Nonprofit Management and Leadership

"ABSTRACT
In an effort at theoretical clarification, the authors reviewed 45 recent articles reporting empirical research employing the concept of `social capital'. The literature is roughly equally divided between those who treat social capital as an independent variable and those who consider it as a dependent variable, and between those who operationalize the concept principally in terms of norms, values and attitudes and those
who choose a more social structural operationalization, invoking social networks, organizations and linkages. Work on social capital as a mainly normative variable is dominated by political scientists and economists, while sociologists and a wide range of applied social scientists utilize more social structural understandings of the term. We find little to recommend in the use of `social capital' to represent the norms, values and attitudes of the civic culture argument. We present empirical, methodological and theoretical arguments for the irrelevance of `generalized social trust', in particular, as a significant factor in the health of democracies or economic development. Social
structural interpretations of social capital, on the other hand, have demonstrated considerable capacity to draw attention to, and illuminate, the many ways in which social resources are made available to individuals and groups for individual or group benefit, which we take to be the prime focus and central attraction of the social capital concept. The paper concludes by elaborating a context-dependent conceptualization of social capital as access plus resources, and cautions against `over-networked' conceptualizations that equate social capital with access alone."

"ADVOCACY ORGANIZATIONS IN THE U.S. POLITICAL
PROCESS
Kenneth T. Andrews
Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3210; email: [email protected]

and

Bob Edwards
Department of Sociology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858;email: [email protected]

Key Words
social movements, interest groups, nonprofit, organizations, policy

Abstract
We examine scholarship on the role and influence of advocacy organizations in the U.S. political process. We identify common theoretical questions in the disconnected literatures on social movements, interest groups, and nonprofits, and we propose a unifying conceptual framework for examining advocacy organizations.Focusing on the post-1960s growth in advocacy organizations, we examine major organizational characteristics including organizational structures, membership and participation, resources, and inter-organizational networks and coalitions. Our analysis of organizational influence focuses on five dimensions of the policy process: (a) agenda setting,(b) access to decision-making arenas,(c) achieving favorable policies,(d) monitoring and shaping implementation, and (e) shifting the long-term priorities and resources of political institutions. Finally,we identify recurrent theoretical and methodological problems, including the compartmentalization of research within disciplines,an over reliance on studies of large national organizations, a disproportionate focus on recruitment and selective incentives, and limited research on the influence of advocacy organizations. We conclude by highlighting productive pathways for future scholarship."

Nonprofit organizations (NPOs) have increasingly adopted businesslike practices as a response to institutional pressures. Some researchers argue that this development leads to mission drift, whereas others find a positive effect on organizational performance. However, the institutional pressures responsible for shaping the nonprofit sector have remained hard to distinguish from each other. This study explores the consequences of mimetic, normative, and coercive pressures, and looks at how they affect managerialism, organizational performance, and mission drift. We link these concepts through a structural equation model based on survey data and find that one aspect of managerialism, strategic behavior, is a key construct in influencing the response to isomorphic pressures and can positively affect organizational performance, while holding off mission drift. Normative isomorphism even has a direct positive effect on organizational performance. Mission drift can take place when organizations are under coercive pressure without having strategies or internal processes in place. These findings imply that organizations should invest in their strategy and the professional development of their staff to increase organizational performance and avoid mission drift.

This study examines ethno-cultural associations—public institutions representing interests of minority groups—and discusses their role in the development of civil society in ethnically rich Kazakhstan. Minority
associations developed in Soviet times inherited Soviet-era property and certain charitable and social practices. The Soviet footprint translates into hierarchy and state subordination. Based on interviews with representatives of associations and their visitors in Almaty, the study focuses on their quotidian activities and attempts to explain why these associations are providers of various resources for civil society development. The findings show evidence of the state being a part of the institutional synergy in the civil sphere. As part of the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan and being “government-organised NGOs,” ethno-cultural associations add their voice on “togetherness” and “unification” of diverse nationalities and to the official rhetoric of the new patriotic act. Despite transparent loyalty to the authorities and lacking a formal political
agenda, cultural and social activities of these associations remain relatively autonomous. The study concludes that their real non-decorative functions deal with creating unionism, providing opportunities for social capital development, and fostering an understanding and appreciation of ethnic diversity. These associations have a potential to bridge the gap between communities while providing platforms for civic exchanges and being intermediaries between the public, the state and their kin states.

