Climatic condition

This paper describes how to optimize the energy performance of single-story multiple-skin facades (MSF) by changing the settings of the facades and HVAC-system according to the net energy demand of the building. The annual energy performance is analyzed for typical Belgian climatic conditions using a whole building simulation tool. Three MSF are scrutinised: a mechanically ventilated airflow window, a naturally ventilated double-skin facade and a mechanically ventilated supply window. Their performance is compared against the performance of two traditional facades: a traditional window with exterior and interior shading device. It is shown that both the heating and cooling demand may significantly be improved by implementing control strategies such as controlling the airflow rate and the recovery of air returning from the multiple-skin facades.

An investigation was made into the epidemiology of nematode infections of sheep in two districts of Jimma zone, southwestern Ethiopia. We used two approaches-long-term monitoring of identified sheep for nematode infection and abattoir or market survey for analysis. In the first monitoring regime, we used 80 lambs [40 sheep (20 per sex) from each district (Dedo and Yebu)] averaging 4-5 months of age. Faecal egg counts (FEC), packed cell volume (PCV) and body weight changes were monitored over a period of 1 year. Additionally, faecal samples were collected (on a weekly basis) from sheep brought to abattoir/market for 1 year to monitor faecal egg counts. The nematode parasite burden, as judged by FEC and PCV, was generally low indicating that the climatic conditions are not conducive to the development and survival of nematode eggs and the freeliving stages; hence, little transmission occurred. In the experimental flocks, the highest FEC and lower PCV were recorded during the long rainy season (June to September) with peak in August and September. Faecal samples collected from abattoir/ market also followed the same trend. Results from experimental sheep indicated that location had a significant (P<0.01) effect on FEC, PCV and average daily body weight gain. The FEC and PCV for sheep in Yebu (mid-altitude) district were 126±3.33 and 30.6±0.26, whereas the values for Dedo (highland) were 93 ±4.35 and 32.0± 0.21, respectively. The results indicate that the highland areas are comparatively less favourable to the survival and development of nematodes. Female lambs had lower FEC and higher PCV compared to male lambs (P<0.05). The overall nematode parasite challenge in the area, however, is low. We, therefore, recommend rotational grazing management combined with monitoring parasite load and selective treatment to reduce productivity loses and pasture contamination.

The movement patterns of two chacma baboon troops in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa were studied over an 18-month period. One of these troops (HIGH) lived on the escarpment slopes (1920-2980 m), while the other (LOW) lived primarily in the montane belt (1560-2000 m). In this paper we analyze the effects of environmental variables on day journeys and home range use. We found the troops to be similar in the temporal patterning of their daily movement, in the resistance of travel speed to variations in local climatic conditions, and in their response to the nutritional bottleneck at the end of the austral winter. While both troops traveled farther as food became scarcer, HIGH troop undertook longer day journeys than LOW troop. This was probably due to the interactive effects of absolutely lower food availability and lower ambient temperatures. HIGH troop traveled farther when food was scarcer and when minimum temperatures were higher. Neither variable accounted for variance in the day journeys of LOW troop. Both troops used some areas of their home ranges preferentially. For LOW troop this preference followed the spatial distribution of food. While the same was generally true for HIGH troop, its home range use was complicated by the adverse temperatures of winter and spring. It abandoned the higher, more productive part of its range once temperatures became severe, returning only after minimum ground temperatures had risen above O~ These usage patterns differ from those described for eastern African baboon populations and reflect both the severity

The knowledge of past climatic and environmental conditions in central Mexico, interpreted extensively from lacustrine records, is restricted to the last ca. 50,000 years. The recent discovery of new localities of paleosol sequences in central Mexico and the reconnaissance of their usefulness as records of environmental change provides a new source of information about past climatic conditions for times prior to the last full glacial. In this paper, we analyze the mineral magnetic properties of a sequence of paleosols developed in volcaniclastic deposits and evaluate these data as paleoenvironmental proxy. The sequence consists of a modern Phaeozem soil and seven late Quaternary Luvisol paleosols outcropping in Barranca Tlalpan, Tlaxcala, Mexico. Rock magnetic analysis was used to study the concentration and type of magnetic mineralogy. The mineral magnetic data, supported by soil morphological and chemical data, are interpreted to indicate that the paleosols can be grouped in three sets, each with distinct characteristics. The Red set paleosols P7 and P6 are the most weathered, and present the highest magnetic concentration composed of Ti-magnetite and ultrafine magnetite (<30 nm). The Brown set of paleosols P5, P4 and P3, with few redoximorphic features, have coarser grains and lower concentrations of magnetic minerals. The Gray set, paleosols P2 and P1, have abundant redoximorphic features including Fe-Mn nodules, and have a multicomponent magnetic mineralogy of coarse size. Paleosols from the Red and Brown sets conserve evidence of neoformation of ultrafine magnetite grains in the Bt horizons, probably derived from pedogenic processes. However, direct observations by microscopy and rock magnetism parameters point to a later destruction of this ultrafine fraction. We consider that even if pedogenic processes resulted in the formation of ultrafine magnetite, redoximorphic conditions under humid climates are responsible of the destruction of magnetic minerals. Such conditions may have strongly prevailed in the Gray set paleosols, whereas the Red set was probably developed under contrasting seasonal precipitation climates, which favored the formation and preservation of pedogenic magnetic minerals.

