Slaves

1 Me tomo la libertad de utilizar de manera intercambiable "España", Hispania y Spania por dos razones principales y que me parecen suficientes. En primer lugar, la historigrafía tradicional o tradicionalista, incluyendo algunos de sus máximos exponentes actuales, suelen situar en el reino de Toledo la "fundación" o primera formulación o protoformulación de la ulterior España, entendida ésta tanto como concepto cultural como estructura política. En segundo lugar, Isidoro utiliza en sus textos, otros autores también, Spania y no el clásico y "correcto" Hispania, circunstancia que parece ser implicaría una pronunciación muy próxima a la de "España" (esa es la opinión, por ejemplo, de Luis A. García Moreno). De cualquier manera, la utilización del topónimo España no implica que el autor asuma como propia la tradición decimonónica, que entre otras cosas equiparaba españolidad, catolicismo y Castilla, ni que considere inevitable ni positiva, ni en el pasado ni en el futuro, la "unidad de la Patria española", al menos en los términos en los que ésta se ha expresado real e históricamente.

SOMMARIO: 1. Premessa. La schiavitù femminile nel Mediterraneo moderno: tra Cristianesimo e Islam. -2. Schiave-concubine: un'identità complessa. -3. Dal riscatto delle schiave ... -4. ... alla loro salvezza spirituale. 1. Premessa. La schiavitù femminile nel Mediterraneo moderno: tra Cristianesimo e Islam.

Este trabalho conta parte da história do café no Brasil através de uma propriedade que foi modelo na sua produção por muitos anos: a fazenda Ibicaba, em Cordeirópolis, no estado brasileiro de São Paulo. A unidade rural foi aberta em 1817, pelo senador Vergueiro, homem importante que chegou a governar o Brasil 14 anos depois, no período regencial. Foi pioneira em várias atividades e eventos importantes para a região e para o país, como na plantação de café no município (1828), na contratação de mão-de-obra assalariada estrangeira (quando todos trabalhadores rurais do Brasil ainda eram escravos), no uso do arado em terras brasileiras (1847) e no emprego de maquinários movidos a vapor (cerca de 1850). Foi um centro que teve muitos de seus modelos copiados e que passou pelo auge e pela crise do sistema assalariado e pelas oscilações do valor do café, sendo que chegou aos anos 1860 como a maior produtora nacional. Também se tornou um exemplo da posterior ascensão social dos imigrantes no país quando, falida, foi levada a leilão e arrematada em 1889 pelos irmãos Levy, alemães, antigos empregados da fazenda. Sofreu com a decadência da cafeicultura, voltou a cultivar a cana de açúcar e, hoje, utiliza suas imensas instalações do período cafeeiro como atrativo na recente atividade turística. Isso tudo faz da Ibicaba uma crônica da trajetória do café no estado de São Paulo.

Clothing and outward appearance as a means of expressing individual and collective identity were of great importance in Late Antiquity. This publication is the first interdisciplinary overview of source material and provides a critical view of opposing statements on the value of written sources, images, and archaeological finds on habitus barbarus  . Based on these sources, the book develops not only a new perspective on the meaning of “barbaric” clothing but also sheds new light on the Late Roman “barbarians” themselves.

In the popular imagination-and in most textbooks and classrooms, too-slavery remains a set of static images, distant and strange: ragged black men and women toiling listlessly over rows of cotton; the soaring columns of a master's mansion framed by magnolias and Spanish moss; some poor soul suffering at the whipping post, and other souls shouting secretly for liberty in the hymns of "negro" spirituals and the sermons of African American Christianity; wretched families torn asunder on the auction block and others, heroically, striking off slavery's shackles and following the North Star in a perilous, lonely journey toward freedom. Memorable though they are, these scenes have no beginning, it would seem, no necessary progression, no internal dynamic which might lead toward the downfall of the "peculiar institution." Eventually, the story goes, change came from outside this timeless plantation world. As cotton's kingdom neared its natural limits in the 1850s, non-slaveholding white Americans in the northern states turned their hearts and votes against bondage. Abraham Lincoln won the presidency, the South seceded, and slavery collapsed in the carnage of Civil War. Freedom and economic progress triumphed, and the harsh, outmoded, yet ineffably charming world slavery had made was "gone with the wind."

В статье рассматривается участие в военных походах эпохи Великого переселения народов племени вельтов. Освещаются малоизвестные события из истории древних балтских племён и их соседей в период античности – раннего средневековья. Особое внимание уделено гипотетическому нахождению балтов к западу от Вислы в древнейшую эпоху и принадлежности к «древнеевропейской» общности некоторых племён, традиционно считавшихся германцами и славянами.

