Archaeology of Horse and Riders

Travel was a crucial element of ancient Egyptian culture. An extensive traffic system by land and by water already existed as early as the Old Kingdom, including various means of transport that did not fundamentally change right through to the New Kingdom. Traveling activity attested for various professions demonstrates that Egyptian society exercised a high degree of mobility. In the majority of cases, a journey was undertaken within the scope of the traveler’s work and on behalf of the pharaoh. Travel had a significant impact on the Egyptian world-view as well as on the development of the
identity of Egyptian society as an entity.

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Since the early days of archaeology, Viking-Age burials and burial customs have attracted much attention. Evocative tales of warriors and their deeds preserved in Old Norse poetry and sagas, and recorded in the historical chronicles of church and court scribes formed the background for the interpretation of some of the most prominent finds, the burials with weapons and horse furnishings. To antiquarians and archaeologists of the nineteenth century, it was almost self-evident that a life so closely tied to warfare and violent expansion abroad would also find expression in the burials of the time, and many of the early discoveries appeared to confirm the view of the Nordic warrior who was expected to arrive with full fighting gear in Valhalla to continue his life amongst the brave warriors of Odin. Since then, the archaeological evidence has increased considerably, providing a far more extensive basis for the study of Viking-Age burial practices today than a century ago. Typological and chronological analyses of individual objects and burials demonstrate the diversity of the weapon burial practice of especially the 10th century. In a period of significant political and religious transition in southern Scandinavia elaborately furnished equestrian burials and weapon burials were one of the means of to demonstrate the position and the political and religious preferences of the Viking elite.
The study is divided into two parts: Vol. 1 Text, including bibliography and site index, and Vol. 2 Catalogue with 24 maps and 70 artefact plates.

La prima e sola edizione di un testo unico nel mondo dell' ippologia, le cui pregevolissime miniature d' arte sono state tratte da opere originali del pittore Carl Vernet, e in cui è riportata l' unica traduzione italiana mai più rifatta dell' opera equestre cardine del famoso écuyer francese François De La Guériniére.

Horseback riding is the most fundamental use of domestic horses and has had a huge influence on the development of human societies for millennia. Over time, riding techniques and the style of riding improved. Therefore, horses with the ability to perform comfortable gaits (e.g. ambling or pacing), so-called 'gaited' horses, have been highly valued by humans, especially for long distance travel. Recently, the causative mutation for gaitedness in horses has been linked to a substitution causing a premature stop codon in the DMRT3 gene (DMRT3_Ser301STOP) [1]. In mice, Dmrt3 is expressed in spinal cord interneurons and plays an important role in the development of limb movement coordination [1]. Genotyping the position in 4396 modern horses from 141 breeds revealed that nowadays the mutated allele is distributed worldwide with an especially high frequency in gaited horses and breeds used for harness racing [2]. Here, we examine historic horse remains for the DMRT3 SNP, tracking ...

This dissertation charts the creation and the use of the working horse in urban areas. Historical and contemporary studies of the working horse are combined to establish how these animals were bred, cared for, and housed in order to be the optimum machine. A typology for the Working Horse Stable is created, and what can be inferred from the architecture about horse care is carefully unpicked. Multiple case studies are introduced, dealt with in the order; Listed Buildings, Conservation Areas, and Local Listings. What these examples can deduce about the current state of conservation of Working Horse Stables is then discussed, and a vision for the future of this building type is offered.

Nous présentons une distribution géographique des noms pour le 'cheval' (et quelques mots thématiquement associés comme 'jument', 'poulain') pour l'Europe, et essayons d'en tirer quelques enseignements sur ce que ces noms peuvent nous dire. Nous verrons (a) qu'il faut toujours tenir compte des dialectes, en utilisant les atlas dialectologiques, (b) que les noms du 'cheval' sont très variés en Europe, même au sein de groupes linguistiques par ailleurs cohérents, (c) qu'ils ne nous disent pas tellement ou pas du tout le « passé profond » mais - plus intéressant - ce qui s'est passé.

