Self-Employment

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The paper discusses policy issues related to entrepreneurship education in higher education and how entrepreneurship education may be related to the science-industry link. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the rationale for fostering entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial function in the economy of a given coutry or region. In a second part, the authors comment European events and policy documents on entrepreneurship education in the last tewnty years. The most significant drawback is that a specific policy targeting the explicit role of universities in the provision of entrepreneurship education is lacking and that there is a huge interest and potential to its future development. In this context, the authors suggest in the last part of the article strategic and operational measures as parts of a comprehensive policy on entrepreneurship education in the European higher education.

Ante la imposibilidad del mercado laboral de absorber la mano de obra disponible, y la dificultad para hacer frente al pago de los subsidios, los discursos ensalzando el autoempleo se han multiplicado en diferentes campos: las políticas públicas, los medios de comunicación, e incluso en las escuelas, donde los valores del emprendimiento están procurando incorporarse a los currículos de los estudiantes durante la escolarización obligatoria.
Sin embargo, el emprendimiento sigue siendo una figura poco frecuente en nuestro país, donde lo que prima, es, más bien, el autoempleo como externalización hacia el trabajador de las responsabilidades laborales que hasta ahora asumían las organizaciones. Las instituciones están animando a las personas en situación de desempleo a autoemplearse, pero, ¿existen medidas reales que contrapesen esa asunción de riesgo (necesidad de inversión, pérdida de la cobertura por desempleo, etc.)? El objetivo de esta comunicación es poner de manifiesto el contraste entre los discursos que idealizan el emprendimiento como solución a las dificultades de la población activa para encontrar un empleo y el contexto real (legal, administrativo, etc.) al que se enfrentan quienes dan este paso.

Actual: 28/03/2015 2 [González Menéndez and Cueto] STYLE Working Papers are peer-reviewed outputs from the www.style-research.eu project. The series is edited by the project coordinator Professor Jacqueline O'Reilly. These working papers are intended to meet the European Commission's expected impact from the project:

Free Movement of People offers new opportunities for European Union citizens migrating into the single market. Th is does however, bring controversy and public debates. Th is paper’s focus is placed on the “Polish plumber” case – a symbol of social dumping. We study the European Union effects on the self-employment practices through the experience of Polish immigrants employed in low-skilled occupation in France. First, the reasons for setting up in France and the differences between labour conditions before and aft er the opening of the French labour market to Polish Immigrants are examined. Th e paper then discusses the self-employment career trajectories of Polish workers in France. Finally, we examine the impact that the Free Movement of Workers has on low-skilled occupations and the immigrants’ adaptation and integration into host society.

Necessity entrepreneurship has been much debated in research and policy. This paper examines the impact of necessity as a start-up motive on subsequent entrepreneurial satisfaction. Empirically, the paper is based on a sample of 777 recently established Finnish micro enterprises. The results show that necessity entrepreneurs are somewhat more likely to want to switch back to paid employment later in their entrepreneurial careers. However, if the individual earns a satisfactory livelihood through self-employment, the negative effect of a necessity-based start-up on subsequent entrepreneurial satisfaction diminishes. Training in business skills that helps necessity entrepreneurs to run an economically viable business might thus increase their satisfaction with being self-employed.

The ageing of the population in advanced economies has increasingly attracted scholarly and policy interest. It has been argued that older entrepreneurship can be used to prolong the working lives of older people and to provide them with financial support in retirement. Contemporary studies have neglected the effect of barriers on older entrepreneurs at the nascent and early firm stages. The paper seeks to build upon the limited, recent qualitative older entrepreneur literature, and uses detailed data to provide new insights into the barriers facing older entrepreneurs, and how they have been overcome. In particular, this study explores the diversity of barriers faced by older entrepreneurs based on their previous employment backgrounds. We argue that if older entrepreneurship is to flourish in Britain, policies and support initiatives need to become sensitive to the diversity of older entrepreneurs' employment background and barriers.