The paper contributes to debates on non-profit strategy, first by arguing that intellectual capital (IC) can be utilised as a non-profit strategic management conceptual framework and second by highlighting nuances in the meaning and significance of IC. In responding to the public management agendas of government, non-profit organisations (NPOs) have had to commercialise their strategies. On the basis of data from in-depth interviews with 35 senior non-profit managers across 22 large Australian social service non-profit organisations (SSNPOs), the analysis confirms that IC assists SSNPOs in managing the social–commercial divide, but that managers’ understandings of the IC concept are often different to those contained in the IC literature. IC scholars suggest that IC is synergetic with its components being inter-dependent. The managers perceived that very few inter-relationships
existed between IC components. Implications of the theory–practice divide for non-profit strategy are discussed. Research limitations and future research direction are presented in the paper.

In comparison to their public and for-profit counterparts, not-for-profit employees report experiencing higher work demands. Despite the harmful effects attributed to this important sector difference, few, if any, empirical studies in the not-for-profit literature have investigated how job-related resources, such as control over one's job, help buffer work demands' strain-inducing impact. The present study fills this important gap in the extant not-for-profit literature by testing a recently introduced nonlinear stressor-strain model on a sample of 363 employees from
two different types of not-for-profit human service agencies located in the city of New York. As hypothesized, the nonlinear demand by linear control interaction term was statistically and significantly associated with job strain in the predicted direction. Study data not only challenge the linear nature of Karasek's seminal demand-control model, but are also the first to uncover this unique finding in a sample of not-for-profit human service employees. Implications for practice and theory are also discussed.

Purpose – The balanced scorecard (BSC) and intellectual capital (IC) concepts are two strategic management methods that help to identify and elevate organizations’ intellectual resources in the knowledge economy. However, very little research has examined the usefulness of the BSC and IC concept in nonprofit organizations. This paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper uses a critical analysis of current literature in relation to BSC and IC concepts within the social service nonprofit context.
Findings – The findings suggest that BSC is less effective in social service nonprofit organizations (SSNPOs) because the model’s strategy, cause-and-effect relationships and its four linked perspectives are incompatible to the unique social service nonprofit environment. IC, however, can be harnessed to co-ordinate with the values and core character of SSNPOs.
Research limitations/implications – The paper contributes a new dimension to the body of literature; raising critical questions as to the usefulness of the BSC in SSNPOs and theoretically arguing that IC is an alternative strategic management framework in the social service nonprofit
sub-sector. The increased awareness of the IC concept in SSNPOs, as a result of this paper, likely generates further research from both nonprofit practitioners and scholars.
Originality/value – The paper is considered as a starting point and serves as a milestone in applying IC as a strategic management conceptual framework in the nonprofit sector. Also, the paper informs nonprofit leaders that IC is a more appropriate strategic management concept in the nonprofit
sector.

Existing change management models have been developed from research undertaken largely within the for-profit sector, with little reference to the unique challenges of the nonprofit sector. This article identifies a number of characteristics of change management that may be unique to the nonprofit sector. The research sought to understand change from the perspective of those within the sector who experienced it using Grounded Theory in a rich single case study as the methodology, applying an inductive reasoning approach to the development of theory. Results point to the impact of four key characteristics that require a more substantial focus in planned change models when applied to nonprofits. These include formal reflection for change agents and change recipients, development of trust, and confidence in the organisation before the actual change, focussing on the individual experience of change, and the sequencing of events from a planning perspective.