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

During the Early Bronze Age, populations of the western Eurasian steppe expanded across an immense area of northern Eurasia. Combined archaeological and genetic evidence supports widespread Early Bronze Age population movements out of the Pontic–Caspian steppe that resulted in gene flow across vast distances, linking populations of Yamnaya pastoralists in Scandinavia with pastoral populations (known as the Afanasievo) far to the east in the Altai Mountains1,2 and Mongolia3. Although some models hold that this expansion was the outcome of a newly mobile pastoral economy characterized by horse traction, bulk wagon transport4,5,6 and regular dietary dependence on meat and milk5, hard evidence for these economic features has not been found. Here we draw on proteomic analysis of dental calculus from individuals from the western Eurasian steppe to demonstrate a major transition in dairying at the start of the Bronze Age. The rapid onset of ubiquitous dairying at a point in time when stepp...

Based on existing classifications of the horse-bits and cheek-pieces of the North Caucasus and Eastern Europe, the paper outlines a classification of bronze cheek-pieces made of a twisted core and non-bonding three-hole cheek-pieces from Azerbaijan. Burials where objects under the study originate from are dated back to the second half of the 8 th and the 7 th centuries BC. Most of the studied bits with non-bonding three-hole cheek-pieces of Azerbaijan come from the burial grounds where Scythian type objects were discovered or where a burial rite has analogies to those in the forest-steppe on the right bank of the Dnipro River. This data indicates the connection of the studied artifacts with the cultures of the Cimmerians and the Scythians.

Horse burials form part of a diverse Anglo-Saxon burial practice, ranging from their inclusions in cremations, occasionally in large numbers, to the relatively rare appearance in inhumation cemeteries. Interpretations largely view their inclusion as indicative of status, signifying a social group or prestige. Such analysis is anthropocentric, as it views horses as passive commodities for humans to use, ignoring the processes of the two species living alongside each other. By using posthumanism, aimed at decentring the human, it can be possible to develop our understanding of animal-human relationships. The skeletal data from horse and human burials dating to the early medieval period in Britain was examined to create osteobiographies – the life story based on the evidence provided by an individual’s skeleton – alongside surviving texts and material culture. Use as transportation was highly probable, though evidence was lacking on many of the skeletal remains to support this, but the act of riding would likely allow a close relationship to form between individual humans and horses. A posthumanist approach can force understandings of past animals to focus beyond socioeconomic interpretations, but it is difficult to ignore the likely anthropocentric nature of past humans in attempting to reconstruct their past interactions and relationships with nonhuman individuals.

Sebbene l'archeologia subacquea mantenga presso il grande pubblíco un'aura di mistero e di diversità, i dibattiti teorici che hanno caratferizzato l'ultimo trentennio sono serviti, in definitiva, anche a sgomberare il campo dalle sovrastrutture dí caîattere psicologico che tendevano a vedere nell'attività di ricerca subacquea un terreno quasi privo di regole ed aperto alle improwisazioni e ali'awentura.

The evolution of horse usage, with the expansion of the cavalry from the fourth century onward, depended on quality livestock, the intensification of hippiatric medical research and the development of horse-related instruments both for the use of the rider and his mount.
The Early Byzantine and Roman cavalry were dependent on this triad, otherwise they could not have succeeded against more experienced Barbarians. The enemy's experience was matched with experimentation, the development and continuous improvement of an expertise which allowed them to reverse the situation to their advantage in later confrontations with nomadic people.
This triad actually took place almost simultaneously, contrary to what was thought for a long time. Specifically, these three pieces of the puzzle, directly linked to the expansion of the cavalry, appeared between the third and fifth / sixth centuries and bear witness to major efforts in an age that was believed to be less fruitful in such areas.

During the Early Bronze Age, populations of the western Eurasian steppe expanded across an immense area of northern Eurasia. Combined archaeological and genetic evidence supports widespread Early Bronze Age population movements out of the Pontic–Caspian steppe that resulted in gene flow across vast distances, linking populations of Yamnaya pastoralists in Scandinavia with pastoral populations (known as the Afanasievo) far to the east in the Altai Mountains1,2 and Mongolia3. Although some models hold that this expansion was the outcome of a newly mobile pastoral economy characterized by horse traction, bulk wagon transport4,5,6 and regular dietary dependence on meat and milk5, hard evidence for these economic features has not been found. Here we draw on proteomic analysis of dental calculus from individuals from the western Eurasian steppe to demonstrate a major transition in dairying at the start of the Bronze Age. The rapid onset of ubiquitous dairying at a point in time when stepp...