En France, la transformation des transports publics particuliers de personnes (T3P) s’accompagne de l’apparition des plateformes numériques, autour desquelles se développent de nouveaux services de mobilité. L’expansion de ces nouveaux acteurs et les spécificités de leur modèle économique sont à l’origine de nombreuses transformations. Elles éprouvent les fondements traditionnels de l’économie des activités concernées, la structure de l’industrie et celle du marché. Les dysfonctionnements inhérents à ces évolutions ont des répercussions sur les conditions socio-économiques des chauffeurs et sur l’agencement des métiers.
Cet article appréhende les effets de la numérisation des services dans le secteur des transports individualisés. Il montre comment l’agrégation des ressources technologiques et les transformations de l’environnement politique et économique contribuent à l’émergence d’un nouvel ordre dans lequel se déploient des pratiques commerciales qui affectent la structure des métiers, les relations d’emploi et les conditions de travail.

Mots clés : transports publics individualisés, taxi, VTC, économie numérique, plateforme, Uber, travail indépendant

Digital technologies and industrial transformations: considerations of the effects of digitization of the individualized publics transports in France

In France, the reform of the individualized transport sector comes along with the emergence of new digital platforms, around which new mobility services are being developed. The expansion of these new players and the specific characteristics of their economic model are causing many transformations. They test the traditional foundations of the economy of the involved activities, the structure of the industry and that of the market. The dysfunctions that are inherent to these developments have repercussions on the socio-economic conditions of the drivers and their work layout. This article discusses the effects of service digitization in the individualized transport sector in France. It shows how the aggregation of technological resources and the changes in the political and economic environment contribute to the emergence of a new order in which business practices are being deployed, affecting the structure of trades, employment relations and working conditions.

Key words: public individualized transports, taxicab, digital economy platform, Uber, self-employment

Cet article contribue à l’analyse d’une voie de promotion sociale peu étudiée : il explore les ascensions sociales par un métier commercial. Il s’appuie, pour ce faire, sur des analyses statistiques et une enquête ethnographique sur les agents immobiliers. Il montre que des agents immobiliers sont entrés dans le métier avec un espoir d’ascension intra- ou intergénérationnelle, attirés par des espoirs économiques et des aspirations liées au statut du métier. Il examine ensuite les manières dont les agents immobiliers vivent leur trajectoire et souligne les ressorts de l’ascension sociale subjective. Enfin, il analyse l’évolution des styles de vie des agents immobiliers qui connaissent une ascension intergénérationnelle : il met en évidence l’importance de la dimension matérielle de ces déplacements à travers la consommation, tout en montrant que ces derniers peuvent aussi s’accompagner d’une transformation du rapport au corps, à la culture et au politique.

This article puts the emphasis on how a commercial business can lead to upward mobility – a path that has been partly overlooked. It relies on a statistical analysis and on an ethnography of real estate agents. We show that real estate agents entered this industry because they were expecting some economic success and found the status they would be granted attractive. Then, we look at how real estate agents experience their own mobility and how subjective factors play out during this process. Finally, we describe the evolution of the lifestyles of real estate agents who have been upwardly mobile over one generation. We highlight the material dimension of such a mobility by focusing on their consumption habits and we show that these changes can also be accompanied by a transformation in their rapport with their body, culture, and politics.

Abstract- In India most of the people are depending upon small scale businesses as their source of livelihood. Most of the individuals depend on unorganized sectors for loans and other credit facilities which have high rate of interest along with unbearable terms and conditions. Ultimately it will lead these poor people to fall in debts. A vast part of the non corporate sector operates as unregistered enterprises. They do not maintain proper Books of Accounts and are not formally covered under taxation areas. Therefore, the banks find it difficult to lend to them. Majority of this sector does not access outside sources of finance. After identifying the importance of self-employment people and small business units, government of India launched the Mudra Bank Scheme under Pradhan Manthri Mudra Yojana to provide financial assistance to MSMEs who provide employment to a large number of people targeted towards mainstreaming young, educated or skilled workers and entrepreneurs including women entrepreneurs. This paper is an attempt to know about the MUDRA Yojana and its key objectives. For analyzing such facts secondary sources of data has been collected. It is not very much correct time to evaluate the PMMY scheme which is only in its infant stage. But an attempt has been made in this paper to analyze the product offerings and performance so far of the scheme.
Keywords –MFIs, PMMY, MSMEs, Mudra Bank, Self-Employment