Soil erosion by water is the major soil degradation threat for the territory of Bulgaria. Assessment of land susceptibility to erosion is a basis for effective conservation planning. Information on rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility is essential for soil erosion risk assessments. This paper aims at presenting assessments of soil erodibility and rainfall erosivity for the territory of Bulgaria at a scale of 1: 100, 000. Rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility were assessed using the respective factors defined in the Universal soil Loss Equation (USLE). Data collected in a databank on the results from soil erosion experiments using field plots were used to evaluate rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility factors for the soil and climate conditions in the experimental sites and to test suitability of models for estimating these factors. The general equation for estimating the erosivity term from daily rainfall data, proposed by Richardson et al., has been found to be suitable for evaluating the rainfall erosivity factor from the routine outputs of the national meteorological survey. The model was parameterised for 9 sites with long-term daily rainfall data to evaluate the site-specific parameter, which values were then graphically interpolated using a DEM for 84 hydro-meteorological stations across the country's territory with long-term observations. Each of those 84 weather stations was then characterized with an average annual value with respective standard deviation of the rainfall erosivity factor using the respective site-specific parameters. The values of the rainfall erosivity factor were then categorized in

Most atmospheric scientists agree that climate changes are going to increase the mean temperature in Europe with increased frequency of climatic extremes, such as drought, floods, and storms. Under such conditions, there is high probability that forests will be subject to increased frequency and intensity of stress due to climatic extremes. Therefore, impacts of climate change on forest health should be carefully evaluated. Given these assumptions, several fungal diseases on trees may become more devastating because of the following factors: (i) abiotic stresses, such as drought and flooding, are known to predispose trees to several pathogens; (ii) temperature and moisture affect pathogen sporulation and dispersal, and changes in climatic conditions are likely to favour certain pathogens; (iii) migration of pathogens triggered by climatic change may increase disease incidence or geographical range, when pathogens encounter new hosts and (or) new potential vectors; and (iv) new threats may appear either because of a change in tree species composition or because of invasive species. If infection success is dependent on temperature, higher mean temperatures may lead to more attacks. Pathogens that have been of importance in southern Europe may spread northward and also upward to mountains. Pathogens with evolutionary potential for greater damage should be identified to estimate the magnitude of the threat and to prepare for the changing conditions. A review of the above-mentioned cases is presented. Some priorities to improve the ability to predict impacts of climate change on tree diseases are discussed.

To evaluate individual variations in broccoli VOLTA F1 plants, the bioactive components of 15 florets that were cultivated in identical agricultural and climatic conditions were analyzed. Glucosinolates were analyzed by HPLC; total phenolic compounds, ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acids (vitamin C) and the DPPH • and OH • radical-scavenging activities of samples were also determined. Florets were characterized by particularly high glucoraphanin content, 17.95 lmol/g dry weight on average, which comprised about 50% of total glucosinolates. High individual variation was observed for several bioactive compounds, as well as for DPPH • and OH • radical-scavenging activity. Coefficients of variability (CVs) were high, and except for one case, exceeded 10%. Among glucosinolates, the highest CVs were noted for progoitrin (34.22%), 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin (27.32%) and neoglucobrassicin (24.44%). High CVs were also observed for vitamin C (29.11%), including dehydroascorbic acid (26.72%), and for OH • (25.76%) and DPPH • (21.77%) radical-scavenging activities. Smaller variations were found for glucoraphanin (CV = 14.84%) and polyphenols (CV = 14.95%).

Since 1997, the agricultural leases on Native land, issued under the 1976 Agricultural and Landlord Tenants Act (ALTA), began to expire. The sugar industry is the main commodity export earner for Fiji, directly contributing about 22% of the national GDP and supporting over 25% of the country&#x27;s active labor force. Fiji exports 80% of its sugar production, earning on average of $250-300 million in foreign exchange annually. Several options have been suggested, including: non-renewal of leases, with the land reverting to Fijian owners; renewal of ALTA but with land rents pegged to the gross value of production instead of the unimproved capital value; sharecropping and contract wage arrangements; and abolishment of lease arrangement under ALTA with leases to be issued under an institutional arrangement guided by the Native Lands Trust Act (NLTA). The land tenure system adopted will have a significant impact not only on the efficiency of the sugar cane sector but also on Fiji&#x27;s...

Agriculture is highly exposed to climate change, as farming activities directly depend on climatic conditions. Knowledge of the extent of such change and of related phenomena will help to answer the questions posed by society about adaptation strategies. The global situation is well described by the Fourth IPCC assessment report (IPCC 2007), but local studies are important to understand the impact and the priorities to adopt in adaptation strategies. In this study a historical set of meteorological data, collected during the period 1952-2007 at the University of Bologna (Italy) agrometeorological station, was analysed. Several indexes, such as Frost Severity Index, number of hot days, number of rainy days, etc., were calculated, and their trends in time were analysed. The results show a scenario of increasing temperatures and evapotranspiration, a decrease in rainy days and a deepening of the watertable. The effect of these changes on agriculture will be a decrease in water availability, an increase in heat stress in plants and an increase in drought risk.

1. Climate change has been inducing range shifts for many species as they follow their suitable climate space and further shifts are projected. Whether species will be able to colonize regions where climate conditions become suitable, so-called 'new climate space', depends on species traits and habitat fragmentation. 2. By combining bioclimate envelope models with dispersal models, we identified areas where the spatial cohesion of the ecosystem pattern is expected to be insufficient to allow colonization of new climate space. 3. For each of three ecosystem types, three species were selected that showed a shift in suitable climate space and differed in habitat fragmentation sensitivity. 4. For the 2020 and 2050 time slices, the amount of climatically suitable habitat in northwest Europe diminished for all studied species. Additionally, significant portions of new suitable habitat could not be colonized because of isolation. Together, this will result in a decline in the amount of suitable habitat protected in Natura 2000 sites. 5. We develop several adaptation strategies to combat this problem: (i) link isolated habitat that is within a new suitable climate zone to the nearest climate-proof network; (ii) increase colonizing capacity in the overlap zone, the part of a network that remains suitable in successive time frames; (iii) optimize sustainable networks in climate refugia, the part of a species' range where the climate remains stable. 6. Synthesis and applications. Following the method described in this study, we can identify those sites across Europe where ecosystem patterns are not cohesive enough to accommodate species' responses to climate change. The best locations for climate corridors where improving connectivity is most urgent and potential gain is highest can then be pinpointed.

