Archaeology of Weapons

Access Archaeology offers a different publishing model for specialist academic material that might traditionally prove commercially unviable, perhaps due to its sheer extent or volume of colour content, or simply due to its relatively niche field of interest. This could apply, for example, to a PhD dissertation or a catalogue of archaeological data. All Access Archaeology publications are available as a free-to-download pdf eBook and in print format. The free pdf download model supports dissemination in areas of the world where budgets are more severely limited, and also allows individual academics from all over the world the opportunity to access the material privately, rather than relying solely on their university or public library. Print copies, nevertheless, remain available to individuals and institutions who need or prefer them. The material is refereed and/or peer reviewed. Copy-editing takes place prior to submission of the work for publication and is the responsibility of the author. Academics who are able to supply printready material are not charged any fee to publish (including making the material available as a free-todownload pdf). In some instances the material is type-set in-house and in these cases a small charge is passed on for layout work. Our principal effort goes into promoting the material, both the free-to-download pdf and print edition, where Access Archaeology books get the same level of attention as all of our publications which are marketed through e-alerts, print catalogues, displays at academic conferences, and are supported by professional distribution worldwide. The free pdf download allows for greater dissemination of academic work than traditional print models could ever hope to support. It is common for a free-to-download pdf to be downloaded hundreds or sometimes thousands of times when it first appears on our website. Print sales of such specialist material would take years to match this figure, if indeed they ever would. This model may well evolve over time, but its ambition will always remain to publish archaeological material that would prove commercially unviable in traditional publishing models, without passing the expense on to the academic (author or reader).

LIEN pour la lecture / LINK to read it
https://www.yumpu.com/fr/document/read/16922453/universite-paris-sorbonne-e-sorbonne

Etude archéologique des techniques d’acquisition et de transformation du métal dans le cadre de la production des lames de sabre au Japon (IXe -XVIe siècle). / "Cette thèse a pour thème les techniques d’acquisition et de transformation du fer dans le cadre de la production des lames japonaises, sur une période courant du IXe à la toute fin du XVIe siècle. Une partie préliminaire est présente afin de donner une idée de l’évolution de la métallurgie du fer jusqu’à cette date. Le type de minerais, les sables ferrifères, est alors abordé avec ses techniques d’acquisition et d’extraction. S’en suit une étude des méthodes de transformation par le biais des techniques de réduction. L’étude des différents sites permet de mettre en lumière deux types majeurs de fourneau dans l’archipel : un type à cheminée semi-enterré et un type en forme de boîte rectangulaire. Ce dernier débouche d’ailleurs sur la mise au point, au début du XVIIe siècle, du fourneau traditionnel, le tatara. En outre, l’archipel présente un développement des techniques de forge antérieur aux techniques de réduction. A partir du IXe siècle, la forge japonaise se retrouve donc déjà à un niveau technique particulièrement élevé, ayant développé, en plus des techniques de mise en forme, des techniques d’affinage, de carburation et de grappage, autorisant un recyclage du fer, permettant d’affranchir en partie les forgerons de la production des sites de réduction. C’est donc sur cette base technique particulièrement développée qu’a pu se mettre en place une partie de la production des lames. Ce recyclage explique en partie la disparition d’un très grand nombre de lames, auquel il faut adjoindre à partir de la fin du XVIe siècle, des chasses au sabre, permettant de distinguer la classe des guerriers, les samouraïs par un port d’arme qui leur était réservé.

This thesis is dealing with the iron smelting and forge techniques in the
production of Japanese swords, from the 9th to the end of the 16th century.
A preliminary part presents the evolution of iron smelting techniques in Japan,
from the origin to the 9th century.
The types of ore (iron sand) and their acquisition and extraction techniques
are discussed for a period during from the 9th to the 16th century in a
second part.
The smelting techniques used at the same period are then studied. The
archaeological research sheds light on two major types of furnace in the
archipelago: a semi-buried shaft furnace and a rectangular box shape
furnace. This last one leads in the early 17th century to the development
of the traditional Japanese furnace, the tatara.
Concerning the forging techniques, their development in the archipelago was
prior to the smelting techniques. Therefore, from the 9th century, the
technology of the Japanese forge had already reached a high level,
having developed in addition to the basic forge techniques, the
refining, carburizing and clustering (oroshigane) techniques, allowing
the smith to not be entirely dependent on the iron production of the
smelting furnace, but to also be able to rely on the recycled iron.
Consequently, a large part of the blade production in this period might
have relied on that techniques. This recycling helps to explain the
disappearance of a large number of blades, associated to sword hunts in
the late 16th century which led to distinguish a warrior class, the
samurai, carrying a weapon which is, from the early 17th century,
reserved to them."