The research aims to empirically validate a multi-dimensional measure of total quality management (TQM) benchmarking within a humanitarian setting. This study is the first to investigate the dimensionality of the TQM benchmarks as used by international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs). The proposed four-dimensional construct for measuring quality lends itself to lean and practical TQM framework for INGOs, allowing them a greater awareness and an appetite for aligning their operations with TQM principles. Utilizing survey data collected from participants working for United Nations agencies in the Middle East, the methodology consisted of a set of literature-backed quantitative procedures to test the validity of the previously suggested theoretical TQM-measurement model. An alternate model emerged and revealed that the TQM-benchmarking measurement model is a four-factor variate. The implications of the proposed model for implementing lean management practices by INGOs are discussed.

Nonprofits compete in donation markets for resources and are expected to report on the financial stewardship of the organization. Without a clear comparative signal to differentiate organizations in this resource market, simple financial ratios have been used as proxy measures of relative organizational efficiency. Two conceptual models can be applied to the use of these ratios: first, as dichotomous conformance thresholds that identify poor performers who are unable to meet some minimum standard, or second, as directly comparable scales of performance where more optimized ratios can be used to distinguish the best performers. These two different conceptual models imply two different managerial approaches and potential organizational outcomes. This research assesses the extent to which nonprofits that are evaluated by an external evaluator appear to use the ratios as thresholds to pass or as scales to optimize.

Nonprofits are said to serve as places for the reproduction of social capital. However, little is known about how to manage social capital in a nonprofit. This article presents a theory-based perspective on how to plan, execute, and measure social capital production in a nonprofit organization. By using the concept of value configurations as a method to analyze and describe the creation of organizational social capital, bonding and bridging social capital can be managed in alternative ways. In a value shop framework, the participants are more homogeneous, and growth is heavily based on referrals and reputation as well as the quality of the members. Organizations managed as value shops will foster bonding social capital. In contrast, a value network framework incorporates more likely heterogeneous, multilevel participants that add legitimacy to the network. Organizations in this framework will strengthen the evolution of bridging social capital.

In this paper we aim to explore the relationship between volunteer motives and task preferences in order to provide volunteer managers with better insight in how tasks can be assigned to keep youth volunteers satisfied. Earlier seminal contributions have either taken a pure functional approach – where various types of motives are supposed to be at the base of any type of volunteer work – or a differentiated approach, where particular motives relate to specific task preferences. However, empirical results reported in the literature do not justify the preference of one approach above the other. To investigate whether one of the approaches is superior, or whether a combination of both is more appropriate, we perform a canonical correlation analysis for a set of functional motives and a set of task preferences (N = 2158). Five distinct relationships (canonical variate pairs) of motives and preferences are found. Results show that a ‘functional basis’ exists where all motives relate to a basic set of tasks. Additionally, a more differentiated approach towards volunteer motives and task preferences has to be taken, as we find four other relationships where specific motives are satisfied by assigning particular sets of tasks.

Root cause analysis is perhaps the most widely used tool in healthcare risk management, but does it actually lead to successful risk control? Are there categories of risk control that are more likely to be effective? And do healthcare risk managers have the tools they need to support the risk control process? This systematic review examines how the healthcare sector translates risk analysis to risk control action plans and examines how to do better. It suggests that the hierarchy of risk controls should inform risk control action planning and that new tools should be developed to improve the risk control process.