This study deals with four developmental phases in the Neolithic which the author calls "Modes I-IV", thus introducing a yet unknown but necessary and helpful differentation into the scientific reflections on the Neolithic. Mode I, starting around 10,000 BCE, consists in the establishment of two most important cultural innovations: agriculture (the first appearance of producing economy)and sedentariness. Mode II, up from 8,900 BCE, additionally comprises the domestication of small hoof-animals (sheep and goats) by the female labor-collective. In this context occurs a discovery of extreme significance: The interrelation of sexuality and pregnancy is realized. In Mode III, starting around 7,000 BCE, the male labor-collective succeeds in domesticating bovids as herd animals what opens the door for the stepwise proceeding hierarchization of society, the social downgrading of women, and the concomitant ´Invention of the Gods´. Mode IV, up from 4,000 BCE, is characterized by the domestication of equids (horses and donkeys), what facilitates a yet unknown militarization of society.

"Ces Actes des Journées d’étude internationales (Strasbourg, 6-7 novembre 2009) sont l’aboutissement d’un programme de recherche (2007-2009), mené au sein de l’UMR 7044 (Étude des civilisations de l’Antiquité : de la Préhistoire à Byzance), sur la place du cheval dans l’empire byzantin. Les 14 contributions qu’ils réunissent sont consacrées au cheval de guerre et de loisir dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge.

L’ouvrage est divisé en trois sections. Dans la première, les contributeurs analysent la naissance du corps de cavalerie dans l’armée romaine et ses emplois. Sont également étudiés les différences régionales du pourtour méditerranéen dans l’élevage du cheval, les prix pratiqués ou encore les connaissances hippologiques des Anciens. Les travaux qui composent la deuxième partie proposent des synthèses sur le cheval médiéval, byzantin et occidental. Ils abordent le sujet à travers les textes, les sources archéologiques, les représentations et les us et coutumes des civilisations étudiées. Enfin, la dernière partie s’intéresse aux instruments hippiques, aux armes et à l’hippiatrie. Y sont ainsi réexaminées les innovations, adoptions et adaptations, dans l’Antiquité tardive, des pièces de l’équipement équin essentielles pour le combat, telles que l’étrier et le mors. Les armes des cavaliers sont réévaluées, ainsi que les changements dans leurs techniques de combat suite à la diffusion de l’étrier. On trouvera aussi l’analyse du vocabulaire employé pour l’anatomie du cheval dans la littérature hippiatrique grecque, qui connaît à cette période un essor sans précédent, lié au développement de la cavalerie romaine et protobyzantine."

Traducere în limba engleză: carmen Borbely, dana Jenei (cap. 2, 12), georgeta elsusi (cap. 11) Traducere în limba germană: ioana constantin Relevee şi fotografi i: colectivul de cercetare Prelucrarea desenelor: sebastian dobrotă Numismatică: emanoil pripon, monica d ejan Conservare: emanoil pripon Tehnoredactare: irinel merlușcă volum realizat în cadrul proiectului cultural Începuturile aşezării Braşov: oameni, obiecte, gânduri fi nanțat de primăria municipiului Brașov în anul 2015 Cercetarea arheologică: damasus Brașov și daniela marcu istrate (responsabil științifi c) cristian Florescu, gabriel izdrăilă, delia maria Roman, andreea cumurciuc, gelu copos, daniel tentiș, georgeta elsusi, mihai constantinescu, zoltán K atócz asociația culturală Hieronymus Brașov primăria municipiului Braşov Biserica evanghelică c.a. Braşov @daniela marcu istrate și autorii @ asociația culturală Hieronymus www.hieronymus.ro 16 cadRul istoRic și aRHitectuRal al cuRȚii BiseRicii NegRe REDESCOPERIREA TRECUTULUI