For organic potato producers the two main challenges are disease and nutrient management. Both factors are limited by regulations that on the one hand prohibit the use of chemical fertilisers, especially nitrogen and, on the other hand, most synthetic pesticides. Late blight, caused by Phytophthora infestans is commonly thought to be the factor most limiting yield. However, because there is no really effective fungicide available to control late blight, there are virtually no yield loss data available for organic farming conditions. In this paper the state of the art of organic potato management with respect to disease and nutrient management is summarised. In a second part, the interactive effects of N-availability in the soil, climatic conditions and late blight were studied in the presence and absence of copper fungicides from 2002-2004 for the mid-early main-crop cv. Nicola. From the experimental work it became clear that copper fungicides in most cases do slow down epidemics adding an average of 3 days to the growth duration. However, only 30% of the variation in yield could be attributed to disease reduction. A model including disease reduction, growth duration and temperature sum from planting until 60% disease severity was reached, and soil mineral N contents at 10 days after emergence could explain 75% of the observed variation in yield. However, the model failed when N-supply was extremely high. The implications of the results on the management of organic potatoes with respect to cultivar choice, nutrient and disease management are discussed. In conclusion, several points emerge from the results: In organic farming, yields are foremost limited by nutrient availability in spring and early summer. The effects of late blight on yields may often be overestimated and cannot be deducted from results in conventional farming because of the strong interaction with nutrient status. Resistance clearly remains the most important strategy against late blight in organic potato production. However, as important or even more important than resistance is the early development and bulking behaviour and the ability of a cultivar to make use of organic nutrients

A typical Italian white grape cultivar (Erbaluce) and two red ones (Barbera and Nebbiolo), all grown in the same vineyard, were picked at various ripening stages, from differentiation of the berry to the harvest, and analysed by HPLC to determine carotenoids, chlorophylls and polyphenols, i.e. the major antioxidant components. With regard to carotenoids, mostly represented by β-carotene and lutein, similar initial concentrations were found in the three cultivars. After an initial increase, carotenoids content decreased in the three cultivars, followed in the red grapes by a new peak, mainly due to lutein. Chlorophylls decreased in all cultivars and they almost disappeared in the white grapes, while 14-20% of the initial concentration was found in the red ripe grapes. Total phenolics showed a progressive increase up to veraison, then a decrease occurred, which was counteracted in red grapes by the formation of anthocyanins. The evolution of catechins (as the sum of (+)catechin and (−)epicatechin) and flavonols (as the sum of rutin, quercetin and quercetin-3-glucoside) was similar in all grapes: initial concentration was low (about 1 mg/100 g dw), a peak corresponding to veraison was observed, then a rapid decline occurred to final concentrations between 10 and 20 mg/100 g dw. Climatic conditions and sun exposure seem to play an important role in the evolution of the components under investigation, since very similar profiles were observed in the three cultivars.

Although some invasive plants are cosmopolitan, not all ecosystems are invaded to the same degree. Yet there is little experimental work on how ecosystem resistance to invasion at the establishment phase differs among ecosystems. We conducted two field sowing experiments in two consecutive years to examine establishment of the deciduous tree Ailanthus altissima , the succulent subshrub Carpobrotus spp. and the annual geophyte Oxalis pes-caprae in coastal dunes, shrublands and oldfields in more than 200 sites across six Mediterranean Basin islands differing in climatic conditions and local species richness. Establishment success (i.e. percentage of plots with at least one seedling) and rates (i.e. seedling to sown seed ratio) were low, especially for Ailanthus even when accounting for differences in seed viability. Oxalis was capable of producing a new cohort of seedlings the year following planting. By contrast, all Ailanthus seedlings and half the Carpobrotus seedlings died following the first summer. Differences in establishment success and rates among ecosystems were species-, island-and year-dependent. Differences in precipitation and mean temperature were associated with differences in establishment rates across sites. Establishment rates tended to be positively correlated with cumulative precipitation and negatively with mean T a. Unexpectedly, native species richness was not a good predictor of seedling establishment, except for higher Oxalis establishment success in species rich habitats. By conducting field sowing tests at multiple sites across a region we found that except for Oxalis , Mediterranean island ecosystems are quite resistant to invader establishment. These results suggest that differences in the degree of invasion between ecosystems and islands might be more dependent upon the influence of invasion event factors (e.g. propagule pressure) or factors acting at a later life-history stages rather than differences in the resistance imposed by ecosystems to invader recruitment. Moreover, our results support the notion that in Mediterranean ecosystems invasions are highly idiosyncratic events and strongly dependent on water availability conditions.

Inevitable consequences of the practice of solid waste disposal in landfills are gas and leachate generation due primarily to microbial decomposition, climatic conditions, refuse characteristics and landfilling operations. The migration of gas and leachate away from the landfill boundaries and their release into the surrounding environment present serious environmental concerns at both existing and new facilities. Besides potential health hazards, these concerns include, and are not limited to, fires and explosions, vegetation damage, unpleasant odors, landfill settlement, ground water pollution, air pollution and global warming. This paper presents an overview of gas and leachate formation mechanisms in landfills and their adverse environmental impacts, and describes control methods to eliminate or minimize these impacts.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright Author's personal copy An experimental helical-tubular photobioreactor for continuous production of Nannochloropsis sp.