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Wiley's copyright policies do not allow me to post the published version of the paper, but they do allow me to send out individual copies. So if you don't have access to the Journal of Healthcare Risk Management and would like a copy of this article, please email me at:
alan [dot] j [dot] card [at] gmail [dot] com

The main purpose of this article is to introduce the Social Enterprise Model Canvas (SEMC), a Business Model Canvas (BMC) conceived for designing the organizational settings of social enterprises, for resolving the mission measurement paradox, and for meeting the strategy, legitimacy and governance challenges. The SEMC and the analysis that explains its features are of interest to academics concerned with the study of social entrepreneurship because they offer a new analytical tool that is particularly useful for untangling and comparing different forms of social enterprises. Also, it is of interest to social entrepreneurs, because the SEMC is a platform that can be used to prevent ‘mission drifts’ that might result from problems emerging from the mismanagement of such challenges. The arguments presented are grounded on scientific literature from multiple disciplines and fields, on a critical review of the BMC, and on a case study. The main features of SEMC that makes it an alternative to the BMC are attention to social value and building blocks that take into consideration non-targeted stakeholders, principles of governance, the involvement of customers and targeted beneficiaries, mission values, short-term objectives, impact and output measures.

The relationship between many governments and the nonprofit sector as well as organized civil society more generally has become more complex, laden with often hidden tensions. In some cases, state-nonprofit sector relationships have deteriorated, which has led experts and activists to speak of a "shrinking space" for civil society. However, this diagnosis applies mostly to illiberal and autocratic countries. More widespread is a stagnation in state-nonprofit sector relations that seems indicative of a longstanding policy neglect, which we see as the true challenge to the future of the nonprofit sector. In response, we argue for more proactive policy stances along with a differentiated model for regulatory frameworks on the basis of functional roles.

This paper contributes to the understanding of accountability in collaborative governance by presenting views of practitioners from partnerships formed between K-12 public schools and private and nonprofit organizations in the United States. It focuses on two questions: what do partnership practitioners see the partnerships as being accountable for? And to whom do they see the partnerships as being accountable? The findings suggest that partnership participants reveal more of client-based and results-oriented views of accountability. They are more directly concerned about professional accountability and accountability to the partners. A concentric-circles model is then developed to illustrate the accountability relationships in partnerships.

Despite the growing literature that explains how organization structure develops or changes, there are very few studies that seek to investigate the influence that an organization's structure has on its decision to work across sectors in emergency management (EM). Using EM as a context, this study observes the influence that organizational autonomy has on an agency's choice to work with voluntary organizations in the development of EM plans. Through the analysis of a national survey of county EM agencies, this study finds that an organization's autonomy does not influence its choice to work with voluntary organizations in the development of EM plans; however, the type of organization an EM agency is situated in does. Finally, recommendations for future research are presented to better understand why autonomous organizations enter into cross-sector collaborations.

While debates on the effects of the post-9/11 counterterrorism measures (CTMs) on civil society organizations (CSOs) exist, there is a paucity of data on how CTMs are shaping the spaces and actors of CSOs in Nigeria. Using a mixed-methods design, this article analyzes CSOs' perceptions on the effects of counterterrorism financing measures, the countermeasures that CSOs are taking, and the government's views on the security threat posed by CSOs. The findings show that although counterterrorism financing were not as constraining, it appears to increase the administrative cost of CSOs and disadvantaged the less prominent CSOs forcing them to close down or merge with more prominent CSOs. Besides, the result shows the state's increasing interest in the activities of CSOs on the grounds of national security imperatives. Thus, I argue CTMs are evolving, and thus CSOs will experience increased financial regulations. Also, CTMs expansion will threaten CSOs' sustainability and polarize them.

Purpose – This paper aims to examine the context and nature of marketing used by nonprofit organizations in the Czech Republic.

Design/methodology/approach – A number of senior self-designated marketing managers in a wide range of non-profit organizations in Prague were interviewed to generate a descriptive narrative of what these key persons understood marketing to be and how they devised and implemented marketing within organizational strategy.

Findings – The findings paralleled that of other research (1995-2005) on the understanding and role of marketing within the profit sector of the Czech Republic. While marketing was identified as an interesting and powerful concept, non-profit policy makers generally had a limited understanding of a marketing theory or of the context in which exchange transactions occurred.