Pazyryk culture, pad-saddle of the Scythian type, reconstruction of a Scythian saddle

The article is devoted to the reconstruction of a saddle of the so-cold Scythian type, made in 2013, on the basis of the study of archaeological saddles from the Pazyryk collection of the State Hermitage. The scientific reconstruction of the Scythian time saddle has been performed for the first time. It was preceded by a long preparatory work, including measurements of all preserved saddles and their fragments of the Pazyryk collection (Bashadar, Tuekta and Pazyryk barrows). We studied the seams, peculiarities of gaskets and the padding of the saddle cushions, as well as characteristics of the fixing of the saddle belts, surcingle buckles and decorative elements.
Making a comparison of the saddles from early and late kurgans of the Pazyryk culture made it clear that the saddles differ mainly by the decor and accessories which have been changed, but kept continuity. Design of the saddle pillows themselves, sets (composition, integration) and the fixing of the truck straps, the shape of the coverings and saddle-cloths remained unchanged during the whole period of the Pazyryk culture.
One of the saddles from the 3rd Pazyryk barrow was chosen as a model for the reconstruction. The executed  saddle has been tested on riding horses to identify its performances.
Replicas of the saddle and the bridle from the 3rd Pazyryk barrow have been exhibited at the exposition "The World of nomads" made by the State Hermitage Museum, in Vyborg (November 2013 - April 2014) as visual materials.
The reconstructed saddle provides additional opportunities for interpretation of a number of artistic sourses of the Scythian and Hun-Sarmatian time.

This volume includes the study and analysis of the many important finds recovered in the course of the total of five excavation periods at the Högom grave-field in the parish of Selånger in the county of Medelpad, North Sweden. In all, three large mounds, two small mounds, two house foundations and an area with ard marks were investigated. The site has been dated to the period from about 200/300 to the 6th century AD. Two of the investigated objects in particular are of unusually great international significance in view of the finds which they yielded. These are the chambered tomb contained in large mound No. 2 and the house foundation beneath mound No. 3.
The very well-preserved chambered tomb was a richly outfitted man’s grave with an abundance of weapons, two bridles, a saddle, and a “laid table’’ including inter alia two glass beakers, bronze vessel, pails, four wooden plates, ceramic and wrapped vessels, and a bronze washing bowl with an associated elegant comb. Gold objects in the form of finger rings, pendants, small gold bars and an obole were found on the deceased. Scandinavia’s largest collected number of clasp buttons was found in position on the clothing of the deceased. The excellent state of preservation of the finds, their abundance, their international character and the detailed documentation mean that we are dealing here with a grave which, in an extraordinary fashion, illustrates the role of the regional chieftain or petty king and contacts in Central Norrland during the Migration Period.
One of the house foundations discovered here is almost identical with a contemporary foundationat Gene in Northern  Ångermanland. The second house foundation at Högom, on the other hand, is entirely lacking known parallels in Scandinavia, which, at this time, is characterized by the large three-aisled houses. In terms of its construction and content, it may be interpreted as a meeting hall with socio-political significance for quite a large surrounding area.
The analysis of the data includes comparative studies of the most important groups of materialsand detailed reconstructions of series of objects and paraphernalia, which, in many cases,could be developed very much further than for other contemporary data. These comparative studies show that the upper social stratum of the time had considerable political interaction with areas in both East and West Europe as well as with West and East Scandinavia.
Key words: Roman Iron Age, Migration Period, large mounds, petty kingdoms, interregiona lcontacts, chamber grave, weapons, horse trappings, clasp buttons, Salin’s Style I, gold, containers, dress, belt, long-houses, ard marks.

Whether knight's charger or beast of burden, horses played a vital role in medieval life. The wealth of medieval finds excavated in London in recent years has, not surprisingly, included many objects associated with horses. This catalogue illustrates and discusses over four hundred such objects, among them harness, horseshoes, spurs and curry combs, from the utilitarian to highly decorative pieces. London served by horse traffic comes vividly in view. The introductory chapter draws on historical as well as archaeological sources to consider the role of the horse in medieval London. It looks at the price of horses and the costs of maintaining them, the hiring of 'hackneys' for riding, the use of carts in and around London, and the work of the 'marshal' or farrier. It discusses the evidence for the size of medieval horses and includes a survey of finds of medieval horse skeletons from London. It answers the key questions, how large a 'Great Horse' was, and why it took three horses to pull a cart. A new introduction to this edition provides an update on research and a supplementary bibliography. This is a basic work of reference for archaeologists and those studying medieval artefacts, and absorbing reading for everyone interested in the history of the horse and its use by humankind.