The exponential growth of freelance working arrangements and the reshaping of the
labour market through digital transformation bring new challenges in terms of the
ways employment is accessed and exercised, and workers protected. As organisations
optimise and rationalise, adopting leaner organisational designs and re-organising
from vertically integrated structures to horizontal and networked models, work is
becoming increasingly fragmented, flexible, temporary, on-demand and projectdriven.
The change in work patterns is most dramatic in the Cultural and Creative Industry
(CCI) sector with as much as half of the workforce in freelance self-employment.
Although own-account workers have long been present both in the CCI and other
sectors, their numbers have risen and new forms of employment that correspond
neither to traditional self-employment, nor to economically dependent employment,
have emerged. These developments, along with other particularities of freelance work,
have triggered a broad debate about working conditions, regulatory approaches and
labour protection mechanisms within the emerging freelance labour market. The
paper analyses the position of freelance workers in the new labour market.

Against the backdrop of deindustrialization and the rise of the service economy, small artisan businesses have been promoted as a liberatory alternative to large-scale enterprise and mass production in the wake of the 2007 global financial crisis. We analyze advice manuals for aspiring artisan entrepreneurs by adapting Boltanski and Chiapello's (2005) framework and analysis of management textbooks to investigate books for would-be artisan business owners. These texts are "manuals of moral instruction" (58) that offer the reader the promise of a more fulfilling and ethical life through self-employment. We reveal that the artisan economy promoted by these advice manuals represents a further evolution in capitalism's co-optation of the artistic critique via the oppositional strata of punk and indie youth subcultures-and their style.

Il documento riunisce gli estratti di alcuni contributi pubblicati nel "Codice Civile commentato con dottrina e giurisprudenza", diretto da Massimo Franzoni, Rita Rolli e Giuseppe De Marzo per i tipi di Giappichelli e uscito in prima edizione nel 2018. Le disposizioni commentate dall'autore sono gli artt. 2094 e 2095 cod. civ. (in tema di prestazione di lavoro subordinato e categorie di lavoratori), gli artt. 2222 - 2228 cod. civ. (in tema di disciplina generale del lavoro autonomo) e gli artt. 2229 - 2238 cod. civ. (in tema di professioni intellettuali).

هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى التعرف على مدى تأثير العوامل البيئية والشخصية على نجاح ممارسات العمل الحر في قطاع غزة، وتكون مجتمع الدراسة من خريجي مؤسسات التعليم العالي في قطاع غزة العاملين لحسابهم الخاص عبر شبكة الانترنت.
استخدم الباحث المنهج الوصفي للوصول إلى نتائج هذه الدراسة، وكانت أداة الدراسة عبارة عن استبانة تم توزيعها إلكترونياً على عينة الدراسة البالغة 155 فرداً، وقد تم استخدام برنامج التحليل الإحصائي (SPSS) لتحليل البيانات وتفسيرها.
خلُصت الدراسة إلى عدة نتائج وقد كانت هذه النتائج غير مشجعة فيما يخص دور العوامل البيئية (التعليم العالي، الواقع الاقتصادي، الثقافة المجتمعية)، حيث حصل التعليم العالي على وزن نسبي مقداره 38.60% كمؤثر ومساعد على نجاح ممارسات العمل الحر، فيما كان الوزن النسبي للعوامل الاقتصادية كمؤثر على نجاح ممارسات العمل الحر هو 45.41%، أما فيما يخص الثقافة المجتمعية فقد كان التأثير يقف تقريباً على الحياد بوزن نسبي بلغ 54.78%.
أما فيما يخص العوامل الشخصية فقد كانت النتائج إيجابية، حيث بلغ الوزن النسبي للسمات الشخصية كمؤثر على نجاح ممارسات العمل الحر 77.14%، فيما وجدت الدراسة أن 73.98% من أفراد العينة يمتلكون المهارات الأساسية للنجاح والاستمرار في بيئة العمل الحر عبر الانترنت.
اُختتمت الدراسة بعدة توصيات من شأنها أن تساعد في نشر ثقافة العمل الحر بين الخريجين وتساهم في تحقيق النجاح والاستمرارية للأفراد العاملين لحسابهم الخاص عبر الانترنت، وقد كان من أهم هذه التوصيات:
- ضرورة تعزيز الجامعات للتعليم الريادي وتحديث المقررات بما يتفق مع متطلبات سوق العمل عبر الانترنت والاهتمام بتطوير مهارات الطلاب الإدارية واللغة الإنجليزية.
- إعادة النظر في برامج التوظيف الروتينية التي تقوم بها الحكومة (التوظيف على بند البطالة) واستبدالها بالتدريبات المدفوعة الأجر على العمل الحر عبر الانترنت.
- ضرورة اتقان مهارات التواصل وتسويق الذات واتقان اللغة الإنجليزية بجانب تطوير وتحديث المهارات التخصصية باستمرار باعتبارهم من أهم مقومات النجاح والاستمرارية.

Résumé
Des déterminants du choix du futur diplômé de l'Université de Lomé (UL) sont identifiés, testes empiriquement et compares à partir de données d'enquêtes d'intention et d'opinion effectuées en 1988 et en 2003. La mauvaise performance de l'économie nationale et le manque d'opportunités de création de richesse ont défavorisé le choix du futur diplômé à vouloir s'auto employer à la sortie. L'environnement économique, le secteur d'activité choisi pour s'auto employer dans "le futur, l'expérience du marché du travail, la connaissance d:aines auto employés ou entrepreneurs et le niveau d'éducation de la mère ressortent comme étant les déterminants les plus significatifs de ce choix.



Abstract
The determinants of Université de Lomé (UL) future graduates' choice to self-employment are investigated based on 1988 and 2003 intentions and opinions surveys data. The ongoing socio political crisis and ensuing bad macroeconomic performance reduced the opportunities for wealth creation and thus future graduates' motivation to self-employment and entrepreneurship. The economic environment, the projected sector for self-employment, the professional experience, the links between future graduates and self-employed former graduates, and the future graduate mother's education level are the most significant determinants.

Entrepreneurship is a typical global phenomenon attracting millions of economists, Politicians and social workers. In developed countries, entrepreneurship has gained attention in the last century. But in developing countries, it has been gained original consideration only in recent decades. In these countries, entrepreneurship development is considered as the way to promote self-employment the panacea not only for chronic unemployment among the educated youth but also to sustain economic development and to augment the competitiveness of industries in the eve of globalization and liberalization. Social scientist and economist are in search of this factor as a competent agency for the coherent integration of resources to stimulate sustainable and balanced social-economic development. In the industrial and agricultural sectors, threshold of new generation entrepreneurship has been welcomed for they carry out radical and tremendous changes in the arena of production and distribution. in the academic scenario, special importance is being given for the entrepreneurship lessons as a part of curriculum plan and a number of research studies are being conducted to learn the stimulants and inhibitors of entrepreneurship development.

By comparing the current reform process under President Raúl Castro to Cuba’s opening to market capitalism during the 1990s Special Period crisis, Everyday Adjustments in Havana: Economic Reforms, Mobility, and Emerging Inequalities highlights the differences and continuities between adjustments in both periods and their social impacts. It explores the impacts of specific policies such as the expansion of self-employment and the recreation of a private housing market, examining how changes in domestic and international policies after 2011 have modified the post-Special Period status quo and contributed to the formation of new social groups that did not previously exist in Cuba’s Socialist society.