Research limitations/implications – This project was designed as an initial survey. The limited number of representatives interviewed and their purposeful selection from a small number of high-profile non-profit organizations limit the reliability of the findings and reduce the extent to which they can be generalized.

Practical implications – This paper provides a useful entry point for those interested in the use of marketing in the Czech Republic, a very significant transformative economy in the centre of Europe. Since one of the authors is a native Czech speaker, the paper reviews relevant marketing and non-profit literature in Czech as well as English.

Originality/value – While there has been some interest in the understanding and practice of marketing in the profit sector, it is believed that this is the first paper to address the non-profit sector – a sector that plays a very significant role within transformative economies.

This paper explores the development of migrant non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and their interactions with central and local Chinese state.  The paper suggests that while the central state is actively managing NGOs in Beijing and Shanghai with a strong regulatory framework, the urban local state, particularly the district level, is increasingly an important actor in ensuring the effectiveness of migrant NGOs’ activities. In this vein, the paper presents a neo-model of state-migrant NGO relations, the subsequent informal rules that emerge from this reality, and the implications thereafter for state-society relations in China.

This article focuses on the value of volunteers to professional membership organizations. Although volunteering in the United States is ubiquitous, with the 2006 U.S. Current Population Survey reporting that just more than 23% of men and 30% of women are engaged in voluntary activities (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007), this activity is quite diverse, spanning across different sectors and subsectors of the economy and various types of organizations.

With newly commissioned contributions from an international set of scholars at the forefront of nonprofit management research, this volume provides a thorough overview of the most current management thinking in this field. It contextualizes nonprofit management globally, provides an extensive introduction to key management functions, core revenue sources and the emerging social enterprise space, and raises a number of emerging topics and issues that will shape nonprofit management in future decades. As graduate programs continue to evolve to serve the training needs in the field, The Routledge Companion to Nonprofit Management is an essential reference and resource for graduate students, researchers, and practitioners interested in a deeper understanding of the operation of the nonprofit sector.

This article presents a case study examining nonprofit board and director roles in the first 5 years of an organization’s life, using 3 organizational change approaches: contingency, life-cycle, and cognitive-interpretive. Data include monthly board meeting minutes and director’s reports for the first 5 years of a nonprofit human service agency’s existence. The article concludes that although all 3 theoretical approaches are productive explanatory frameworks for organizational change, each one, on its own, is incomplete. The findings point to the need for further theoretical synthesis and paradigm elaboration to inform our understanding of nonprofit director and board relationships.

The low profit limited liability company (“L3C”) is a new business form that unites pursuing charitable, exempt purposes and generating and distributing profits. The L3C is a creature of state statute appended to the limited liability company form that adapts standards from the law applied to private foundations called program related investments (“PRI”).

Hybrid pursuits can create confusion for investors, managers, creditors, policy makers, and regulators. Properly understood and implemented, one of the innovations of the L3C is how the enabling statutes properly order priorities and creates fiduciary responsibilities thereby providing degrees of predictability and consistency for the L3C to be a viable strategy for addressing certain charitable, exempt needs and opportunities. Among these could be alternatives to relying on government to scale particular charitable endeavors, capital to help bridge the “valley of death” that denies opportunities presented by university research, and resources to retool supply chains and retrain talent in ways that serve new industries and opportunities and revitalize economically disadvantaged areas.

This article proposes a framework for L3C fiduciary duties and their enforcement, particularly with regard to the duty of care. The article first describes the L3C and its most relevant characteristics before addressing common misconceptions among advocates and detractors. The article then discusses how fiduciary duties in traditional business forms have approached hybrid purposes, including an in-depth analysis of constituency statutes in this context. The article then proposes a framework for L3C fiduciary duties that distinguishes them from existing for profit corporate and LLC forms and tax exempt forms, including approaches to enforcement and accountability.

