Cash Crops

Agricultural Land Redistribution: Toward Greater Consensus addresses a major policy dilemma: how to benefit from the development gains agricultural land redistribution is expected to generate while avoiding the losses caused by the highly imperfect ways redistribution is generally implemented. The authors address this issue through a broad historical perspective and a world tour of case studies. They conclude that flexibility is needed when selecting transfer mechanisms, in particular seeking a balance between subsidized market transactions, land taxation, and expropriation; when introducing effective conflict resolution mechanisms during redistribution; when establishing secure property rights for beneficiaries; and when giving support to the new farmers so that they rapidly become competitive. The assessment is sobering; it points to actual gains as well as to numerous unresolved difficulties. The authors rightly note that the lack of solid impact evaluations complicates the task of identifying the best process for successful implementation. This book provides valuable information on a subject that remains incompletely understood, yet central to development.

The case for promoting export-oriented cash crops in Africa has generally been based on their direct potential contribution to agricultural productivity and small farmer incomes. A relatively neglected avenue of research concerns the synergistic effects that cash cropping can have on other household activities, including food production. The conventional view that cash crops compete with food crops for land and labour neglects the potential for cash crop schemes to make available inputs on credit, management training, and other resources that can contribute to food crop productivity, which might otherwise no1 be accessible to farmers if they did not participate in cash crop programs. This article builds on previous research by hypothesising key pathways by which cash crops may affect food crop activities and empirically measuring these effects using the case of cotton in Gokwe North District in Zimbabwe. Analysis is based on instrumental variable analysis of survey daVa on 430 rural households in 1996. Results indicate that-after controlling for household assets, education and locational differences-households engaging intensively in cotton production obtain higher grain yields than non-cotton and marginal cotton producers. We also find evidence of regional spill-over effects whereby commercialisation schemes induce second round investments in a particular area that provide benefits to all farmers in that region, regardless of whether they engage in that commercialisation scheme. The study suggests that the potential spill-over benefits for food crops through participation in cash crop programs are important to consider in the development of strategies designed to intensify African food crop production.

This paper deals with some major economic issues concerning the Pacific plant kava, known in Fiji as yaqona. The plant is the source of the cerebral depressant beverage found throughout many of the Pacific Islands, which besides its daily use plays an important ceremonial and social role in the indigenous culture. This paper deals with yaqona cultivation and commercialisation in the Fijian peripheral island of Kadavu, from a perspective of more than 20 years. The findings suggest that the role of the plant as a major cash crop is even more important than it was in the first half of the 1980s. Moreover, the village semi-subsistence economy has become increasingly dependent on this crop as part of its survival strategy. The explanations offered are related to physical and ecological conditions and the associated agrotechnical advantages in Kadavu; marketing advantages and worsening terms of trade experienced by the Fijian periphery; and the lack of other economic opportunities in peripheral areas of Fiji, such as Kadavu -in turn, a function of core-periphery relationships. This is a response of the periphery to the increasing marginalisation within the Fiji state and may imply villagers' and communities' acceptance of their marginal position in the economy.

This paper provides a study of Alternative Trade Organisations (ATOs) as a medium for incorporating “fair trade” values into the lives of rural African farmers. By undertaking an analysis of the modes of production as well as the challenges faced by small, rural African farmers in accessing the world markets, this thesis analyses Fairtrade’s contribution, through the use of trade, towards the socio-economic development of African farmers.

The objectives of present research to evaluate actual phenomena as well as to see the magnitude of future trends of cash crops in Pakistan. Thus, a time series data of last 25 years has been gathered from various official statistical reports, like Economic Survey of Pakistan, Agriculture Census Reports, where growth rate and forecast models have been applied to see their past and future magnitudes. Results show high fluctuations in the cash crop production dataset, which was due to irregular input supply as well as natural disasters in the country. Based on the growth rates, the yields of cash crops have also projected for next 20 years (upto 2034-35). Forecasted trends of the crops show that the crop production will positively grow, if inputs like land, labor and capital might be favorable. Therefore, it is suggested that introducing better farm mechanization, efficient use of irrigation, agriculture credit disbursement, better packaging services, as well as the sustainable agriculture practices may be provided to the farmers through various capacity building programs at gross root levels. Thus, it will ultimately support the farming community to improve the per acre yield of the crops.