This study mainly tried to address the question why individuals choose self-employment. Beside this, it deals with investigating the factors that result in income variation among the self-employed individuals. In assessing the determinants of self-employment choice determinants, a binary outcome model of logistic regression have been employed. On the other hand, OLS estimation model is used in analyzing the factors that lead variation of the return to self-employment.
The findings of the study indicate that the young, the educated and those married are less likely to be found in self-employment. On the other hand, age, parent’s occupational status, and number of dependents found a positive relationship with the probability of being self-employed. The policy implication section of the study recommends the need of investment on human capital to enhance the contribution of self-employment to the economy. Beside this, the importance of increasing female’s participation in income generating activities has given an emphasis.

Self-employment is becoming more common among individuals around the world. Self-employment refers to individuals who earn a living from a profession or business like a businessman instead of earning salary from other organizations. In fact they can be categorized as gainful employment whose not remunerated by wage or salary. According to IRS, there are two types of self-employment, which are incorporated and unincorporated business. An incorporated business, or a corporation, is a separate entity from the business owner and has natural rights. Conversely, a business owner and an unincorporated business are the same, and the owner personally bears all results of the business. Unincorporated businesses are usually sole proprietor or partnership companies. Nowadays, self-employment continues as a trend in contribution of economic development. In this topic, we will expose the factors that lead to self-employment and its impact towards the economy.

Anti-poverty strategy comprises of a wide range of poverty alleviation and employment generation
programmes, many of which have been in operation for several years and have been strengthened to
generate more employment, create productive assets, impart technical and entrepreneurial skills and raise
the income level of the poor. Under these schemes, both wage employment and self-employment are
provided to the people below the poverty line. In 1999-2000, various poverty alleviation and employment
generation programmes are grouped under two broad categories of National Directorate of Employment
and Ministry of Youths and Productivity. Funding and organisational patterns are also rationalised to
achieve better impact. These programmes are primarily meant for poverty alleviation and have generally
not been helpful in sustainable employment generation.
From an individual’s point of view, taking up self-employment before retirement as a ‘bridge job’ may be
an attractive option: older people of working age have lower re-employment probabilities conditional on
being out of work, while at the same time self-employment offers considerable flexibility as to choosing
hours of work. Foreseeable cuts in the generosity of public pensions as well as in other parts of social
security systems may in addition create the need for older workers to tap new sources of income
generation.
The self-employed work longer hours and are more flexible in their hours allocation; they retire later, but
also depend more on public pensions for retirement as opposed to the employed. While part of the
explanation of the retirement age gap may lie in access to early retirement, the self-employed choose to
retire later than employees even conditional on job characteristics and personal attributes, including
measures of health, wealth and consumption levels. We find strong evidence for postponement of
retirement for the self-employed being attributable to those that work the longest hours, conditional on job
characteristics. This is suggestive of an individual preference effect in the sense that people deriving a very
different marginal utility from work selecting into self-employment and hence wanting to work more and
retire later compared to those that pursue careers as employees. A higher attachment to work for the selfemployed
also becomes manifest in much longer job tenure for this group.
The self-employment potentials in Agriculture been the larger employer in the World are enumerated and
explained in this book and easily understood by the individual who want to establish he or her own
agricultural base enterprise(s) in any nook and cranny of Nigeria.

Unemployment has become a global challenge to governments
the world over; economic collapse has become a global  reality. In Botswana young people are being innovative in order to create self-employment for themselves and others.
The government of Botswana has come up with financial assistance programs to support youth initiatives. Now with  global pandemics things have become severe especially for the youth who cant find jobs. This booklet focuses on the various ways in which young people earn
their living in Botswana and how they cope with situation. The aim  of this booklet is to help other young people realize that rather than resort to crime such as bank robbery, house burglary ,petty theft, etc, there are  alternatives , possibilities and opportunities out there to be explored which could enable them to survive the 21st century economic melt down, adverse challenges and/or  recession.