It is generally admitted that domestic horses were introduced into the Levant and Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (around 1700 BC or at least as early as the second millennium BC). Some of the earliest remains of horses tend to link their presence to that of various Asian influences, mainly the political domination of the Hyksos or Amorites in the Delta area at that time, and as such to the Indo-European Hittites of Anatolia. It is likely however that some archaeological evidence from Nahal Tillah (Israel) may suggest the presence of domesticated horses within the Egyptian sphere of activity even prior to the Old Kingdom. Moreover, horse remains were found at Arad dating back to the third millennium and small domestic horses even seem to have been present in the fourth millennium in the Chalcolithic period in the northern Negev. On the mythological and folklore level hieroglyphic representations in the form of a horseshoe have been interpreted by some as clues or hints about the magical properties of the horseshoe for the Ancient Egyptians and, by extension, about the magical function of iron itself. Regarding the particular case of horse and horseshoe, this paper addresses several issues, precisely to what extent historical and archaeological evidences, myth and magic may help to clarify them.

One can see silver loops on the silver phiale (second half of the 5th century BC) with a dedication in Greek, found in a Sarmatian burial of mound 1 (second half of the 1st century BC) at Zubovskij Farm in Kuban river region. For a long period, these loops have not attracted scholars’ attention. Supposedly, the loops were intended to hang the phiale on a temple’s wall. The author proposes to consider them as later adaptations introduced in the original design for using the phiale in Sarmatian horse harness as a breastgirth decoration. This kind of reconstruction seems admissible due to analogies: Late Hellenistic bowls converted by Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. This alternative point of view is supported by several factors: damage, defects, and deformations of the fiale, its topography in the grave and other subunits of the horse harness from the rich grave at the Zubovskij Farm.

The paper presents new finds of the Roman military equipment and Migration-period militaria from Kujawy (central Poland). The former group embraces appliques, mounts and decorations of Roman horse harness and soldiers' attire, e.g. phallic and vulva-shaped pendants, shell-shaped fittings, belt buckles, apron studs, scabbard chape and beneficiarius emblem. They are dated from the 1st until the 5th c. but their majority come from the 3rd c.; one may explain it by the Roman recruitment of the barbarian warriors during the time of the Gallic Empire (Imperium Galliarum). For the the other periods other explanations may be used.
Set of Migration Period military equipment is presented as well. It proves long duration of the (post) Przeworsk-culture martial structures into the 5th and 6th c. regardless general depopulation of the Central European Barbaricum.

The scale and intensity of cultural networking during the period between 2000 and 1200 BCE is unprecedented, the beginnings of which are deeply rooted in the previous millennium, but also with far echoing effects that lasted several centuries. A recent thesis proposes the viewing of these phenomena as a case of pre-modern globalisation of the Afro-Eurasian region, coined bronzization. This questions the directional flow between the core, semi-periphery and periphery of the Wallersteinian ‘world systems theory’ applied to the Bronze Age and suggests a more practical approach. The emergence of tin-bronzes and heightened desire for acquisition of these goods can be traced from northern Africa through Europe and Eurasian steppes to China, most likely with several foci.
Bronzization is a mixture of directional and non-directional flows, which results in a web-like pattern, rather than just a directional mobility of goods, ideas and discourses. It further argues that bronze is the transculture of the age, a medium that broke down economic boundaries of regional social groups. The democratisation of the transculture enabled not only the penetration of societies in a horizontal sense, but also in a vertical one, as bronze and other goods became increasingly desired by elites, other ‘less novel’ prestige items became increasingly accessible to lower social groups. By the phenomena of the transculture a heightened consumption of bronze is seen throughout Eurasia, which facilitated the directional trade and non-directional flows of archaeologically graspable goods (e.g. amber, Near Eastern glass, horse, chariot) and ideas as well (e.g. warriorhood, self-image of elites, mobility). The intense circulation resulted in what is termed as ‘intersecting spheres of interaction’.
The present paper seeks to analyse and evaluate the relevance of the Eastern Carpathian Basin, positioned at the crossroads of ‘intersecting spheres of interaction’. The mentioned region is placed in the context of bronzization and through the relocated vantage point an anamorphosis takes place. The results of the re-assessment emphasise the networking of the repository of knowledge, but also the space occupied by societies within the cultural crucible of southeastern Europe.