The main objective of this study is to develop Multiple Regression model to measure the Climatic effects on cash crop (Cotton and Tea) productions and to measure productions efficiency due to Climates using Stochastic Frontier model. From the analysis of the Multiple Regression model which gives the high R-square value implies to accept a good model. At the same time, all other assumptions and model validation checking test are very well satisfied which implies these fitted model are good model to measure the climatic effects in Bangladesh. Again, From the Stochastic Frontier model, there is a huge opportunity to increase Cotton production by increasing Technology to get maximum productions and Tea achieves maximum productions.

This study was funded by GEF and CEEPA. The authors are grateful to CEEPA for excellence in coordinating Pan African projects of this magnitude; to Dr James Benhin for academic leadership and mentoring; to Prof. Rashid Hassan for useful comments on this report; and to Ms Glwadys Gbetibouo for much assistance. The model underlying this report was developed collaboratively by the authors and the Yale University team, to whom we are grateful for essential training and technical backstopping. We owe an intellectual debt to the Yale team, in particular to Pradeep Kurukulasuriya, whose dedication to our work has greatly inspired us. We are also grateful to the enumerators and drivers who did the field work and assisted with data entry (

Côte d'Ivoire became the first world producer of cocoa beans in 1970 by reducing forest cover and by losing biodiversity. The West-central region of the country was a former production site of cocoa, and contributed strongly to the annual supply of cocoa beans, but today, the plantations are old and the soils are poor, especially in the region of Daloa. To increase the yield of production, farmers use artificial fertilizers and the effect on cocoa trees is not really known. Our study aims to determine the agronomic characters improved by the application of the artificial fertilizer. In the plantations of the villages Dibobly, tien-oula and Zitta, non-experimental and experimental plots were installed and measures on cacao trees on a surface of 2 400m 2 were realized. The results showed that the cover of flowers by feet and the number of fruits had significantly increased with fertilizer. However, the fertilizer had no really effect on the size of fruits, the mass of fruits and the number of cocoa beans. Also, the varieties of cocoa trees like Forastero and Criollo, had a different productivity for the same application of fertilizer. The productivity of the cocoa trees depends of the quality of the fertilizer but also of the cultivated variety. The results could allow improving the quality of the fertilizer and use it consequently. RESUME: La Côte d'Ivoire est devenue depuis 1970, le premier producteur mondial de fèves de cacaoyer. Cette ascension s'est faite au dépend du couvert forestier et de la biodiversité. Le Centre-Ouest du pays, ancienne centre de production du cacao, contribue encore aujourd'hui à la fourniture annuelle de fèves de cacao, mais les plantations âgées et les sols épuisés ont entrainés une baisse du rendement, surtout dans la région de Daloa. Pour augmenter le rendement des plantations, le paysan à recours à l'utilisation d'engrais chimiques dont l'effet sur le cacaoyer n'est pas véritablement connu. Notre étude a pour but de déterminer les caractères agronomiques améliorés par l'application de l'engrais chimique. Dans les plantations des villages de Dibobly, Tien-oula et Zitta, des parcelles expérimentales et témoins ont été installées et des mesures sur des pieds de cacaoyers couvrant une surface de 2 400m 2 ont été réalisées. Les résultats ont montré que la couverture en fleurs des pieds et le nombre de cabosses ont significativement augmentés en présence d'engrais. Cependant, l'engrais n'a pratiquement pas eu d'effet sur la taille des cabosses, la masse des cabosses et le nombre de fèves. Aussi, les variétés de cacaoyers Forastero et Criollo, ont une productivité différente pour un même apport d'engrais. La productivité des plantations de cacaoyers est fonction de la qualité de l'engrais mais aussi de l'espèce cultivée. Les résultats pourraient permettre d'améliorer la qualité de l'engrais et de cibler son action pour une meilleure production cacaoyère. MOTS-CLEFS: Agrobiodiversité, agroforesterie, aménagement, culture de rente, économie. Effet des engrais chimiques sur les caractères agronomiques des variétés de cacaoyers dans la région de Daloa (Centre-Ouest, Côte d'Ivoire)