Despite the vast research undertaken on hoplite warfare, surprisingly little is known about how hoplite shields were made, the very technology underpinning the transformative military reforms of hoplite warfare. The few forays that have explored the manufacturing process have been isolated and unintegrated studies leading to an often simplistic and superficial uniformity of production model which does not reflect the evidence. This article analyses the physical remains of extant hoplite shields and finds a plurality of different designs in concurrent use with core compositional differences that likely impacted combat performance and economic value with some designs performing better than others. Moreover, the use and availability of different shield designs of variable quality and economic value suggests a wider range of socioeconomic diversity in hoplite armies and among hoplites than is generally assumed.

"The hand sling is a range weapon that preserves the same morphological characteristics during numerous chronological periods: made of a long strip of organic material with a central
widening for lodging the bullet. Simple to produce, extremely economic, but also incredibly lethal and precise in the hands of a trained shooter, the sling is attested in almost all the continents as
a weapon for hunting and war. Since the Bronze age the funda distinguished itself as an offense weapon regularly used in Europe and in the Near East, without never truly leave the battlefield. In
the classical world, here in exam, the presence of this weapon outside and inside the battlegrounds is proved, not only by the literary and iconographic sources, but also by its natural (stones) or artificial (clay, metal) bullets. The peculiar morphology as well as the technical use of the bullets, provide an interesting study case for forensic anthropology. This approach, besides outlining the tactical potential of the weapon, can increase the information resulted from the historical and the archaeological approach."

On t h e Or igin Of t h e Sh i eld BOSSeS of t h e t y p e DobroDz i eń m i c h e l k a Z a n s k i The shield bosses of the type Dobrodzień possess typical longitudinal flutes or facets on the calotte. These artefacts are well known in the Barbaricum, particularly in the Middle Danube area and to the north of the Carpathians, with a few isolated finds documented to the east of the Carpathians, on the eastern Black Sea coast, and on the Roman empire's Danubian frontier. The images of the shield bosses of the type Dobrodzień rarely occur on the Roman pictures (the Monza diptych) and on the metalware discovered in the Barbaricum (horse tack plates from Untersiebenbrunn). The period of existence of the shield bosses of the type Dobrodzień as a whole corresponds to 370s-430s. The article suggests the Roman origin of this weaponry: most likely, it was manufactured in a workshop in the Middle Danube area. Moreover, it is still possible that there were some Germanic prototypes for faceted shield bosses were known in the Germanic context already in the late 1 st and 2 nd c.

The subject of the present study revolves around the burials of warriors in the area of Greece during antiquity, with emphasis on the phenomenon of burying the dead with arms. The time period, which is examined here begins from the Iron Age and reaches up to the Hellenistic Era. The first part of the thesis is divided into four chapters based on the chronological classification of findings. In the first chapter, I present the warrior burials of the Iron Age by geographical region, starting from the North and heading to the South. Afterward, I proceed to the chapters concerning the Archaic, the Classical, and finally, the Hellenistic Era. In the second part, I present the conclusions of the study that was conducted, the above are accompanied by detailed tables that record the archaeological data that were assembled. The conclusions follow the same structure as the main part of the thesis, as they are presented in the same chronological order.