The article considers the phalerae found as part of the gala horse bridle set in the cache of the Burial-mound № 1/1985 near the settlement of Dachi near Azov. Phalerae with bronze lining are decorated with large polished agate inlays with medallions with garnet, turquoise and coral inlays on their top, and gold lion figures in high relief, with turquoise inlays. The large banded agate inlays that adorned the central part of the phalerae, perhaps, secondary used hemispherical bowls, are unique for toreutics from the North Pontic region.
Taking into account the dating of the burial within the last quarter of the 1st century AD, the decoration of the central rosettes on top of the phalerae using the cloisonne technique, which was especially widespread in the North Pontic region in the middle and third quarter of the 1st century AD, probably, the manufacture of the phalerae should also be attributed to the same time. Figures of lions on the phalerae find a parallel in a gold figurine adorning the lid of a gold flask with figural zoomorphic handles and a Sarmatian tamga soldered on the bottom, presumably found in Olbia or Kerch. Similar in iconography are also relief images of recumbent lions on rectangular or oval pedestals, made of the so-called "Egyptian faience", which were widespread in the Northern Black Sea region, also very often found in the Sarmatian burials. Garnet gems with images of Nemesis from Smyrna and Artemis, inserted into one of the phalarae, can be confidently identified as products of the Bosporan workshop of the 1st century AD.
These unique items of horse harness, which fell into the possession of a nomad buried in the immediate vicinity of the borders of the Bosporan Kingdom (Tanais), can probably be considered as a diplomatic gift. It is possible that the phalerae, separately or as a part of the precious horse bridle set could in this case have been obtained by the representative of the highest nomadic nobility even during the events of the Bosporan-Roman war of 45–49 AD, similarly to set of four silver cups of the Bosporan origin which found their way into the cache of a burial located near the Dachi, in the Burial-mound no. 28/1982 of the Vysochino-VII cemetery.

This book deals with zoomorphic bronze statuettes in the territory of Colchis, in the time course of 1st half of the 1st millennium BC.
Some of these materials were unearthed by the Archaeological Expedition of Colchis in the 1970s, but our research revealed hitherto unknown artefacts in the archaeological collections of the Georgian National Museum and Regional Museums.
The appearance of the bronze round statues in Colchis is discussed in general historical-cultural context. The stylistic analysis of the sculptures compares with local zoomorphic shapes as well as animal sculptures from neighboring archaeological cultures. Figurines from Northern Caucasus, Luristan and Greek archaeological sites are included in the work.
Main results are given in English.

Degree of recognition of the armament models in Barbaricum allows not only to identify certain cultural areas but also to capture the ordinary findings not exactly matching the indigenous pattern. Their interpretation, although burdened with uncertainty, allows depicting the phenomena on the detailed dynamic level, i.e. not as a manifestation of the cultural processes but a phenomenon of a limited scale or relating to small groups of warriors. Author discusses particular finds from different parts of European Barbaricum, i.a. a Celtic grave from Ciumeşti in Romania, a warrior cemetery from the 1 st c. BC in Mutin on the River Seym, 1 st /2 nd c. AD double grave from Káloz in Pannonia, 2 nd c. AD necropolis in Kariv (western Ukraine), Sudovian Culture grave from Szwajcaria by Suwałki, barrow 2 (early 3 rd c. AD) and late antique necropolis at Čatyr Dag in Crimea. Basing on the chosen archaeological examples from different parts of the Iron Age Europe a mobility of a military character-practice mentioned in the written and ethnographic sources-is exemplified.

