruing economic rents backward to the Fair-trade coffee producers in LDCs. It should however be stressed that this outcome cannot be taken for granted since investments are needed to promote the required institutional innovations.

The influence of information about organic production and fair trade on hedonic and analytic judgments of pineapple was studied in British (n = 44) and Dutch (n = 51) subjects. The subjects received pineapple pieces of three regularly grown varieties, in which information about organic production and fair trade was systematically varied. Taken over all subjects, organic or fair trade information did not seem to have much influence on liking or on perception. Although they seemed to positively affect liking when presented alone, in combination, they did not. When subjects were grouped according to their-indirectly measured-affective attitudes towards organic or fair trade products by means of conjoint analysis, perception differed as a result of the information provided. Subjects with a positive attitude towards organic or fair trade information perceived the products to have an overall stronger sensory impact in the presence of such information than its in absence, whereas the opposite was true for subjects with a negative attitude towards organic or fair trade information. When the subjects are considered as a uniform group, the individual differences indicating different outcome of underlying cognitive processes cannot be revealed.