Farmers in southeast Yunnan, China historically maintained semi-subsistence livelihoods. From the 1950s these livelihoods underwent profound changes, shifting to collectives, returning to semi-subsistence approaches, before a recent move to cash cropping, encouraged or financially supported by the Chinese state. This paper explores the impacts on Han and ethnic minority farmer livelihoods and food security of deciding to engage incash-cropping. We argue that switching to cash crops in these Sino-Vietnamese borderlands, combined with having to cope and adapt to extreme weather events is not necessarily increasing livelihood sustainability and food security. Farmers’ vulnerability is rooted in specific temporal and spatial variables, interlaced with socio-cultural elements, many of which have not been acknowledged by state officials during interventions.

Copyright Transfer Certificate Title of the Thesis-"Study on the performance of Aghani crop of kusmi lac on nutrient managed Zizyphus mauritiana under heavy rainfall condition" Name of the candidate-Brajesh Kumar Namdev Subject-Entomology Department-Entomology College-College of Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, (M.P.) Year of thesis submission-2013-2014 Copyright Transfer The undersigned Brajesh Kumar Namdev assigns to the Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, all right under Copyright Act, that may exists in and for the thesis entitled "Study on the performance of Aghani crop of kusmi lac on nutrient managed Zizyphus mauritiana under heavy rainfall condition" submitted for the award of M.Sc. (Ag.) degree.

This study was funded by GEF and CEEPA. The authors are grateful to CEEPA for excellence in coordinating Pan African projects of this magnitude; to Dr James Benhin for academic leadership and mentoring; to Prof. Rashid Hassan for useful comments on this report; and to Ms Glwadys Gbetibouo for much assistance. The model underlying this report was developed collaboratively by the authors and the Yale University team, to whom we are grateful for essential training and technical backstopping. We owe an intellectual debt to the Yale team, in particular to Pradeep Kurukulasuriya, whose dedication to our work has greatly inspired us. We are also grateful to the enumerators and drivers who did the field work and assisted with data entry (

This article examines the effects of commercialisation of agriculture on land use and work patterns by means of a case study in the Nyeri district in Kenya. The study uses cross sectional data collected from small-scale farmers in this district. We find that good quality land is allocated to non-food cash crops, which may lead to a reduction in non-cash food crops and expose some households to greater risks of possible famine. Also the proportion of land allocated to food crops declines as the farm size increases while the proportion of land allocated to non-food cash crops rises as the size of farm increases. Cash crops are also not bringing in as much revenue commensurate with the amount of land allocated to them. With growing commercialisation, women still work more hours than men. They not only work on non-cash food crops but also on cash crops including non-food cash crops. Evidence indicates that women living with husbands work longer hours than those married but living alone, and also longer than the unmarried women.

Married women seem to lose their decision-making ability with growth of commercialisation, as husbands make most decisions to do with cash crops. Furthermore husbands appropriate family cash income. Husbands are less likely to use such income for the welfare of the family compared to wives due to different expenditure patterns. Married women in Kenya also have little or no power to change the way land is allocated between food and non-food cash crops. Due to deteriorating terms of trade for non-food cash crops, men have started cultivation of food cash crops with the potential of crowding out women. It is found that both the area of non-cash crops tends to rise with farm size but also the proportion of the farm area cash cropped rises in Central Kenya.

The World Bank Research Observer is intended for anyone who has a professional interest in development. Observer articles are written to be accessible to nonspecialist readers; con tributors examine key issues in development economics, survey the literature and the lat est World Bank research, and debate issues of development policy. Articles are reviewed by an editorial board drawn from across the Bank and the international community of econo mists. Inconsistency with Bank policy is not grounds for rejection.