Mycenae culture became due to its own merits, the most important one in continental Greece for more than four centuries all along the II Millennium B.C. Its commercial importance due to the fact they took advantage of the minoans exchange routes and their own economic interests made them reach far regions even in Central Mediterranean and the Near East. But all of that must’ve been difficult if they hadn’t encountered a powerful army who support their colonial and commercial adventures. Numerous Lineal B writings, pictorial and archaeological remains are witness to the importance the military world provides to those former Mycenaean. Therefore, in this article we will try to show the diverse aspects related to the Mycenaean army who supported its power in continental Greece in spite of this, neither the reforms taken in 13th century B.C. got that mycenaeans culture survival, when their settlements were destroyed.

The aim of this monograph is to present an attempt to more closely define a significant component of a new phenomenon that was registered during an excavation of a site in NE Poland. This site in the Nidajno Swamp in the Masurian Lake District (Czaszkowo 1 site, Piecki commune, Mrągowo poviat, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship) is the first place in Poland where were found, and examined using modern archaeological methods, traces of cult practices from the period of Roman influences involving the sinking of weapons and other prestigious elements of personal equipment in a swamp. The basis of the studies carried out is a series of unique, silver and gilded ornaments, which are an emblemic component of the
assemblage of finds. Their provenance, workshop and stylistic features, in combination with the placeof their deposition in antiquity, indicate a new type
of relationship linking the area of the classical culture of the Mediterranean with areas of the of the North European Barbaricum, far distant from even the Empire’s northern limes. The material was studied with the application of archaeological comparative analysis, enriched with the necessary stylistic and iconographic studies, covering most of the European barbarian zone and Roman provinces close to them (mainly Danube and Rhine provinces). This allowed the gathering of rarely-used data from the rich legacy of research on the material and spiritual culture of the barbarian communities of a large area of central and northern Europe, together with those relating to the material image of the Roman army (with particular emphasis on the component of soldiers of barbarian origin). In the analysis, research tools from the field of art history were used, allowing an orderly description of these formally and stylistically complex, richly decorated objects with multi-layered iconographic content. As a result, not only an inventory description of the objects was obtained, but also a series of data on the cultural background related to the time of their creation, and also concerning the dissemination of motifs and ornamental themes allowing an insight into the phenomenon of the cultural diffusion that was typical of late antiquity in the territory of the Empire and adjacent regions.
The sacrificial site in the former Nidajno Lake was excavated in 2010–2012 by research teams from the Faculty of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw and the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. The director of the project was Tomasz Nowakiewicz. The results of this work have already been presented in the literature several times, but these publications were in the form of interim reports, related to methodological issues or presented the results of laboratory analyses of selected artefacts (Nowakiewicz, Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz 2012; 2013; 2019; Nowakiewicz 2015; Nowakiewicz ed. 2016). Until the commencement of field work, the site was not known in the scientific literature or conservation documentation. This situation changed in 2010, and since then this place has been protected by law. At the end of the 19th century, in the vicinity of the former Lake Nidajno, drainage works were started, which were continued with varying degrees of success in the 1960s and 1980s. As a result of these works, there was destruction of part of the site, particularly its peripheral part (the edge of the former lake). Trial trenching in 2010 allowed the scale of the damage to be estimated, and also permitted a determination of the type of site and its cognitive value. The work revealed this site to be one that has a unique place in the context of Polish archaeology. The research was continued in two subsequent excavation seasons (2011–2012) that, among other things, allowed the establishment of the nature of the sediments and produced a series of numerous artefacts. The excavations were then suspended for a while to allow the processing of the evidence obtained so far and to allow the gathering of the necessary logistic and financial resources needed to continue work at this. In 2019, large-scale non-invasive exploratory work was undertaken (magnetic geophysical surveys and ground penetrating radar surveys). In the 2019–2020 seasons, this was accompanied by the diagnosis of the local palaeoecological background, taking into account the factor of anthropopressure (through sedimentological and palynological studies). At the same time, work furthering the scientific analysis of the results to date was conducted, one of the effects of which is this publication.