The apex of the hypothetical? On the reconstruction of Sudovian shields

In an attempt to reconstruct the shape of shields, the paper analyses the Sudovian Culture inhumation graves with weapons (Figs. 1, 2) that contained shield elements. A repetitiveness in the placement of shield bosses has been observed; they have been found in the vicinity of legs, e.g., at the knees, usually with a minimal shi towards one of them, at the mid-length of femurs, or at the le hip (Fig. 2). The fittings were oriented with the dome upwards, which means that the shield was placed in front of the warrior. Judging by the imprint of a fabric on the shield grip from barrow 25 at Osowa, Suwałki District, it seems that the shields were placed directly on the deceased (on his clothes). None of the cases indicate that the hands of the deceased rested on the upper edge of the shield. The shields were elongated (considering Balt specimens, probably roughly rectangular, sometimes with slightly arched sides – Fig. 3:1–4), and their lengths ranged from 0.6 to 1.1 m; their widths are more difficult to estimate (probably 0.3–0.6 m). Individual preferences may account for the differences in dimensions. Shields made entirely of organic materials, including specimens with wooden shield bosses with short, blunt spikes (Fig. 4) as well as – purely hypothetically – specimens without shield bosses, with a pair of bands for the forearm and palm, played an important role. A reconstruction of the appearance of a Sudovian warrior is shown in Fig. 5.

The paper discusses the appearance of the Great Moravian warriors’ swords and fo cuses on sets of strap and belt fittings used to fasten the swords. It also comments on other elements decorating sword scabbards used in Great Moravia in the 9th and at the beginning of the 10th century. The paper analyses the composition of the sword sets known from Great Moravia in the context of a wider typology and chronology of finds from European areas under the influence of the Carolingian culture between the beginning of the 9th century and the 1st half of the 10th century.

Degree of recognition of the armament models in Barbaricum allows not only to identify certain cultural areas but also to capture the ordinary findings not exactly matching the indigenous pattern. Their interpretation, although burdened with uncertainty, allows depicting the phenomena on the detailed dynamic level, i.e. not as a manifestation of the cultural processes but a phenomenon of a limited scale or relating to small groups of warriors. Author discusses particular finds from different parts of European Barbaricum, i.a. a Celtic grave from Ciumeşti in Romania, a warrior cemetery from the 1 st c. BC in Mutin on the River Seym, 1 st /2 nd c. AD double grave from Káloz in Pannonia, 2 nd c. AD necropolis in Kariv (western Ukraine), Sudovian Culture grave from Szwajcaria by Suwałki, barrow 2 (early 3 rd c. AD) and late antique necropolis at Čatyr Dag in Crimea. Basing on the chosen archaeological examples from different parts of the Iron Age Europe a mobility of a military character-practice mentioned in the written and ethnographic sources-is exemplified.

B lunt weapon generally, and maces in particular, receive little attention from students of arms. They were never employed as universally as swords or daggers, but there is no doubt that they were personal weapons. This can be concluded in spite of sparse mentions in written sources. It was also related to ambiguity of definitions known from the written evidence: baculus/bacellus, mace, masse, keule, streikolben, by which both maces with metal heads and wooden clubs were understood (Michalak 2005, p. 186).

Thrace had the potential to field huge numbers of troops, and the Thracian way of warfare had a huge influence on Classical Greek and Hellenistic warfare. Many examples of weapons and armour have been found in Thracian sites.. After Thrace was conquered by the Romans, the Thracians provided a ready source of tough auxiliaries to the Roman army.

This book gives an overview of Thracian history and culture, but focuses predominantly on their warfare and weapons. The latest archaeological finds are used to give the most detailed and accurate picture yet of their arms, armour and costume. He identifies and differentiates the many different tribes, showing that their weapons and tactics varied. The resulting study is of interest to anyone interested in the archaeology and history of the region or in classical warfare as a whole.