English:

The Balts in the Migration Period: Veleti.

The article deals with the Veleti's military campaign during the Migration period. It is reported about little-known events from the history of ancient baltic tribes and their neighbours during Antiquity and the Early Medieval Period. Much attention is given to the Balts hypothetically being westwards of the Vistula in the ancient period and some tribes that were traditionally considered to be Germanic or Slavs being of the "old-european" origin.

Il presente lavoro, incentrato sulla storia del lavoro e dei lavoratori nel mondo romano, si propone di ricostruire, attraverso l'epigrafia monumentale, l'identità e il profilo socio-economico di alcuni individui vissuti a Mutina o nel suo ager in età tardorepubblicana e altoimperiale. Si tratta di alcuni uomini e una donna le cui iscrizioni, di natura prevalentemente funeraria, ricordano diverse figure professionali: un aurifex, un copo,  un medicus, un negotians lanarius, un praeceptor, un tonsor, diversi vestiarii, un vicesimarius, un possibile unctor e una vilica. Nel testo si formulano inoltre alcune ipotesi in merito alle funzioni esercitate in ambito domestico dai cosiddetti "delicia" o "pueri delicati"; vengono infine analizzati i tre gentilizi di derivazione professionale finora attestati nel Modenese: Aerarius, Aurarius e Purpurarius. Quest'ultimo nome, in particolare, fino a oggi sembrerebbe attestato esclusivamente nella colonia di Mutina e nel suo ager.

This article, starting from the analysis of the expression "if a lion kills/eats him" (i.e., a slave received on pledge), which appears in a limited number of surety contracts in the archive of the famous Balaĝunamḫe of Larsa (1829-1792 BC), gives a brief overview of the threat that lions posed not only to livestock but also to human beings in secondmillennium Mesopotamia. Letters and administrative documents inform us of attacks on animals and, more rarely, even people. By contrast, collections of laws and legal principles seem to deal exclusively with problems arising from lions attacking domestic animals, without any mention of attacks on humans. In the light of this brief investigation, the author concludes that the expression "if a lion kills/eats him" must be considered a unicum, since it is not found in any other real-life or school contract. She assumes that the scribe decided to add this formula to the liability clause of Balaĝunamḫe's surety contracts in order to cover as many scenarios as possible, including the chance of being eaten by a lion, clearly representing an event of force majeure.

““Tratando en comprar y vender esclavos y esclavas e otras cosas”: Diego de Rueda y el mercado esclavista granadino a finales del siglo XVI” en MARTÍN CASARES, A. (ed.): Esclavitudes hispánicas (Siglos XV al XXI) Horizontes socioculturales, Granada, Universidad de Granada, 2014, pp. 89-104. ISBN: 978-84-338-5703-3

O presente livro resulta do trabalho de vários investigadores internacionais e tenta pôr em relação os elementos básicos do Sistema Atlântico Ibérico, entre os séculos XVII-XIX: por um lado, os monopólios de tabaco integrados na realidade imperial, por outro, o papel jogado pelo escambo esclavagista no complexo tabaqueiro.

In un periodo storico nel quale Atene è costretta a ripensare sé stessa e l’economia diventa uno dei temi fondamentali del dibattito pubblico, i Poroi di Senofonte – opera inclusa tra i lavori minori dell’autore – appaiono fondamentali per ricostruire gli aspetti economici e le condizioni sociali dell’Atene del IV secolo. Composta all’indomani della Guerra Sociale, quest’opera non è soltanto l’ultimo lavoro di Senofonte, ma anche la prova della sua riconciliazione con Atene, città alla quale lascia in eredità un insieme di idee e lezioni volte a farle riacquistare una posizione di preminenza all’interno della Grecia. Senofonte legittima, come in parte aveva già fatto nell’Economico, le idee di capitale, guadagno e profitto; introduce il concetto, per certi versi rivoluzionario, di finanziamento dal basso e investimento sul lungo periodo. L’opera ci permette di acquisire una visione diversa dell’economia e dell’amministrazione ateniese.