Areas permanently cultivated under DMC systems (Direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems, which are part of the family of practices known as Conservation Agriculture) have increased remarkably in Latin America over recent decades, reaching around 50% of total cropped area in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. These systems have been developed to counteract soil degradation and to achieve more sustainable grain production. Under tropical and subtropical conditions the efficiency of such systems increases with the introduction of multi-functional cover crops growing in rotation with the main commercial crops or whenever climatic conditions are too risky for planting a commercial crop. The introduction of cover crops leads to a better utilization of available natural resources throughout the year, more biomass production, permanent soil protection and higher organic restitutions to the soil. DMC systems also offer environmental, economic and agronomic advantages to farmers. Nevertheless they are quite complex systems and their adaptation to specific local constraints and conditions is not straightforward, especially in the case of smallholder, resource-limited agriculture. Specific approaches have been designed, based on systemic and participatory research principles, to create, adapt and disseminate these systems among farmers by working mainly under actual farming conditions. The active participation of farmers and their organizations is fundamental at all stages, as well as that of other key stakeholders of the agricultural sector. Farmers, researchers and their key partners still need to meet several challenges to further increase the success and large-scale adoptability of DMC systems. These include understanding and enhancing the underlying biological processes, creating DMC systems less dependant on chemicals or external inputs, as well as fitting these systems for conditions of close interactions between agriculture and livestock production. These last two challenges are especially true for small-scale farmers operating in marginal environments. Also, the knowledge and experience about DMC systems functioning, creation and management, and about adoption stories, needs to be better systematized and made available through the development of synthetic tools such as data bases, dynamic models and global indicators of DMC system functioning and impact, as well as through enhanced networking among the different stakeholders. Putting together these various pieces will facilitate the conception and implementation of new projects aiming to enhance DMC adaptation and adoption. Media summary Direct seeding mulch-based cropping (DMC) systems are currently adopted on large areas of Latin America to obtain a sustainable production of grain, increasing agronomic, economic and environmental efficiency.

Climate-change scenarios were created from scaling factors derived from several general circulation models to assess the likely impacts of aquifer pumping on the water resources of the Edwards Balcones Fault Zone (BFZ) aquifer, Texas, one of the largest aquifer systems in the United States. Historical climatic time series in periods of extreme water shortage (1947-1959), near-average recharge (1978-1989), and above-average recharge (1975-1990) were scaled to 2 × CO 2 conditions to create aquifer recharge scenarios in a warmer climate. Several pumping scenarios were combined with 2 × CO 2 climate scenarios to assess the sensitivity of water resources impacts to human-induced stresses on the Edwards BFZ aquifer. The 2 × CO 2 climatechange scenarios were linked to surface hydrology and used to drive aquifer dynamics with alternative numerical simulation models calibrated to the Edwards BFZ aquifer. Aquifer simulations indicate that, given the predicted growth and water demand in the Edwards BFZ aquifer region, the aquifer's ground water resources appear threatened under 2 × CO 2 climate scenarios. Our simulations indicate that 2 × CO 2 climatic conditions could exacerbate negative impacts and water shortages in the Edwards BFZ aquifer even if pumping does not increase above its present average level. The historical evidence and the results of this article indicate that without proper consideration to variations in aquifer recharge and sound pumping strategies, the water resources of the Edwards BFZ aquifer could be severely impacted under a warmer climate.

Vulnerability is a multidimensional concept associated with high uncertainty in measurement and classification. Developing a vulnerability index from the diverse and often incommensurate data that form the basis of vulnerability assessments is often a core challenge of vulnerability research. Problematically, many vulnerability indices are based on the implicit or explicit assumption that each indicator of vulnerability is of equal importance. In this paper we propose a procedure to engage constructively with the inherent subjectivity and uncertainty of assigning weights to disparate indicators used in vulnerability assessments, using common tools of multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) and fuzzy logic. To illustrate our proposed methodology, we present a case study of rural livelihood vulnerability in the state of Tamaulipas, Me´xico. In our case study, we combine a livelihoods framework with MCDA to weigh household attributes according to their relative importance in driving household vulnerability. This approach requires the explicit articulation of the relationship of each indicator to the umbrella concept (vulnerability) as well as of each indicator to every other indicator. In recognition of the inherent uncertainties involved in assigning any particular unit of analysis to a specific vulnerability class, we use fuzzy logic to create the final categories of household livelihood vulnerability to climatic risk. Our analysis reveals how different structures of livelihood assets and activities contributes to household sensitivity and capacities in a region characterized by variable climatic conditions, stagnant incomes, increasing market stress and declining farm productivity.

The aim of this study was to determine the evapotranspiration and basal crop coefficient of alfalfa with a weighing lysimeter. Lysimeter experiments were conducted at Ankara Research Institute of Rural Services, Turkey during 1995-1997. Penman-Monteith, Makkink (FAO-radiation (FAO-Rad)) and Penman-FAO methods performed satisfactorily for estimating the reference evapotranspiration of alfalfa in semi-arid climate conditions.

Environmental Wind Tunnel (EWT) has emerged as one of the most widely used technique to carry out a wide rage of air pollution studies. EWT technique has shown promising results in analyzing complex fluid dynamical problems that are presently intractable through analytical/numerical technique. In EWT, the emission conditions, different meteorological situations, terrain and topographical features can be changed at will and useful data translatable to the real life situations can be obtained. Recently, EWT technique is being used to bridge the gap between the actual field conditions and various mathematical assumptions. Most of the EWTs throughout the world are located in few industrialized countries. In India, an EWT has been constructed and put operational at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi. This facility is first of its kind in South Asia, the nearest in the east is in Japan and that in the west is in Europe and USA. It is expected that with the operation of first ...

Touriga Franca grapevines were grown in Open-Top Chamber (OTC) and in outside plot (Exterior) for 3 years (2004-2006) to investigate the impact of these structures on climatic conditions and, consequently, on physiological and yield attributes. In general, CO 2 assimilation, stomatal conductance, carbohydrate concentration, maximum bulk modulus of elasticity, palisade parenchyma thickness, leaf mass per unit area and values of red/far-red ratio transmitted by leaves were lower, whereas intrinsic water use efficiency, SPAD-readings and osmotic potential at full turgor were higher in OTC leaves. However, OTC did not affect leaf water potential, maximum PSII photochemical efficiency, stomatal density and soluble proteins concentration. Also, there were no significant differences in C, P, Ca and Fe between treatments. Meanwhile, N and Mg were higher, whereas K concentration was lower in OTC leaves. The environmental conditions inside OTC provided a significant reduction in yield and Ravaz index of 2004, mainly due to a decrease in clusters weight. Regarding the vegetative growth parameters, OTC did not influence the pruning weight, but in 2006 the weight/shoot was significantly lower in OTC vines. In conclusion, the use OTC facility to study the impact of CO 2 enrichment was very expedite, but the extrapolation of results to the open-field environment must be prudent due to the OTC effect.