CONTENTS
------------------

PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
THE SOURCES

HISTORICAL OUTLINE
The Sixth Century
The 5th Century
The 4th Century
The 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC: The Beginning of the Roman era
The 2nd and 1st centuries: the end of Thracian independence.The End of the Thracians

THRACIAN COSTUME
Classical and Archaic Thracians
Thracian costume of the Hellenistic and Roman eras

ARMOUR
Helmets
Body Armour
North Thracian Armour
Greaves
Shields
New Shields

WEAPONS
Swords & Knives
The Bronze Age and earlier
Knives
Swords
The Iron Age
Long Swords
The Akinakes
The Machaira, or kopis, and other Thracian curved swords
The Sica - sword or rhomphaia?
The Rhomphaia
Spears & Javelins
Axes
Catapaults
Bows and Arrows
Slings and Staff Slings
Clubs
Unconventional weapons – Carts and spiked axles - The defence of the Shipka Pass

THE THRACIAN ARMY
Thracian Armies – size and composition
The Bronze Age
Chariots
Cavalry
Early Thracian cavalry
Heavy Cavalry
Light Cavalry
Light Cavalry Shields
Thracian Horses
Later cavalry developments
Spurs
Lances
Saddles and Saddle Cloths
Cavalry Shields, swords, and the shift back to javelins
Hamippoi
Infantry
Slingers
Archers
Javelinmen
Peltasts
Long Spears
Later Infantry Developments
The Peltast in the Fourth Century
The Iphicratean reforms
Thureophoroi
Thorakitai
The Thracian army in Britain
Cohors I Thracvm Cohors II Thracvm
Cohors VII Thracvm Alae Primae Thracvm

MILITARY ORGANISATION
Thracian Formations
The navy “Thrace, the Final Frontier” – The Military Geography of Thrace

FORTIFICATIONS

BATTLES AND TACTICS
Sitalces’ invasion of Macedonia, 429 BC (Thucydides 2.100)
The 10,000 in Thrace -Seuthes' rebellion, 400 BC (Anabasis 7.3.4 -7.7.57).
The Triballia attack Abdera, 376 BC (Diodorus Siculus XV. 36. 1-5)
Order of battle
Alexander’s invasion, 335 BC (Arrian 1.1.6)
Order of Battle
The Battle of the Lyginus River, 335 BC (Arrian 1.2-1.3)
Order of Battle
The Battle of Raphia 217 BC
The Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC) – “Peltasts in the Mist
The Battle of Magnesia (190 BC) and its aftermath.
The prelude to the battle,:
The Thracians in the battle
After the battle of Magnesia: The Thracians ambush the Roman army
Order of Battle
The Thracians attack the Galatians on “Mt Olympus” (Livy 37.21-23)
The Battles of Kallinikos (171 BC) and Pydna (168 BC)
The Battle of Kallinikos, 171 BC (Livy 42.57-60.1)
The Battle of Pydna (168 BC) and the Pydna Monument
Thracian tactics

THRACIAN TRIBES
Bessi
The Bisaltai
Bithynia and the Bithynians
- Chronology
- Introduction
- History
- The Bithynian Army
Dii
Getai
The Moesi/Mysians
Odomanti
Odrysai
Paeonians
The Agrianians
The Thyni
The Triballi

GLOSSARY
Abbreviations used in the Notes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
-Ancient Sources
-Modern Sources
-Other References
-CD-ROM
-Video
INDEX

In July 2015, at the request of the Ilfov County Directorate for Culture of an archaeological diagnostic research was undertaken in Snagov Forest, located on the territory of Snagov (Ilfov County, Romania). At this point was reported the discovery, made by an amateur with the help of a metal detector, of an iron sword, since April of the same year. The discoverer left the feature undisturbed in depth and notified the authorities.
At the indicated location, the archaeologists found, after removing the disturbed vegetal
layer, the existence of a pit in which the profile of an iron sword could be seen. In order
to recover the archaeological material, a box-shaped excavation was made. Unfortunately, due to the uniform composition of the soil, chestnut-black in color, the shape and size of the pit in which the artifacts were deposited could not be identified.
The discovered inventory consisted of a ritually bent iron sword, an iron spearhead
stuck vertically into the ground, an iron knife, a bronze buckle, a few fragments of cremated bones, and a few remnants of a bronze plate which disintegrated upon discovery. Our opinion is that the deposit is a cenotaph. The archeological materials discovered allow, by analogy with similar artifacts, the framing of this deposit in the 4th‒5th centuries AD, and they represent an exceptional archaeological discovery both by the nature of the inventory, the ritual practiced, and by the chronological and geographical positioning.