In the light of the data obtained, there is no doubt that the site in Nidajno is the remains of a cult place where in antiquity ceremonies were held related to the deposition of weapons and other prestigious elements of warrior equipment in the water. So far, this phenomenon is represented by a group of over 300 finds from the site. This is evidence that the ceremonial deposition of valuable goods (previously intentionally destroyed) of a clearly military character in an aquatic environment was practiced among the communities of the Balts (in this case the people of the Bogaczewo culture) during the period of Roman influences. The behaviours documented at Nidajno clearly resemble the model known from the Northern European Barbaricum, visible in sacrificial swamps in Jutland, such as Illerup-Ådal, Nydam, Thorsberg, Vimose, Ejsbøl, Porskjær and others. The visible differences (for example, the lack of animal remains) may result from the current, still initial, state of exploration of the site in Nidajno or may be an original regional feature.
The most numerous category in the inventory of finds from Nidajno is a set of military items, most of which are iron spearheads of shafted weapons. There are also fragments of double-edged sword blades (including from pattern-welded blades), a bronze scabbard chape, 20 fragments of chain mail of various sizes, 15 fragments of knives, five fragments of shield bosses, a fragment of an axe, two fragments of iron spurs and three fragments of harness-bits. The elements of personal equipment are relatively sparse: 11 buckles, five bronze fibulae, 20 fibula fragments, two bucket-shaped pendants, a fragment of a comb, a fragment of a stone whetstone with a group of small fragments of objects that are difficult to identify.
Against this background, a group of above-standard valuable and prestigious items stands out: nine richly decorated, silver, gilded and nielloed fittings, a silver, openwork strap divider, a fragment of a silver box-shaped phalera, golden fittings of a sword handguard and the mouth of a scabbard, a silver sword bead, a gilded figurine of a bird and two fragments of a glass vessel of Syrian origin (which was confirmed by the results of laboratory tests). The basis of the presented studies is a series of silver, gilded fittings decorated with niello: a buckle with a buckle plate with the image of a lion and birds (No. 1), a fragment of an analogous buckle with a frame decorated with a bird’s head (No. 2), rectangular fittings with images of: a lion (No. 3), a lion and a bird (No. 4) and a bird (No. 5 – item preserved fragmentarily), a rectangular fitting with a geometric pattern (No. 6), a large rectangular fitting with images of a dolphin, a capricorn, two griffins and a dragon (No. 7), a large palmette fitting with two mythical
beasts and bird heads (No. 8), a rectangular metal pendant with a fish (No. 9) and a silver, openwork strap divider (No. 10). These items are characterized by a clear formal consistency, they are of comparable raw materials (homogeneous metals with
high fineness) and workshop techniques (the same technological features: casting, stamping, engraving, gilding, niello decoration). This allows us to see in them the basic reference set for further research.
This also includes other items from the group of elite finds: a silver, gilded box phalera (No. 15) is included in the analysis of the function of the entire set. Although they lack common stylistic features with the above-mentioned group, the impressive golden sword scabbard fittings (No. 11) and the sword guard (No. 12) as well as a silver, gilded bird figure (No. 14) and a silver buckle (No. 16) were treated as auxiliary material in further research.
In general terms, the assemblage of decorated metalwork from Nidajno is defined by the following features: the expensive raw materials used to make them (gold and silver of the highest quality; cf. Nowakiewicz, ed. 2016); the number of items (a multi-element set of stylistically consistent decorations); advanced manufacturing techniques (amalgams, soldering and gilding techniques, niello, number of stamps; cf.
Nowakiewicz, ed. 2016); an extensive, unconventional and sophisticated set of figural motifs, referring to threads deeply rooted in the heterogeneous tradition of the Roman Empire.

The aim of the paper is to draw attention to a newly discovered locality Balatonalmádi-Felsőhegy, where in winter 2019 was found some Late Avar finds. One of them was a fitting in shape of boar head, which with other new finds of this type from Hungary is analysed and put in our earlier published typology. The ‘boar’ on horse harness had its meaning in Late Avar society or in military hierarchy, but its precise content is uncertain.