Buildings are large consumers of energy in all countries. In regions with harsh climatic conditions, a substantial share of energy goes to heat and cool buildings. This heating and airconditioning load can be reduced through many means; notable among them is the proper design and selection of building envelope and its components. The proper use of thermal insulation in buildings does not only contribute in reducing the required airconditioning system size but also in reducing the annual energy cost. Additionally, it helps in extending the periods of thermal comfort without reliance on mechanical airconditioning especially during inter-seasons periods. The magnitude of energy savings as a result of using thermal insulation vary according to the building type, the climatic conditions at which the building is located as well as the type of the insulating material used. The question now in the minds of many building owners is no longer should insulation be used but rather which type, how, and how much. The objective of this paper is to present an overview of the basic principles of thermal insulation and to survey the most commonly used building insulation materials, their performance characteristics and proper applications.

This work focuses on the operational characterisation of a fogging system in combination with forced ventilation for cooling greenhouses. This cooling system was installed and operated according to the following scheme: highpressure spray nozzles with the highest possible uniformity of distribution, fans at both ends of the greenhouse (north and south) placed at ground level, roof openings and two side openings (east and west). The results obtained revealed that inside the greenhouse air temperature and relative humidity of 288C and 80%, respectively, were maintained during the summer at midday. Furthermore, the results obtained revealed generally high uniformity of the climatic conditions (the same magnitude of temperature measurements error }AE0Á58C), within the greenhouse, in the lengthwise (north-south) and vertical directions. In contrast to that, there was significant variation across the width of the greenhouse (east-west), which arose as a result of wind action; however, under the conditions of a greenhouse with developed plants or with the windward openings closed, uniform conditions were obtained. It must be concluded that in order to obtain completely uniform climatic conditions throughout the volume of the greenhouse, it is desirable to install fans in all four sides. Such an arrangement may make possible: uniform climatic conditions within the desired range, even in the summer months; good control over the climatic conditions through reduction of the influence of the wind; operation of the greenhouse by means of a relatively simple control system; the establishment of greenhouses in large units and, consequently, better exploitation of the land area and significant reduction in the cost per unit area of the structure.

An experiment was conducted at El-Mattana Agricultural Research Station, Luxor Governorate, to evaluate the yield and ratooning ability of 30 sugar cane genotypes (clones) along with the check cultivar GT 54/9 during three different crop cycles; plant cane (PC), first ratoon (FR), and second ratoon (SR) crops during 2011/2013 harvesting seasons. A randomized complete block design with three replicates was used. Results indicated that the evaluated genotypes varied significantly (P = 0.05) within and among crop cycles for stalk length, stalk diameter, stalk density, stalk weight, stalks number, cane yield, Brix, sucrose%, purity%, sugar recovery, and sugar yield. The evaluated genotypes differed significantly in their ratooning ability (RA) for all studied traits. Over evaluated genotypes, means of stalk diameter, stalk weight, stalk density and cane yield in plant cane were higher than those in the first and second ratoon crops, while means of Brix, sucrose, purity and sugar recovery percentages in the second ratoon were higher than those in plant cane and first ratoon crops. The relative influence of genotypic variance ( 2 g) in determining the phenotypic variance was primary to genotype by crop interaction variance ( 2 gc) and error variance ( 2 e) for all studied traits. Broad sense heritability (H%) estimates were high for cane yield and its components as well as sugar yield, since it ranged from 82.53 for cane yield to 95.06 for stalk length. High genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) estimates were for stalk weight (27.01), stalk density (39.36) and stalk number (32.57), while low estimates were for stalk length and juice quality traits (2.05 ≤ GCV% ≥ 7.99). Genotypic variance ( 2 g) was primary to error variance ( 2 e) for RA of cane yield and its components as well as sugar yield and juice quality traits. The highest heritability estimates of RA were for stalk weight (98.10%), stalk density (98.24%), stalk number (99.46%) and sugar yield with high genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) estimates for the same traits (22.78, 32.26, 36.41 and 27.26, respectively).

Shade trees reduce the stress of coffee (Coffea spp.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao) by ameliorating adverse climatic conditions and nutritional imbalances, but they may also compete for growth resources. For example, shade trees buffer high and low temperature extremes by as much as 5 °C and can produce up to 14 Mg ha-1 yr-1 of litterfall and pruning residues, containing up to 340 kg N ha-1 yr-1. However, N 2 fixation by leguminous shade trees grown at a density of 100 to 300 trees ha-1 may not exceed 60 kg N ha-1 yr-1. Shade tree selection and management are potentially important tools for integrated pest management because increased shade may increase the incidence of some commercially important pests and diseases (such as Phythphora palmivora and Mycena citricolor) and decrease the incidence of others (such as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Cercospora coffeicola). In Central America, merchantable timber production from commercially important shade tree species, such as Cordia alliodora, is in the range of 4-6 m 3 ha-1 yr-1. The relative importance and overall effect of the different interactions between shade trees and coffee/cacao are dependent upon site conditions (soil/climate), component selection (species/varieties/provenances), belowground and aboveground characteristics of the trees and crops, and management practices. On optimal sites, coffee can be grown without shade using high agrochemical inputs. However, economic evaluations, which include off-site impacts such as ground water contamination, are needed to judge the desirability of this approach. Moreover, standard silvicultural practices for closed plantations need to be adapted for open-grown trees within coffee/cacao plantations.