When first exploring the idea of zwischennutzung the initial attraction was the idea of temporality, and
the minimal investment required to transform a vacant space into a place where people spend their time. When
describing the concept of Betahaus during an interview I was told, “It was really important to do it in Beta… it’s
a tryout… that’s why its beta… if you have an idea today then you can try it tomorrow easy,” (Fahle, 2013).
In a city with so much vacant space, full of creative minds who desire to try something new there was a need for
strategies that would allow experimentation. The city is not a constant but is rather unpredictable at best, and a
planner’s job is to organize this chaos into some semblance of order. In a time when change is occurring instantaneously
we must adapt new strategies for both urbanism and architecture that can become more flexible and
fluid in their nature. Zwischennutzung and coworking are both physical representations of these urban experiments
that are allowing people to try new things, and allowing development to become more integrated with the
pace at which we live today. We can no longer build cathedrals over the course of 20 or 200 years every time
we want something new. Our cities are already established and with a large portion of our space being vacant
or underutilized we do not always need to create new structures, but only to readapt and repurpose the spaces
we already have around us. My NEURUS research analyzes the rapidly expanding phenomena of collaborative
independent work spaces known as coworking communities, where exchanges of ideas, information, and inspiration
transpire into projects and partnerships.

OUTLINE La gig-economy in Italia: le piattaforme della food-delivery • Gli attori • Gli schemi contrattuali • Le concrete modalità di esecuzione del rapporto «la piattaforma impartisce ordini, impone una divisa, monitora la prestazione, valuta la performance, premia i migliori, rimprovera gli inefficienti, chiude gli account» ? «se un fattorino vuole, spegne tutto e arrivederci» LE FATTISPECIE LE FATTISPECIE ? Convegno Internazionale di Studi Impresa, lavoro e non lavoro nell'economia digitale Università degli Studi di Brescia, 12-13 ottobre 2017 Convegno Internazionale di Studi Impresa, lavoro e non lavoro nell'economia digitale Università degli Studi di Brescia, 12-13 ottobre 2017

This study looks at the Nigeria personal income tax administration and the challenges and prospects of assessing the self-employed. The following objectives were outlined in lieu of the research topic: analyze the reasons people avoid paying taxes; examine the relationship that exists between the tax payers and the tax authorities; analyze various strategies that can be adopted by the government to bring numerous self-employed persons in the society to pay taxes which can impact positively on increased revenue generation and quantity and quality of infrastructure provided by the government.
Data collection was out by distributing questionnaires in the urban area of the study. Purposive sampling method was used in distributing the questionnaire. The study made use of 100 Questionnaires containing 19 relevant questions. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze 96 usable responses.
The study found among other things that increasing tax revenue is a function of effective enforcement strategy which is a pure responsibility of tax administration. Personal income tax that is supposed to be paid by self-employed individuals in Nigeria constitutes a major source of revenue accruable to various state government of the nation. Unfortunately, the correct assessment and collection of taxes from these groups of taxpayers remains a mirage due to myriad of factors. Prominent among these factors is the mode of administration adopted by the revenue authority.
This paper therefore analyzes various strategies that can be adopted by government to bring numerous self-employed persons in the society to pay taxes which can impact positively on increased revenue generation and quantity and quality of infrastructure provided by the government.

Freelancers work for companies, but also apart from them - at home, on site, or in shared workspaces. This chapter examines how clients and freelancers manage and organise the employment relationship at a distance. Utilising interview data with freelancers working in the Dutch creative industries, Henri Lefebvre’s method of ‘rhythmanalysis’, Nitzan and Bichler’s theory of ‘capital as power’, and John Holloway’s understanding of human creativity as ‘doing’, the chapter examines the conflicting rhythms of freelance creative work. It shows that freelancers remain subject to traditional workplace-oriented structures of control, particularly in creative agencies. Freelancers’ use of time must correspond to client processes of measurement and valuation. Different client relationships, and the proximity they imply, produce different rhythms of work.