Within the chronological system of the 10th-century Carpathian Basin, the Hungarian research attributes an important role to the straight double-edged »Viking swords«. According to Gy. László, K. Bakay and L. Kovács, these swords appeared in the archaeological material of the Magyars in the second half or last quarter of the century. The chronological position of the swords is based on the hypothesis of a military reform, a »weapon change« and the organisation of a new army by dux Géza and rex Saint Stephen I, since they recognised that the nomadic Magyar tactics and weaponry are inferior to the contemporary West European armoured heavy cavalry. In this paper, a historical and archaeological critique of the hypothesis is attempted, discussing topics like the possibility of an early medieval European military reform, the unconditional linking of certain weapon types to certain tactics, the archaeological identification of military matters like tactics and retinue, the comparison of the efficiency of sabre and sword, and finally the assumed certain West European origin of these swords.

Thin plates carved from antler, prominent elements of the Magyars’ feared weapon, the bow, are often encountered in the tenth-century archaeological material of the Carpathian Basin. These bow plates have so far been exclusively recovered from male weapon burials, in which they are often accompanied by other elements of archery equipment such as the quiver and arrows. While the tip plates attached to the side of the rigid bow tips reveal much about the structure of the bow to the expert eye, a closer look at the damages suffered by these fragile artefacts offer additional information on an interesting phenomenon. The greater part of the tip plates recovered from well-documented, undisturbed burials bear unusual damage types on the nock section (mutilation, rupturing, breakage). These manipulations can be interpreted as part of the funerary rite and as such, they shed light on the beliefs and customs associated with the otherworld, whose purpose was probably to make the bow unusable.

Тези доповідей наукового семінару присвячені актуальним питанням археології Буковини та сусідніх регіонів. Розглядається проблематика кам'яної доби, епохи палеометалу, раннього заліза, середньовіччя та раннього нового часу, а також історії вивчення, охорони та використання об'єктів археологічної спадщини, музеєфікації старожитностей краю. Результати досліджень представили науковці та краєзнавці з Чернівецької, Львівської, Івано-Франківської, Тернопільської областей, Києва, Чернігова, Ужгорода, Кам'янця-Подільського (Україна), Чикаго (США), Бухареста, Сучави та Ясс (Румунія), Будапешта (Угорщина), Єдинецького району (Молдова).

Hoplite Phalanx Mechanics:
Investigation of Footwork, Spacing and Shield Coverage
Karl Randall (Kyungsung Universtiy)

The Greek phalanx has been a subject of study for generations of both historians and military tacticians alike. Almost every conceivable detail of its organization, supply, evolution and social effects has been covered many times over. Yet despite this, there is a relatively poor understanding of how a phalanx actually worked. The stance which individuals took and how far
apart they stood from their compatriots, the position in which the held their weapons, could the second or third ranks engage the enemy and if the hoplite shield provided physical cover to the soldier on one's immediate left are details that have remained largely unexplored. Passages penned by a number of period (or near period) authors that potentially shed light on such these
points remain under debate to this day. It is hoped that the current investigation will provide fresh insight into such details by combining a survey of existing sources with hands on experience, in this case by actually going out and arming a volunteer phalanx on a small scale to see what is both possible and practical. As with any modern recreation, a certain amount of guesswork is involved; the current effort, however, will have the advantage of providing firsthand observations that supply simple and rational explanations of practical phalanx mechanics as a means to shed light on preexisting sources.