The urban heat island effect and its consequences is one of the most important problems cities worldwide have to face in an effort to become more sustainable. This paper presents a study of a major open area in a densely built and populated area in the centre of Athens that was part of a Municipality of Athens program to improve thermal comfort conditions in open spaces. The bioclimatic rehabilitation design process was based on a specific strategy involving detailed monitoring of the thermal characteristics and climatic conditions in the area, extensive analysis of the results in order to define the problem, design and use of efficient passive cooling techniques (cool materials, green spaces, solar control and earth to air heat exchangers), and the use of advanced simulation tools to evaluate and optimise the planed microclimatic improvements. The results indicate that the proposed measures contribute to a decrease in local temperatures of up to 28C for summer conditions. Practical application: The knowledge on perceptions of microclimate in outdoor space can serve as a basis for urban spatial design. To evaluate the application of cool materials in public urban squares. Strategies to improve local microclimate with monitoring and modelling the design features.

Portuguese coles, tronchuda cabbage and galega kale landraces, are a unique group of vegetables very important for Portuguese horticulture owing to their excellent adaptation to prevalecent climatic conditions and good integration in the traditional small farming cropping systems. Reports on these coles are scarce and scattered. A bibliography review is presented on some general aspects of Portuguese cole landraces such as botany, folknames, foreign synonymy, origin, history, and worldwide spreading. In addition to such available information, other data has been gathered from growers in door-to-door enquiries during a germplasm collecting of Portuguese coles. Recent research on the taxonomy of Portuguese coles has been summarized.

Climate and tourism are strong correlated. Urban areas have a relevance concerning not only to cultural tourism but also for recreation. The high discussed topic of global change is focused in the tourism climatology as well. We analyzed exemplarily the climate potential and its variation of Freiburg. The analysis is based on the simulations of the regional climate models REMO and CLM for the A1B and B1 scenarios. The results are presented in form of the Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme (CTIS).

Hydraulic lift (HL) is the passive movement of water through the roots from deep wet to dry shallow soil layers when stomata are closed. HL has been shown in different ecosystems and species, and it depends on plant physiology and soil properties. In this study we explored HL patterns in several arid land shrubs, and developed a simple model to simulate the temporal evolution and magnitude of HL during a soil drying cycle under relatively stable climatic conditions. This model was then used to evaluate the influence of soil texture on the quantity of water lifted by shrubs in different soil types. We conducted transpiration suppression experiments during spring 2005 in Chile and spring 2008 in Spain on five shrub species that performed HL, Flourensia thurifera, Senna cumingii and Pleocarphus revolutus (Chile), Retama sphaerocarpa and Artemisia barrelieri (Spain). Shrubs were covered with a black, opaque plastic fabric for a period of 48-72 h, and soil water potential was recorded at different depths under the shrubs. While the shrubs remained covered, water potential continuously increased in shallow soil layers until the cover was removed. The model output indicated that the amount of water lifted by shrubs is heavily dependent on soil texture, as shrubs growing in loamy soils redistributed up to 3.6 times more water than shrubs growing on sandy soils. This could be an important consideration for species growing in soils with different textures, as their ability to perform HL would be context dependent.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright Author's personal copy Population differences in juvenile survival under increasing drought are mediated by seed size in cork oak (Quercus suber L.

Diverse field data on glacial sediment yields are assembled in the context of the current interest in sedimentary basin development in glaciated regions, and in controversial linkages between global climate and topography. Attention herein is directed at sediment yields, including both overall bedrock erosion and evacuation of sediments stored in glaciated basins over several years or decades. These yields, expressed as effective rates of glacial erosion, vary by orders of magnitude from 0.01 mm yr-l for polar glaciers and thin temperate plateau glaciers on crystalline bedrock, to 0.1 mm yr-1 for temperate valley glaciers also on resistant crystalline bedrock in Norway, to 1.0 mm yr-~ for small temperate glaciers on diverse bedrock in the Swiss Alps, and to 10-100 mm yr-l for large and fast-moving temperate valley glaciers in the tectonically active ranges of southeast Alaska. In Alaska, current sediment yields generally increase with the extent of glacial ice cover, and are particularly high in the large heavily-glaciated basins of southern Alaska, where they exceed those of basins from other regions by about one order of magnitude. These results, supported by comparisons of sediment yields between glaciated and nonglaciated basins in Alaska, Norway and Iceland, suggest that climatic conditions favorable for the expansion of temperate valley glaciers tend to increase both mechanical and chemical denudation rates. The results are discussed in the broader context of linking erosion and climate during the ice ages of the Quaternary, and interpreting records of sedimentation from glaciated regions.

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull. (heather) is the only species within the monotypic genus Calluna (Ericaceae). It is a dominant species of heather communities and can be found in most parts of Europe and Northern America from lowland up to alpine regions. Common heather is traditionally used to treat urinary tract disturbances and inflammatory related disorders. This review covers the current knowledge on phytochemical investigations of C. vulgaris which revealed a complex pattern of flavonoid glycosides including acetylated compounds as well as other classes of phenolics (chromones, procyanidins, simple phenols, etc.) Recently, an acetophenone (rodiolinozid) could be identified. Its occurance over a wide range of altitudinal zones makes C. vulgaris an interesting species to study the variation of its metabolic profiles in wild populations growing under different climatic conditions. Within phenolic compounds flavonols showed significant differences in samples collected at different altitudes with increased levels of quercetin glycosides at higher altitudes whereas no significant correlation could be found for caffeoyl quinic acids and the dihydroflavonol glycoside callunin. Broadening the scope of such investigations by looking at different species and different geographical areas should give a more concrete picture which phenolic compounds, if any, are suitable markers to observe adaptive processes in high altitude plants. Furthermore, investigations on the specific patterns of phenolics at cellular and subcellular level and their variation due to factors like enhanced solar radiation and low temperature should be expanded.