Self-employed individuals generally face high work demands such as long working hours and high levels of responsibility. They have a higher risk of suffering from stress-related health problems than the general population, yet they report higher job satisfaction than employees. Previous research has not been able to resolve this contradiction. The existing theoretical models cannot cover the unique work circumstances self-employed individuals have to deal with. The purpose of this study is to explore how self-employed workers perceive their work circumstances and work-related health. In order to understand which aspects they regard as important for their work-related health, ten semi-structured interviews with self-employed individuals working in the creative industry were conducted in Stockholm, Sweden. The analysis followed an inductive, data-driven approach using thematic analysis. Eight themes were identified in the interviews. The interviewees reported feeling stressed about the social responsibility they had to take over for their co-workers and the society. Besides, they expressed being passionate about their work and having difficulties to define when work is too much. Another central theme was that the interviewees experienced a sense of ownership of their work. This included that they enjoyed the feeling of working for their own profit and being proud of their work, but also problems with structuring their work life, distinguishing between work life and private life and asking for help when they were not able to manage their work load. Future research needs to investigate in these aspects, as they have not received enough attention in previous research yet. Quantitative, longitudinal studies are necessary to measure how these themes effect the health development of self-employed individuals.

(Mülakat: Elif Akgül) 2020'den beri yükselen ve 2022'nin başında gündeme damga vuran işçi direnişlerini, yeni örgütlenme biçimlerini ve kadınların bu örgütlenmelerdeki pozisyonunu İstanbul İş Sağlığı ve Güvenliği Meclisi gönüllüsü, akademisyen Aslı Odman ile konuştuk.

The aim of this paper is to review the various policy approaches that can be used to tackle entrepreneurship in the shadow economy. To do this, it firstly reviews four possible policy options, namely taking no action, eradicating shadow entrepreneurship, moving legitimate entrepreneurship into the shadow economy, or transforming shadow entrepreneurship into legitimate entrepreneurship. Revealing that transforming shadow entrepreneurship into legitimate entrepreneurship is not only the most viable option but also the approach most commonly adopted by supra-national agencies and national governments, a review is then undertaken of how this can be achieved using either direct controls, which seek to increase the costs of shadow entrepreneurship and/or the benefits of legitimate entrepreneurship, or indirect controls that seek to generate a commitment to compliance and greater self-regulation. How these approaches can be combined is then reviewed. The outcome is a comprehensive review and evaluation of the various policy approaches available to policy-makers for addressing shadow entrepreneurship along with some recommendations regarding the way forward

This chapter investigates creative labour – specifically but not exclusively the work that takes place in creative industries like graphic design, advertising and branding – in its connection with two appearances of crisis in the contemporary age. On the one hand, a contemporary crisis of social reproduction- a breakdown in the relationship between work, the wage and the capacity to consume the goods and services sufficient to subsist. On the other, the appearance of this ‘global organic crisis’ simultaneously as a crisis in the human metabolism with nature, the kind of ecological cataclysm that Marx conceptualises as a ‘metabolic rift’ . This relates, the chapter suggests, to the tension between production and consumption in a society based in the separation of human subjects from nature and the independent collective or individual means to secure the means of living. This implies certain interventions and contradictions at the level of the workplace, the market and the state that this chapter explores with reference to the creative industries and the pivotal position they assume in the production, consumption and circulation of goods and services in capitalist society. The chapter ends by considering the policy and practical actions taken by actors at state and autonomous levels to ensure the continuity and, crucially, sustainability, of creative labour against a backdrop of constrained spending, economic uncertainty and sectoral competition.