When Johan Maurits of Nassau, Governor-General of Dutch Brazil (1630-54), sent out expeditions against the maroons of Palmares, he was informed by his intelligence officers that the inhabitants followed the “Portuguese religion,” that they had erected a church in the capital, that there were chapels with images of saints and the Virgin Mary and that Zumbi, the king of Palmares, did not allow the presence of “fetishists.” Portuguese sources confirm that Palmares had a priest who baptized children and married couples and that its inhabitants followed Catholic rite, although according to Governor Francisco de Brito, they did so “in a stupid fashion.” Many more examples of the existence of Afro-Catholic elements in maroon communities in Latin America can be found. They question the widespread assumption that Catholicism had been forced upon all African slaves and that, even among those who seemingly embraced the colonizer’s faith, it functioned merely as a veneer underneath which their truly African, indigenous beliefs remained hidden. As the case of Palmares indicates, slaves did not necessarily wish to liberate themselves from all “Catholic ballast” once they ran away but sometimes remained strongly attached to it. 
This conclusion corresponds to the assumption by the Brazilian historian Marina de Mello e Souza that upon arrival in the Americas, many slaves did not perceive Catholic elements as something foreign since “Catholicism represented a link to their native Africa.” Souza is but one of several scholars who in recent years contributed to a shift in the study of black performance culture in the New World. The new paradigm essentially consists in the acknowledgment that our understanding of black performance culture can be bettered if we take into consideration that many Africans had already adopted certain European—predominantly Portuguese—cultural and religious elements before they were shipped as slaves to the Americas.
In the context of this shift, there has been an increased interest in Afro-Iberian brotherhoods (irmandades/hermandades) and confraternities (confrarias/cofradías). While it was long assumed that these so-called “black brotherhoods” were associated with slave culture on the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America only, it can now be confirmed that Afro-Catholic fraternities also flourished in parts of Africa during the Atlantic slave trade era. As Linda Heywood has argued, “many Kongos and not a few Angolans had been Christians before their enslavement in Brazil. Thus they would have been familiar with the brotherhoods in Luanda, Soyo, and Kongo, and the central role they played in the creole society of Kongo, Angola and São Tomé.” Nicole von Germeten’s research on black brotherhoods in Mexico also concluded that “some Central Africans probably took part in social and religious brotherhoods and sisterhoods before crossing the Atlantic.” 
Ira Berlin also observed that black brotherhoods played a crucial role in the intercontinental networks that developed in the context of the transatlantic slavery. However, like most scholars, Berlin perceives brotherhoods as an essentially Iberian phenomenon that was crucial to the development of black identity the Iberian World, differing from North America, where “numerous informal connections between black people” developed, but not brotherhoods. Although Berlin confirms that slaves “created an intercontinental web of cofradias … so that, by the seventeenth century, the network of black religious brotherhoods stretched from Lisbon to São Tomé, Angola, and Brazil,” he believes that those slaves who ended up in Dutch, French or English colonies refrained from developing brotherhoods since there were no “comparable institutional linkages” that allowed them to do so. Berlin’s assumption thus presupposes that brotherhoods could only be established with institutional support and excludes the possibility that slaves themselves may have taken the initiative to create such organizations.
This article questions this conclusion and explores the possibility that slave organizations modeled upon Iberian brotherhoods have existed in North America. In doing so, it follows a reasoning by Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, Matt Childs and James Sidbury, editors of The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade (2013), according to whom “approved institutional structures authorized by the Catholic Church were not always necessary for Africans and their descendants to build fraternal structures.”  A first section provides an overview of the characteristics of Afro-Iberian slave brotherhoods. The following section presents a comparative analysis between king celebrations in Afro-Iberian brotherhoods and those at African-American Election Day and Pinkster festivals in New England and New York. The article ends with a reflection on the origins of Afro-Iberian cultural and religious elements among slave communities outside of the Iberian realm in the American diaspora.

present study examines with the possible detail a vital aspect of the Iberian King-doms economy at the start of the xvii century: the leasing of royal revenues of the tobacco monopoly in connection with the overseas mercantile activity and the slave trade. It empha-sizes the existence of a vast financial business based on the leasing of said revenues, within which economic and political interests co-existed, leading to the creation of networks of economic patronage and political pressure groups. Finally, the study highlights the strong presence of merchants with Jewish roots in the tobacco revenues and the role played by the Inquisition. In fact, the group of great merchants of tobacco seems to have coincided with the profile of the suspects in the faith, particularly in 17th century and 1st half of the 18th century.
Keywords:  merchants, new-christians, tobacco, slaves, overseas networks

The slave trade in nineteenth-century Central Asia involved hundreds of thousands of slaves, predominantly Persian Shīʿites, and stopping the trade was alleged to be a major motivating factor in the Russian conquest of the region. Nevertheless, Central Asian slavery remains little-studied and little-understood. In this article I will argue, first, that the region's slave trade was characterized by decentralized trade networks and by abundant inter-nomadic trade; and, second, that Russian efforts to end the slave trade by decree and through military force in the 1860s and 70s were not as successful as has often been assumed. *