Sea level rise, especially combined with possible changes in storm surges and increased river discharge resulting from climate change, poses a major threat in low-lying river deltas. In this study we focus on a specific example of such a delta: the Netherlands. We develop a plausible high-end scenario of 0.55 to 1.15 meters global mean sea level rise, and 0.40 to 1.05 meters rise on the coast of the Netherlands by 2100 (excluding land subsidence), and more than three times these local values by 2200. Together with projected changes in storm surge height and peak river discharge, these scenarios depict a complex, enhanced flood risk for the Dutch delta.

Five exotic rice genotypes along with a local check were evaluated for yield and yield contributing traits under the climatic conditions of Swat. Minimum days to flowering were taken by rice genotype YUNLEN2 (59.7 days) and were 14 days early in maturity ...

Arisaema dracontium (green dragon) is a perennial herb that is widely distributed in eastern North America. However, in Canada, at the northern edge of its distribution, the species is designated as ''vulnerable'' with respect to conservation status. In natural populations, seedlings are uncommon; the present study was undertaken in order to characterize seed and seedling properties in green dragon. Seeds were sampled from five sites, ranging from Ontario at the northern limit of the distribution range, to Louisiana in the south. Seed germinability ranged from 25 to 55%, depending upon source. Experiments indicated that neither the hard seed coat nor a water-soluble exudate from the seed was responsible for inducing or maintaining dormancy. Patterns of seed germination appear to reflect general climatic conditions at the sites where seeds had originated. Cold stratification at 3ЊC produced significantly greater relative germinability in all seed collections except the most southerly one, from Baton Rouge. These seeds also had a slower overall speed of germination. In contrast, germination of seeds from the most northerly site was promoted by cold stratification and occurred over a relatively brief period. Germination in alternating light and dark conditions decreased the speed of germination compared to germination in the dark, however exposure to light changed the phenology of germination by promoting development of adventitious roots and primary leaves in these seedlings.

Fly ash produced in the combustion of subbituminous coals exhibits self-cementing characteristics and can be used in a wide range of stabilization applications. Fly ash treatment can effectively reduce the swell potential of highly plastic clays and prevent the swell beneath the smaller foundation pressures. The geology and climatic condition in Cyprus produce a wide distribution of expansive soils. These soils present problems in construction and possess a variety of undesirable characteristics such as low strength, high plasticity, difficult compaction and high swell potential. Laboratory test results on these soils indicate that fly ash is effective in ameliorating the texture and plasticity of the fly ash treated soils by reducing the amount of clay size particles, plasticity index and the swell potential. Cation exchange is one of the important reactions responsible for the improvement in the soil characteristics. In the study, cation exchange capacity (CEC) values have been used to indicate the changes in the mineralogy of the fly ash treated soils and explain the reduction in the plasticity and water absorption potential.

We examined the geographical pattern in growth and adult body size among 14 populations of Swedish moose (Alces alces) using data from 4,294 moose (>1.5 years old) killed during the hunting season in 1989-1992. In both sexes, adult body mass was significantly positively correlated with latitude. Moose in northern populations had a 15-20% larger adult body mass than moose in the south. Juvenile body mass was correlated with neither latitude nor adult body mass. Thus, variation in time (years) and rate of body growth after the juvenile stage were responsible for most of the variation in adult body mass among populations. Moose in northern populations grew for approximately 2 more years of life than southern moose. In contrast to adult body mass, skeletal size (measured as jawbone length) was not correlated with latitude, suggesting that variation in adult body mass was primarily due to differences in fat reserves. Discrimination between population characteristics, such as moose density, climate, and the amount of browse available to moose, showed climatic harshness to be the most important variable explaining geographical variation in body mass among populations. The results support the notion that in mammals body size increases with latitude in accordance with Bergmann's rule. We conclude that (1) variation in patterns of growth after the juvenile stage is the main cause of the latitudinal trend in adult body size in moose, and (2) climatic conditions are a more important factor than population density and availability of food in explaining geographical variation in growth patterns and adult body mass between populations of Swedish moose. H. Sand (C5~) 9 G. Cederlund

This paper addresses the question of summer cover crop adoption by farmers in presence of a risk of yield loss due to take-all disease and climate variability. To analyse the public incentives needed to encourage farmers to adopt summer cover crops as a means of reducing N leaching, we combine outputs from an economic, an epidemiological and an agronomic model. The economic model is a simple model of choice under uncertainty. The farmer is assumed to choose among a range of summer fallow managements and input uses on the basis of the expected utility criterion (HARA assumption) in presence of both climate and take all risks. The epidemiological model proposed by Ennaïfar et al. [1] is used to determine the impact of take all on yields and N-uptake. The crop-soil model (STICS) is used to compute yield developments and N-leaching under various management options and climatic conditions. These models are calibrated to match the conditions prevailing in Grignon, located in the main wheat-growing area in France. Eight management systems are examined: 4 summer fallow managements: 'wheat volunteers' (WV), 'bare soil' (BS), 'early mustard' (EM), 'late mustard' (LM), and 2 input intensities. We show that the optimal systems are BS (WV) when the take-all risk is (not) taken into account by agents. We then compute the minimum payment to each system such that it emerges in the optimum. We thus derive the required amounts of transfer needed to trigger catch crop adoption. The results of the Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis show that the ranking of management systems is robust over a wide range of input parameters.

Due to wide application of evapotranspiration (ET) data, a number of indirect methods for estimation of reference ET (ETo) have been developed. Therefore, it becomes impractical for many users to select the best ETo estimation method for the available data and climatic condition. To overcome this problem, a decision support system (DSS ET) was developed which supports 22 ETo estimation methods with varied options for calculation of various intermediate parameters, generalized data input format with copy-paste option from spreadsheet applications, visualize/check input data and results, features to estimate missing data, and user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) that enhances its applicability as a handy research and teaching tool. Monthly meteorological data for 32 years (1971-2002) were procured from IMD, Pune, for 133 selected stations evenly distributed over five climatic ecosystems of India. Altogether 18 ETo estimation methods, including the globally accepted standard method FAO-56 Penman-Monteith (PM), were found applicable for the data availability conditions used in this study. In absence of lysimeter measured ETo data, the FAO-56 PM ETo values were used to estimate the normal monthly ETo for each station and climatic condition. Finally, ranks were assigned to each applicable ETo method based on weighted standard error of estimate (WSEE) with respect to the FAO-56 PM method for different climatic ecosystems. If, because of poor data availability condition, it becomes unavoidable to use methods other than FAO-56 PM, then these ranks can readily be used to select the best applicable method in the existing data and climatic conditions to get ETo values closer to FAO-56 PM estimates.