The subjective well-being of self-employed people has not received adequate attention. Our analysis focuses on how individuals' universal needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness affect the happiness of self-employed persons, including whether there are significant differences among solo self-employed and those with employees. We use Self-Determination Theory and Hofstede's culture theory to address this gap. We study the relationship between autonomy, competence, relatedness and subjective well-being of self-employed people as well as the moderating effects of national cultural dimensions. We examine these hypothesized relationships using Hierarchical Linear Modelling across 4,856 self-employed individuals in 27 countries. Our results indicate that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are positively associated with the subjective well-being of self-employed individuals. Individualism moderates the relationship between autonomy and subjective well-being negatively and Uncertainty Avoidance moderates the relationship between relatedness and subjective well-being negatively. The findings represent a step forward in entrepreneurship research by examining the well-being of self-employed individuals. The study also provides information policymakers can utilize to encourage entrepreneurship using well-being as a motivational tool. Nevertheless, entrepreneurs can use these findings in formulating their long-term plans and business structure, as well as in motivating their employees.

This chapter uses empirical findings to oppose the resonant discourses of liberation presented in postoperaist accounts of 'immaterial labour' and their modern proponents, which envision a world of work in which a creative multitude self-actualises unencumbered by the capitalistic demands of industrial factory labour. The ascription of these powers to work in the creative industries misunderstands their continuing status with frameworks of capitalist valorisation, domination and exploitation and the battle waged by workers to escape it. This chapter suggests that whatever potential for creativity creative labour possesses exists only in denial, and that capitalist development will not deliver fulfilled work alone. Struggle must ensue to recapture creative activity from its imbrication in capitalist social relations. Focusing on the movement of creatives from formal employment to freelancing, the case study presented in the chapter explores the possibilities of, and barriers to, this struggle. It looks at the wider economic and employment context behind the movement of creatives from formal employment to freelancing, and then examines the struggle they wage thereafter to secure conditions within the commercial contractual relationship of freelance work to be creative in the way they initially desired upon taking it up. It closes by exploring the nascent forms of coalition-building in evidence among freelancers in the case study of creative labour in the UK and the Netherlands.

This volume collects papers given at the 42nd conference of the GIREA, held in September 2019 at the University of Wrocław. It is modestly intended to continue the research in which two recent works have already engaged: Hermenéutica de la esclavitud and Revisiter l’esclavage d’hier à aujourd’hui. Its focus is on the latest developments in the servile panorama as well as on the latest trends in studies related to the topic of slavery at large, approached from a new historical, comparative and epistemological perspective. One also takes advantage of refreshing insights in the field of sociology, anthropology, political science, economics or epigraphic methods.

In twentieth-century Austria, the share of self-employed in the workforce was declining. Yet, this was not a necessary and linear development. Nor did it concern all trades in the same way. Moreover, in the first decades of the century, this share was not small. According to the 1934 census, about 21 percent of the workforce (Berufsträger) was self-employed, including almost 25 percent of all economically active men and almost 14 percent of all economically active women. The share of self-employed was high in agriculture, in many crafts, and particularly in sales, where 40 percent were self-employed. 1 The number of small or one-man businesses was high, 2 and competition was fierce. 3 However, the categories of the census did not refer to homogeneous and clearly distinguished groups. Self-employment could be performed and perceived in quite different ways. It could be a consequential step in an occupational career. It couldperhaps at the same timebe a possibility to deal with difficulties of finding employment or with limited employability. 4 Yet, starting one's own business was not always easy at all. This paper deals with struggles over the possibilities and terms of taking on a trade. It focusses on trades with little or no requirements with respect to formal qualification, capital, or location.

Online platforms have disrupted parts of the capitalist economy, with allegedly severe consequences in the world of work. It is difficult to assess the potential magnitude of this effect, however, because little is known about the conditions under which platforms take over any given market, industry or occupation. This study examines live music in Germany and the UK, where online platforms do not dominate, despite considerable digitalization of market intermediaries. We argue that the live music market frustrates online platforms because (1) assessments of value are qualitative; (2) the task is complex and contingent; and (3) the organizational field is fragmented. Digitalization has varying effects on the organization of work and exchange relationships between musicians, intermediaries and clients. We find that, as the degree of digitalization increases, matching services tend to work less as a workers' representative-which is traditionally the case for live music agents– and more as a force of marketization that disciplines workers by orchestrating price-based competition.