The article is critical of certain actual and perceived mis-applications of the new form by some proponents, tries to address certain criticisms, and suggests a framework for fiduciary duties and regulatory oversight. The article also distinguishes the L3C from existing corporate forms (for profit and not for profit), the LLC form from which it emerges, and constituency statutes.

This study describes the results of two structural equation models tested within the nonprofit industry. Prior research requested that researchers assess complexity of proposal development, including collaborative and computer-based authoring. Complex interactions are difficult to directly measure, but factor analysis can account for latent variables.
The study uses structural equation modeling to measure contributors to proposal writers’ “Job satisfaction” and “Likeliness to contribute to knowledge management system.” The researcher used a 126-item survey to collect 580 responses from members of professional organizations for fundraisers. Five significant pathways explained 25.6% of variance in “Job satisfaction”: “Interpersonal trust,” “Role in organization,” “Learning via books/articles,” “Relationship with management,” and “Organizational processes.” Three factors’ pathways accounted for 21.1% of variance within “Likeliness to contribute to KM.”: “Relationship with management,” “Knowledge acquisition habits,” and “Role in organization.”
This work contributes to a preliminary understanding of how communication processes contribute to the proposal writing process.

Dr Alex de Voogt is a researcher and teacher at the Department of Management, Faculty of Arts, Leiden University. He specialized in expert thinking processes and problem-solving and was involved in various projects concerning non-profit and international management.

This article documents the needs assessment and curriculum mapping of a nonprofit management certificate program in the United States. Based on a survey of nonprofit leaders, we identify management skill sets critical to the nonprofit sector in a challenging economic environment. In addition, a survey of alumni and students assesses participants' view of skills and knowledge they need in their daily jobs or for career advancement. Results of the study not only help to inform the curriculum revamping of the selected program but also serve to inform the content of other education programs within the nonprofit professional development education arena.

Abstract: This study explores the leadership actions-oriented behavior of school principals in Finland. Actions-orientated behavior
enables the leader to appropriately articulate relations and task orientation to meet the immediate contextual demands and
to accommodate followership toward change and development. The leadership actions-orientated behavior of Finnish school
principals were studied in three schools. In-depth interviews with school actors (principals, vice principals, teachers, special
educators, and nonteaching staff) were conducted to triangulate the analyzed data. It was found that leadership actions-oriented
behavior enabled school leaders to articulate appropriate behavioral patterns to generate motivation and commitment. The
results suggest that actions orientations toward high-on relations enabled leaders to achieve leadership success, while actions
orientations toward high-on task enabled leadership effectiveness. Actions-oriented behavior toward high-on task enables
leadership flexibility with greater leadership elasticity. The results suggest that school actors anticipated a relational approach,
whose actions orientations were high-on task. The results also suggest that relations-oriented behavior is rationally applied by
school leaders who have remained in the organization for a longer time to strengthen the systematic approach. It was found
that leaders’ actions orientation with high-on task were more effective, while leadership actions orientation with high-on
relations generated social harmony. The results suggest that leadership actions-oriented behavioral flexibility and mobility can
be maintained by articulating high relations to low relations and high task to low task, not necessarily from task to relations or
relations to task alone. In doing so, a leader’s personality is prevented from distortions and behavior dysfunction.

Keywords: leadership behavior, actions-oriented behavior, relations-oriented behavior, task-oriented behavior, contextual variation,
leader’s case study, behavioral articulation, Finland, Skills, Ability, Competences and Intelligence (SACI)