[Key Words] Greece, Hoplite, Phalanx, Shield, Footwork, Spacing, History, Military, Warfare

Disc cuirasses of the Iberian Peninsula (6th-4th century B.C.)
Most of the proto-historic cuirasses of the Iberian Peninsula consist of a pair of bronze discs. The cataloging
and study of these pieces, considering the different cultures of the Iberian Peninsula between the 6th and
the 4th century BC, allowed us to reconsider some research topics proposed about these objects:
First, their origin and chronology of appearance in the Western Mediterranean, that we now can place in
the south-eastern France area between the 7th and the 6th century BC. Secondly, their versatility to evolve
according to the Mediterranean fashions and techniques of each period, which corresponds with other
examples of metal panoply such as greaves, helmets and other armour. Thirdly, the distribution of these
pieces during the period of use defines a sequence of areas: starting from the south of France they reach
the northern area of the province of Castelló, and, after that, concentrate and develop in the Celto-Iberian
region from where they spread to other territories. Finally, the adaptation of external influences on these objects
during more than two centuries, without adding and modifying ergonomic forms, shows an extreme
conservatism. This situation in which the disc cuirass remains unchanged during such a long period corresponds
to the iconography. In this case, the cuirass represents a status symbol and also an ethnic indicator.
The study has also characterised the production of some types of discs that suggest specialised production
workshops near the areas of mineral extraction. That could be related to a knowledge and a control of the
alloy and, thus, the manufacturing.
Combining these results allows us to propose an evolution of the disc cuirasses and their organic basis,
as well as a discussion about Iberian mercenaries in the Central Mediterranean between the 6th and 4th
century BC.

The chronology and distribution of the lentil shaped shield buckle is discussed as well as the chronology and origin of the weaponry from the Hjortspring weapon deposit. Basing on recent finds from Scandinavia it is sugested that at least a part of the Hjortspring army could have come from the Scandinavian peninsula.

Przedmiotem pracy jest zabytek ze zbiorów Zbrojowni Zamku Królewskiego na Wawelu, który może wnieść nowe wiadomości do poznania średniowiecznej instytucji sądów bożych (iudicia dei). Chodzi o tzw. koncerz krzyżacki – broń znaną polskim bronioznawcom od dawna, opisywaną wielokrotnie przez Zdzisława Żygulskiego (jun.), której nietypowej konstrukcji długo nie udawało się jednak wytłumaczyć. Dopiero rozwój badań nad średniowieczną kulturą bojową pozwolił ujrzeć ją we właściwym kontekście. W dalszej części artykułu prezentuję skróconą charakterystykę fizyczną tej broni, omawiam jej związek ze Skarbcem Koronnym na Wawelu oraz staram się zarysować szeroki kontekst, w jakim funkcjonowała, nim stała się pamiątką po przeszłości. Na koniec podejmuję dyskusję z hipotezą Karola Estreichera dotyczącą roli omawianego zabytku w bitwie grunwaldzkiej.

The aim of the paper is to enhance our understanding of bow finds unearthed in burials in Eurasia in the first millennium A.D. General terminological, methodological and source critical problems are concerned in order to define the information value of the two main sources, i.e. rigid bow applications and well-preserved bows. Hence, an attempt is made to find a suitable, unambiguous term for the bows surveyed, through an epistemological analysis of the terminology of bows in general. As the structure of the arms (complex or simple) and the reflex or deflex of the bow cannot be unequivocally ascertained on the base of archaeological data alone – considering our first and abundant group of rigid bow applications, the initiation of the ‘rigid’ term seems appropriate, as it properly describes the main characteristic of the archaeological record. Concerning the terminology of rigid bow applications, Russian, English, German and Hungarian terms of different meanings are unified into a coherent system, emphasizing certain related theoretical problems of function (strengthening versus decoration or structure) and material (bone versus antler). Thus an objective terminology is proposed, which besides the main formal characteristic of the application (plate or rod) also indicates its location (grip or tip) and position (frontal, dorsal or lateral). Dealing with issues of source criticism and research methods, the usage of artistic sources is also challenged here. In order to demonstrate the general unrealism, abstraction and thus inapplicability of the artistic depictions, the finds from Kurgantepe (Uzbekistan) are analyzed, where both pictorial and archaeological evidence were unearthed in the same grave. The types, quality and general ‘worth’ of information (fabrication, structure, function, use-wear traces, etc.) derived from the archeological record (i.e. rigid bow applications) are discussed in greater length. Furthermore, it is noted that rigid bow applications once were part of a complicated & complex mechanical machine, thus the epistemological question arose, whether the applications can be understood and discussed separately or only as parts of the whole entity, i.e. the bow. For it makes real difference, if one classifies and evaluates the applications or only the bow itself. The aim of the prolonged theoretical discussion is to provide a firm methodological basis for further analysis of the archaeological material unearthed throughout Eurasia. At last, to demonstrate the enormous importance of well-preserved bow finds, i.e. the ultimate source of the research, a list of all pre-Mongol period rigid bow finds in Eurasia is compiled and evaluated. Thus the chronological and chorological aspects of well-preserved bows are given, while overall source critical problems (archaeological context, available information, state of preservation, etc.) are also concerned.