The number of the finds of the champleve enamel set from the territory of the forest steppe Don region has
recently been increasing. It proves the advance of communities of the late Zarubinetskiy-Kyiv circle, which
is connected to the early Slavs, from the West, away from the territory of Dnieper region to the territory of
Don region and further to the East. New finds, especially the bracelets’ hoard found near the farm Zhuravka
in the Middle Don region and dated back to not earlier than the middle of the 3rd c., allow adding some information
about the time and direction of migrations.
До сравнительно недавнего времени археологические
свидетельства присутствия в лесостепном Подонье памятников римского времени ограничивались
немногочисленными погребениями кочевников-сарматов на Среднем Дону. Ситуация изменилась
после открытия в конце 70 – начале 80-х годов XX в. сарматских памятников первых веков н.э. на
Верхнем Дону, а затем и многочисленных сарматских погребений на Среднем Дону. И количество их
постоянно увеличивается.

يناقش هذا البحث عدة نقاط، تبدأ بخلفية تاريخية موجزة عن علاقة روما بأثيوبيا في العصر الإمبراطوري، ثم أثيوبيا في بعض الأساطير الرومانية، والأوصاف العرقية للأثيوبيين، كما يتناول العبيد الأثيوبيين في روما، وهذا من خلال نصوص أدبية لاتينية مع مقارنتها بمصادر يونانية ولاتينية أخرى كلما دعت الضرورة

For Marx, the touchstone of labour and, therefore, the production of value is the human being. In Capital, he argues that labour is a condition of human existence and is an exclusively human characteristic, which he connects to the human faculty of imagination and creativity (284, 290). Moreover, the substance of value is abstract human labour. In Marx’s political economy, it is an axiom that only living, human labour can create value. The hypothetical emergence of so-called “strong” artificial intelligence (AI) with the same generality of human intelligence, however, challenges this axiom. What if an AI, say in android form, could all the things that a human being could do? What if AI could labour? And if AI could labour, would they be productive of value? Would AI be able to appear in other social forms than that of fixed capital? What would be the consequences of the possibility of non-human labour?
This paper argues that although strong AI undermines Marx’s argument that labour is exclusively human, the existence of such AI is compatible with the labour theory of value. The paper argues that AI could produce value and thus become exploited workers, but that this eventuality would lead to human beings becoming obsolete in the capitalist mode of production. To support this argument, the paper draws a peculiar passage from Grundrisse where Marx argues for the possibility of the “invention of more perfect machines which would rob it of the character of being a machine” (766), considers the creativity of AI, stresses the social over the substantialist interpretation of value, and, argues that like individual humans, individual AIs can also be personifications of economic categories.

This prosopographical work on the daily life of the Genoese merchants of the city of Granada in 16th and 17th centuries  use notarial and judicial records and literary sources. Rich and powerful due to trade and finances, the Genoese merchants, invested some money to ennoble themselves, living in palaces surrounded by servants and slaves, patronizing arts and culture and making donations to the church. We analyze issues like housing and the domestic life inside a merchant’s court, the human group focused on the merchant and his wife and made up by family, servants and slaves.

En este trabajo prosopográfico se analiza la vida cotidiana de los mercaderes genoveses de la ciudad de Granada durante los siglos XVI y XVII a partir de fuentes literarias, documentación notarial y judicial. ricos y poderosos por el comercio y las finanzas, los mercaderes genoveses, invirtieron parte de su riqueza en ennoblecerse, viviendo en lujosos palacios, rodeándose de criados y esclavos, fomentando el arte, la cultura y haciendo donaciones a la iglesia. en este trabajo se estudiarán aspectos de la cotidianeidad como la vivienda en estos palacios y la vida doméstica en torno a una verdadera corte de mercader, un grupo humano centrado en el mercader y su esposa e integrado por su familia, criados y esclavos.