This encyclopedia chapter discusses the marked differences between Nonprofit Agencies/NPAs and Nonprofit Membership Associations/NMAs (voluntary associations) as the two principal types of Nonprofit Organizations (NPOs). Very often, scholars in our field/emergent academic discipline of voluntaristics (Smith 2013, in NVSQ) conflate NMAs with NPOs, which is a broader term/category that clearly also includes nonprofit NMAs, not just NPAs. This is a gross conceptual error.
          NPAs and NMAs differ markedly in many ways, though both are key types of NPOs. Most fundamentally, NMAs are bottom-up, member-controlled, essentially democratic organizations/groups.  NPAs are generally top-down, elite-controlled, essentially hierarchical organizations, which operate like business corporations and government agencies in terms of power structures. Lower participants have little or no power. Most NMAs in all nations for the past 10,000 years have been and are local, grassroots groups (Grassroots Associations/GAs), as relatively informal, non-professional, leisure time groups run by volunteers. They are usually NOT work organizations, run by paid staff, even though they may have a Service Volunteer Program/SVP, as a volunteer department.
          The differences between NPAs and NMAs are so stark and fundamental that the author (Smith 1991, in NVSQ) has argued they should be seen as separate, distinct subsectors of the Voluntary Nonprofit Sector/VNPS or Third Sector/TS---or indeed as two distinct sectors of society. Research in the past 25 years has strongly supported Smith’s early argument for this distinctiveness of NPAs and NMAs, making his proposal attractive. There are indeed two very different subsectors of the VNPS, which should be distinguished, and probably should be seen as distinct societal sectors.  NMAs at all territorial levels are too often ignored by voluntaristics scholars, who tend to use flat-earth global maps of our sector (Smith 1997, in NVSQ).

In recent years, some public officials and advocacy groups have urged that private philanthropies be subject to more uniform standards and stricter government regulation—ranging from board composition to grant distribution to philanthropies' charitable purposes. A major justification cited by advocates of these proposals is the claim that the charitable tax exemption and deduction are government subsidies, and thus philanthropic funds are "public money" and should be publicly controlled. Some advocates also claim that philanthropic assets are public money because philanthropies operate under state charters and are subject to state oversight. In the second edition of this monograph , legal scholars Evelyn Brody and John Tyler evaluate the legal basis of the "public money" claim. They conclude that it is not well founded in legal authority. State oversight of philanthropies is not based on an assertion that philanthropies are subject to state direction or that their assets belong to the public, they write. Similarly, the fact that philanthropies have state charters does not make them state agencies or subject them to the constraints that apply to public bodies. Finally, the philanthropies and their donors receive their federal tax benefits in return for the obligation to pursue public rather than private purposes and to comply with the laws designed to ensure the pursuit of such purposes. There is no evidence, Brody and Tyler find, that these benefits were meant to give government other types of control over philanthropies.

The aim of this paper is to detail the social media engagement efforts used by successful nonprofits and to build on these insights in developing recommendations for effective social media plans to increase the visibility and service areas of public service organizations. The topic of social media use by nonprofits is viewed through a practice lens. Specific campaign activities for becoming distinguished nonprofits are identified. Essential aspects of social media engagement initiatives that translate into public service activities include tying online effort to the mission of the organization, providing for a dedicated person or team to ensure pointed social media efforts integrated into existing strategies, and developing a cost analysis coupled with benchmarks for success. Incorporating the recommendations detailed in this paper may help to expand the reach of otherwise resource-limited public service organizations, and can foster the transition from merely having supporters on paper to working with engaged, committed, and informed volunteers and donors.

Due to a variety of factors, nonprofit organizations have been pressed to adapt their operating style in an effort to continue playing an effective role in society. One of those adaptations – the use of entrepreneurial, businesslike practices – has the potential to create challenges and opportunities for nonprofit organizations. This ethnographic case study of a nonprofit family services organization investigated the use of entrepreneurial management approaches and how the potential tension between mission and market orientation is balanced. The data presented suggest that a mission oriented, traditional management approach and more market oriented entrepreneurial management can be blended through a “continuum of practice,” with the tension resulting from integration as a positive factor that sustains a healthy balance between two possible extremes.