Structures make history. They are also the origins and makers of group identities. Based on that principle, this book focuses on power structures in nomadic societies, and more specifically, on the emergence of the Hungarian power structure. In regard to early medieval power structures, Walter Pohl introduced the concepts of steppe-empire and steppe-state to describe those power structures, which evolved in nomadic societies, and in a peculiar geographical context – the region of the Eurasian steppe that offered a unique opportunity for development.
The genesis of this (Asian-type) power structure was completely different from that of the Mediterranean (Greco-Roman) model that had been adopted later by the Germanic tribes.
One also must note that nomadic and modern concepts of state are entirely different.
The 18th century principle of popular sovereignty associated with Rousseau’s theory was not known in early medieval nomadic societies. Power was constituted from above, and not from below, as the source of legitimacy was not temporal (i.e. the people), but sacral. The identities of “barbaric” groups, as power structures, were organized around their leader (chieftain, khagan, king etc.).
Thus, not only the source of power was sacral, but the identities of micro- and macro groups were tied into the sacral nature of power. To put it differently: it was the leaders, or the elites, who had their peoples, and not the other way around. This is important to underline, since the available – primarily Eastern European – literature often considers the names of peoples recorded in written sources as indications of political entities.
However, the very concept of “Early Hungarian history” (or Ancient Hungarian history) was/is relative, since it is impossible to date – with reassuring accuracy – the emergence of the concept of “Hungary” as a state, or as a nation. The concepts of “state” and “nation” – although related – are not identical.
From a chronological viewpoint, the 10th century is the very last phase of the Early History of the Hungarians. From a geographical viewpoint, however, “Hungarians” as an “Eastern” cultural entity were based at this time already in the Carpathian Basin, and not in the steppe region. As documented perfectly by archaeological finds, their social institutions, customs, and even their dress, which they brought from the East, already started to change irreversibly.

Esta obra se distribuye bajo licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0 Internacional (CC BY-NC 4.0) La Editorial Dykinson autoriza a incluir esta obra en repositorios institucionales de acceso abierto para facilitar su difusión. Al tratarse de una obra colectiva, cada autor únicamente podrá incluir el o los capítulos de su autoría.

Studies on the Weapons of Poseidonia-Paestum (prov Salerno / I) 1 Azzurra Scarci Iron and Bronze Weapons from the Sanctuary at Monte Casale (prov Syracuse / I) as »ex voto par Transformation, ex voto par Destination« Claudio Negrini Weapons and the Symbolic Representation of Warriors in the Necropoleis of Romagna (Italy) between the 10 th and the 5 th Century BC

En la Antigüedad, las representaciones de amazonas fueron numerosas y relativamente variadas, gracias a los diversos mitos que de ellas existían A lo largo de este trabajo intentaré elaborar una relación de los motivos y los paralelismos, tanto temáticos como artísticos, que aparecen en el mundo griego a lo largo de los periodos Arcaico y Clásico. En este sentido, destaca el análisis de las escenas recogidas en numerosos vasos, ya que se trata del soporte mayoritario en que este mito fue utilizado como elemento decorativo; no obstante, su aparición en otro tipo de obras, como esculturas, pinturas o relieves, será igualmente tratada con el fin de intentar establecer pautas y "modas" tanto en los elementos como en las temáticas, buscando desentrañar la finalidad que este tipo de obras suscitó en el ámbito griego y en aquellos pueblos con los que éste tuvo contacto a través del comercio.