Pulicat lagoon situated in the Palar Basin, is the second largest lagoon on the east coast of India. The northwestern margin of the desiccated lagoon is an irregular and elevated hard surface. Palynological studies were carried out in sedimentary soil samples from four pits dug across this part of the lagoon. Vegetational reconstruction from peat beds at 4.98 m (a.m.s.l.) and 1 m (a.m.s.l.) in the west at Sulurpet and Kasdredinilem, respectively, is indicative of a palaeoshoreline. The sea level reached its maximum around 6650 ± ± 110 yrs BP in Sulurpet, 18 km west from the present shoreline. The radiocarbon dates of peat bed at Kasdreddinilem reveals an age of 4608 ± ± 122 yrs BP, indicating the shift in mangrove line eastwards during the regressive phase. The Late Holocene radiocarbon dates of shells (bivalves) at Attakanitippa and Sriharikota island are the chain of intermittent regressive phases since then. The peat sediment below this shell bed at 9 and 15 m below the mean sea level was perhaps deposited during the transgressive phase. No evidence of mangrove pollen in the late Holocene soil sediments indicates that sealevel fluctuation and climatic conditions during mid and late Holocene led to the decline in mangroves in the area. The present-day vegetation mainly comprises psammophytes around the semi-stabilized strand with commercially planted woody forest on the stabilized strands. Casuarina, Prosopis and Acacia sps. are grown and exploited commercially around the lagoon that hinders the natural vegetational succession and the ecosystem not favourable for mangroves. The past and present vegetation coupled with sea-level fluctuations, climate and the anthropogenic activity since Holocene has been discussed in the paper.

Microclimatic design requires knowledge of the climate conditions, understanding of the ways that landscape elements affect microclimate and methods of applying this knowledge through landscape design to create microclimates that are comfortable for people and minimize the energy use of buildings. In this article it will be introduced the most important components and characteristics of microclimatic landscape design. Green roof ecosystem services in urban areas will be also introduced and future research needs will be mentioned.

A dynamic mathematical model for coupling the refrigeration system and PCMs has been developed in this paper. Overall the model consists of the following basic components: a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve, an evaporator cooler and a PCM heat exchanger. The model developed here, is based on a lumped-parameter method. The condenser and evaporator were treated as storage tanks at different states, which have a superheat region, a two-phase region and a sub-cooled region. In the single-phase region the parameters are considered homogeneous whereas in the two-phase region, the intensive properties are considered as in thermal equilibrium. The compressor model is considered as an adiabatic process; an isentropic efficiency is employed in this process. The expansion process in the thermostatic expansion valve is considered as an isenthalpic process. The PCM is treated as a onedimensional heat transfer model. The mathematical simulation in this study predicts the refrigerant states and dynamic coefficient of performance in the system with respect to time. The dynamic validation shows good agreement with the test result.

High fluoride in groundwater has been reported from many parts of India. However, a systematic study is required to understand the behaviour of fluoride in natural water in terms of local hydrogeological setting, climatic conditions and agricultural practices. Present study is an attempt to assess hydrogeochemistry of groundwater in Ajmer district in Rajasthan to understand the fluoride abundance in groundwater and to deduce the chemical parameters responsible for the dissolution activity of fluoride. Ajmer district falls in the semi-arid tract of central Rajasthan and is geologically occupied by Precambrian rocks (granites, pegmatites, gneisses, schists etc) where groundwater occurs under unconfined condition. A total of 153 well-water samples, representing an area of 8481 km 2 (further subdivided into eight blocks), were collected and chemically analyzed. The results of chemical analyses (pre-monsoon 2004) show fluoride abundance in the range of 0.12 to 16.9 mg/l with 66% of the samples in excess of permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l. Presence of fluoride bearing minerals in the host rock, the chemical properties like decomposition, dissociation and dissolution and their interaction with water is considered to be the main cause for fluoride in groundwater. Chemical weathering under arid to semi-arid conditions with relatively high alkalinity favours high concentration of fluoride in groundwater. Dental and skeletal fluorosis are prevalent in the study area which can be related to the usage of high fluoride groundwater for drinking. The suggested remedial measures to reduce fluoride pollution in groundwater include dilution by blending, artificial recharge, efficient irrigation practices and well construction.

This paper reports the results of the in situ application of diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) passive samplers for trace metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) monitoring in transboundary Udy and Lopan rivers of the Seversky Donets watershed in the Kharkiv region (Ukraine), which has a long history of industrial development. The research discusses potential sources of DGTmeasured labile metals in water and seasonal variations. Our results demonstrate the application of DGT for identifying and measuring labile metal concentrations in contrasted climate conditions (cold snowy winter and hot summer) and appropriateness of such a tool for continuous water monitoring with the presence of an ice cover. Results show that DGT-measured concentrations of most of trace metals were much higher downstream of the wastewater treatment plants discharges than upstream; thus wastewater treatment plants seemed not able to reduce or to remove trace metals' contaminations and become major sources of pollutants in the studied rivers. The calculation of the average metal fluxes based on the DGT-measured concentrations confirmed that the urban wastewater discharges significantly contribute to the metal fluxes into the Udy and the Lopan rivers during both low-flow and high-flow periods. Compared to the wastewaters inputs to the rivers, the transboundary effect is limited, but should be taken into account as the origin of some metals is from sources located on the adjacent Russian territory.