Since 2008 approximately half of the states in the U.S. have enacted statutes permitting “hybrid” business forms that blend aspects of traditional for-profit ventures with characteristics normally associated with traditional non-profit entities. This article analyzes theoretical, academic, practical, legal, and regulatory questions regarding the extent to which the existing hybrids are suited to achieving social purposes objectives, including in comparison to modified traditional forms of business organization. Finding the current fleet of hybrids an innovative, useful start, but with need to evolve, this article proposes statutory language (set forth in a detailed appendix, and summarized in the article text), and regulatory policies, including in the areas of general oversight, tax, and securities regulation, for a next iteration of hybrid — a “Social Primacy Company” designed to provide more clarity in the marketplace for socially-conscious investors.

Provision of antipoverty and other social services by nonstate organizations is growing in importance in both the United States and the Russian Federation. The history of such provision in the United States may offer insights for the emerging system of nonstate provision in Russia. To illuminate these points, we provide historical overviews of both contexts and then we examine data from two surveys of social service organizations in the United States: the Multi-City Survey of Social Service Providers and the Rural Survey of Social Service Providers.
We find that nonstate actors strengthen social capital in poor neighborhoods and often link poor persons to public agencies. Nonstate actors strengthen other local institutions through programmatic partnerships and collaboration. However, financing arrangements of nonstate welfare provision may favor efficiency over concerns about equity, sustainability, and predictability. In addition, the primacy of nonstate provision leads to a welfare state that is more varied geographically than might be anticipated otherwise. Such variability appears to disadvantage high-poverty and predominately minority communities the most. Finally, politically, nonstate welfare provision may occur with little public discussion, debate, or reflection as it evolves over time. These findings invoke important questions for Russian policy-makers as they seek to develop an equitable and efficient means of providing assistance to their population.

"Driving leadership style" enhances local participation and involvement in school in reducing a gap between the school and the local community. As gap filler, leadership role was therefore instigated to drive the local community to participate and involve in the School. The purpose of this exploration was to analyze the driving leadership ability to initiate participation and involvement in the school for bringing development and school. Semi structured interview was conducted as a research method. The analyses of the data were triangulated for reliability and validity. The initiation of driving leadership brought about collaborative teaming, collective values creating harmony with toning, being confident for tasking and setting the mission according to the vision with timing and participating and involving with transforming. Ability of driving leadership style displayed the magnitude of progress upon foundational improvement at the beginning of their participation and involvement. Driving leadership style was viewed importance for changes and development bringing the driving forces with participating from the bottom as a lead follower. Driving leadership style acclaimed to be successful in eliminating the status quo and restraining forces in the teachers, parents, local groups and the external developmental agencies. Initiatives for task and considerate for the employees was an essence of producing intelligence to contextual phenomena that driving leadership style pursued demonstrate before the followers. This allowed the employees to concentrate for task and become motivated to accomplish with commitment. The effectiveness of driving leadership style resulted with maximum participation and involvement creating the chain effect in the community and influencing them to become concerned for the school. Driving leadership style by virtue appeared to be working inside out and outside in. This indicated to reach inside into the micro level to meso and to the macro and visa versa. Remaining as a lead follower in the team, driving leadership intellectual capabilities to contextual setting proved aspiring concern for task and for employees. (Contains 5 figures.)

"Driving leadership style" of the school leadership proclaims to be important in bringing about changes in behavioural aspect of the followers. The hallmark of driving leadership style illustrated the characteristic of teaming, toning, tasking, timing and transforming with realistic view to subjective approach. This allowed the leadership to understand the human relationship approach while instigating as a lead follower in the group. The purpose of the study was to explore, the pertinence of leadership and how they grow with the followers. Semi structured interview were implemented with different actors with two sets of interview schedules separately designed for the school leaders and the other actors. Driving leadership style moreover, reflects to demonstrate the ability of working from middle as a lead follower allowing the opportunity to understand and knowing of followers. This somehow built the confident to the school leaders to overcome with the difficulties related with organizational climate. Driving leadership style illustrated to bring about social harmony and cohesive within the organizational behavioural settings furthering leaders to grow with the followers. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)