Bila budidaya karet tumbuh dengan  cara  yang konvensional  atas  upaya  dan tenaga  petani  itu sendiri,  budidaya  kelapa  sawit tumbuh sebagai industri perkebunan yang didukung pemerintah dan perbankan sejak kelahirannya. Di Jambi, karet dan kelapa sawit tumbuh bersamaan, namun dengan riwayat yang berberda.

This study considers the effect of cash cropping on food availability and investigates the determinants of household food expenditure as a proportion of gross income relying on a sample of rural households in the Nyeri district of Kenya. Results from an application of a Tobit model suggest that household food purchases and food availability may suffer as a consequence of increasing cash cropping in Kenya. Husbands favour commercial crops and, it seems, favour non-food purchases. Married women living with their husbands use proportionately less of their gross income to purchase food compared to unmarried women and to those women not living with their husbands. Male bias in food purchased is present, and is exacerbated when payment for cash crops is lumpy. Lumpy cash payments tend to reduce proportionate food purchases by households. We also find that remittances and family size are positively associated with food purchases as a proportion of gross income. Because of household food availability issues, there is a case in many developing countries for reducing policy emphasis on expansion of production of non-food cash crops and a case for greater encouragement of subsistence food production. Increased commercialisation of agriculture can result in reduced availability of food to women and children.

This article examines the effects of marital status, farm size and other factors on the extent of cash cropping (and allocation of land use) by means of a case study in the Nyeri district in Kenya. It was found that married women are involved in the production of a relatively greater amount of output of cash crops than unmarried women since husbands prefer to have more land under cash crops than food crops. Farmers with better quality land allocate a high proportion of it to non-food cash crops, which may expose some households to greater risks of possible famine. The proportion of land allocated to food crops declines as the farm size increases while the proportion of land allocated to non-food cash crops rises as the size of farm increases. Age is also inversely associated with subsistence. Education, though inversely associated with subsistence farming does not appear to be statistically very significant as an influence on the composition of land use and composition of farm output. With growing commercialisation, married women work more hours than unmarried ones, working not only on non-cash food crops but also on non-food cash crops. Married women seem to lose their decision-making ability with growth of agricultural commercialisation, as husbands make most decisions to do with cash crops. Married women in Kenya also have little or no power to change the way land is allocated between food and non-food cash crops.

The impacts of carbon payments and income taxes on curbing tropical forest loss are analyzed under a market equilibrium framework. The supply of cleared forest land was derived by using a two-period utility maximization model when the carbon sequestration of a private forestholder is credited. The land demand was derived from the profit maximization problem of a cash-crop farmer. The model was applied to data from the humid Chaco eco-region of Paraguay. The results indicate that taxes on cash-crop and forestry incomes may in fact be ineffective in curbing forest loss. Carbon payments, however, would effectively reduce forest clearing. In the context studied, a carbon payment of €30 per ton of carbon would limit deforestation to 10% of existing forest cover. A reversible carbon crediting system, in which a forestholder can redeem a credited forest, seems to substantially increase, at least in the short run, the effectiveness of carbon payments. Carbon payments could also complement the tax on cash-crop income in curbing tropical forest loss. An effective policy to combat tropical deforestation should, therefore, jointly consider forestry and cash-crop sectors.

Abstract The chapter analyses how USAID created a new institutional framework in several Central American nations, designed to support many aspects of structural adjustment but especially focused on the promotion of non-traditional exports, both agricultural and industrial. Among the purposes of this new institutional structure were the privatization of state owned enterprises, the liberation of capital markets and the creation of business led organizations to which the functions of government agencies could be passed. The ...

This article examines the effects of agricultural commercialization and other factors on per capita food availability by means of a case study in the Nyeri district in Kenya. It was found that cash cropping has a negative influence on per capita food availability in the male-headed households. This negative influence is not apparent in the female-headed households and in fact, per capita food availability rises with increased agricultural commercialization. Households of married women seem to suffer more in terms of reduced food availability than households headed by females. Husbands have control over cash income and therefore influence food purchases. They are less likely than females to use the cash for food purchases and tend to spend the cash on themselves, thus reducing food availability to family members. This suggests that in some patriarchal societies, caution should be displayed in encouraging cash cropping especially in male-headed households. Cash cropping under such circumstances is unwise from both a food availability and food security point of view because it can result in reduced crop diversification hence increasing the risks of income food deficits for families.  Other factors found to have an influence on per capita food availability are employment of the women outside households, educational level of the women and the quality of land.