This paper shows the need for cataloguing and comparing tool marks left on the quarries' front in order for the chronological sequence of the different phases of limestone exposed in underground quarries at Agiades, Chora Samos, to be assessed. Up to now, an archaic and a roman phase of exploitation is inferred by surface pottery, tools, tool marks, the monuments themselves, and parallels from underground quarries on the island of Crete. The proximity of the quarries to a temenos of Apollo and the Nymphs is comparable to other cases from the Greek world. In an attempt to understand the social status of the quarrymen and their level of literacy, data from the graffiti observed in Eupalinos' tunnel were correlated with the lack of patronym and ethnonym observed in quarries in the Aegean, and related to the characterization of the Samians as «πολυγράμματοι». A control of Hera's sanctuary over the quarries at Agiades is implied by the frequent appearance of the letters HP on slabs used in Eupalinos' tunnel. Volume 53 Περίληψη Η εργασία παρουσιάζει την ανάγκη για την καταγραφή και την σύγκριση των ιχνών που αφήνουν τα εργαλεία στο μέτωπο ενός λατομείου, με στόχο να συναχθεί η χρονολογική διαδοχή των διαφορετικών φάσεων εξόρυξης του ασβεστόλιθου στα υπόγεια λατομεία των Αγιάδων Χώρας Σάμου. Μέχρι τώρα συμπεραίνουμε μια αρχαϊκή και μια ρωμαϊκή φάση εκμετάλλευσης βάσει της επιφανειακής κεραμικής, των εργαλείων, αλλά και των ιχνών που άφησαν οι ακμές των εργαλείων στον λίθο. Παράλληλα εξετάζονται συγκριτικά, τα ίδια τα μνημεία και ανάλογα υπόγεια λατομεία στην Κρήτη. Η εγγύτητα των λατομείων με τέμενος του Απόλλωνος και των Νυμφών συγκρίνεται με άλλες περιπτώσεις στον ελληνικό κόσμο. Σε μια προσπάθεια να κατανοηθεί η κοινωνική θέση των λατόμων και το επίπεδο της γνώσης ανάγνωσης και γραφής αυτών συσχετίστηκαν στοιχεία από τα χαράγματα (graffiti) στο Ευπαλίνειο όρυγμα με την απουσία πατρικού και εθνικού ονόματος, απουσία που παρατηρείται σε άλλα λατομεία στο Αιγαίο. Τα στοιχεία αυτά συνδυάστηκαν με τον χαρακτηρισμό των Σαμίων ως «πολυγραμμάτων». Η συχνή εμφάνιση των αρχικών ΗΡ σε πλάκες του Ευπαλινείου ορύγματος ίσως αποτελεί έναν υπαινιγμό για τον έλεγχο του Ηραίου στα λατομεία των Αγιάδων.

This article presents a new perspective on the master-slave relationship in New Netherland in order to complement the existing theories on the treatment of slaves in that Dutch colony. It shows how prior to the loss of Dutch Brazil, the West India Company modeled its slave policy after Portuguese practices, such as the formation of black militias and the use of Christianity as a means to foster slave loyalty. It also points out that in the initial slave policy of the Dutch Reformed Church was characterized by the ambition to replace the Iberian Catholic Church in the Americas. While the Reformed Church in the early decades of the Dutch colonial expansion was characterized by a community-building spirit and a flexible attitude toward newcomers, the loss of Brazil shattered the dream of a Protestant American continent and gave way to a more exclusivist approach with a much stronger emphasis on orthodoxy. This led to a dramatic change in attitude vis-à-vis slaves, which is reflected in the segregationist policies―both at a social and a religious level―in later Dutch slave colonies such as Suriname.

“É certo que, ao mesmo tempo que a escravidão foi omnipresente no império, e praticamente inquestionada pela maior parte dos colonizadores, existiram casos em que as soluções adoptadas pelos agentes coloniais foram ao arrepio daquilo que eram as práticas dominantes, como se pode ver através do capítulo «Julgando os outros e os outros como juízes: Félix Correia de Araújo na Angola de finais do século XVIII», da autoria de Luís Cabral de Oliveira e Manuel de Magalhães. 
Este estudo privilegia o percurso do ouvidor-geral de Luanda que, já em 1799, tomou uma decisão em relação ao estatuto dos escravos que formavam a tripulação que libertou uma galera portuguesa capturada por corsários franceses. Estribado na Lei da Boa Razão de 1769, o ouvidor luandino, Félix Correia de Araújo, não apenas reconheceu a liberdade de tais marinheiros, como lhes atribuiu um quinhão do espólio do navio, decisão fortemente contestada pelos seus anteriores proprietários, os quais argumentaram o seu direito a tudo o que fosse ganho por tais escravos, incluindo os próprios. Objecto de posições diferenciadas no seio dos agentes imperiais estabelecidos em Angola e na metrópole – caso do governador-geral, que considerou os resultados da sentença do ouvidor como sendo injustos, e do secretário de Estado da Marinha e do Ultramar, que, por sua vez, confirmou a decisão do ouvidor –, este estudo introduz-nos no cerne da fragmentação dos grupos de colonizadores e colonos, da diversidade dos seus interesses, atitudes e decisões em relação aos escravos, revelando-nos a artificialidade da visão monolítica da colonização numa época tão cheia de significado para o futuro da escravidão como foi o final do século XVIII” (da introdução da obra, da autoria de Ângela Barreto Xavier e Cristina Nogueira da Silva)