Abstract:  This paper deals with some major economic issues concerning the Pacific plant kava, known in Fiji as yaqona. The plant is the source of the cerebral depressant beverage found throughout many of the Pacific Islands, which besides its daily use plays an important ceremonial and social role in the indigenous culture. This paper deals with yaqona cultivation and commercialisation in the Fijian peripheral island of Kadavu, from a perspective of more than 20 years. The findings suggest that the role of the plant as a major cash crop is even more important than it was in the first half of the 1980s. Moreover, the village semi-subsistence economy has become increasingly dependent on this crop as part of its survival strategy. The explanations offered are related to physical and ecological conditions and the associated agrotechnical advantages in Kadavu; marketing advantages and worsening terms of trade experienced by the Fijian periphery; and the lack of other economic opportunities in peripheral areas of Fiji, such as Kadavu – in turn, a function of core–periphery relationships. This is a response of the periphery to the increasing marginalisation within the Fiji state and may imply villagers' and communities' acceptance of their marginal position in the economy.

For Rwanda, one of the poorest countries in the world, trade offers the most effective route for substantial poverty reduction. However, the poor in Rwanda, most of whom are subsistence farmers in rural areas, are currently disconnected from markets and commercial activities by extremely high transport costs and by severe constraints on their ability to shift out of subsistence farming. The constraints include lack of access to credit and lack of access to information on the skills and techniques required to produce commercial crops. The paper is based on information from the household survey and a recent diagnostic study of constraints to trade in Rwanda. It provides a number of indicative simulations that show the potential for substantial reductions in poverty from initiatives that reduce trade costs, enhance the quality of exportable goods and facilitate movement out of subsistence into commercial activities.

Yemen Economic Update is a quarterly report that consists of five sections. The first section highlights major economic and policy developments. The second section provides "flash indicators" for key economic variables that are available on a monthly or quarterly basis from the Government of Yemen. The third section uses different data sources to compare one development indicator in Yemen with other countries in the MENA region and countries with similar GDP per capita and population. The fourth section summarizes new legislation, publications, data, conferences, and donor activities. The fifth section provides contact information and recent World Bank operations and activities in Yemen. Occasionally, special topics are featured in the Update.

In 1922, the colonial government introduced Acacia mearnsii in the tobacco-growing region of Wonosobo. Soon this species was accepted by the local people who developed an agroforestry system based on a rotation of A. mearnsii and agricultural crops. Now, the growing of the black wattle is becoming less popular. To study the prospects for this agroforestry system 143 farmers from 5 villages were interviewed. The functions of this agroforestry system are the production of fueiwood and bark (which contains tannin for the leather industry), soil conservation and soil improvement. The following factors affect A. mearnsii growing: population density (which affects farm size and demand for domestic fuelwood), tobacco-processing (which requires fuel), topography and commercialization. If current trends continue, the contribution of the functions of this agroforestry system to welfare will not be sufficient to compete successfully with subsistence and cash crops like potatoes and tobacco. Therefore, A. mearnsii cultivation is expected to decline further.

In organic vegetable systems green manure crops play an
important role as a nitrogen source, but they cover the soil for
several months without producing a direct income. Globe
artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) provides both heads to be
harvested and particularly abundant plant residues to be
possibly incorporated into the soil, so it may play a double
role of cash and cover crop. This paper describes an on-farm
study in which seed-propagated artichoke, cultivated as an
annual crop, preceded zucchini squash and lettuce cultivated
in sequence within a vegetable organic system. Artichoke
produced about 7 t ha-1 of saleable heads and left, after
harvest, 50.3 t ha-1 of fresh biomass usable as green manure.
Zucchini squash and lettuce following artichoke showed a
significant increase in yield when artichoke residues were
incorporated into the soil. Furthermore, a residual positive
effect of green manure on soil fertility was detected after
lettuce harvest.