Mediaval History

В книге на основе анализа восточных письменных известий, тюркоязычных устных источников и научной литературы освещаются вопросы политической истории Улуса Джучи XIII–XV веков, связанные с проблемой существования центров власти Джучидской империи – Золотой Орды, Ак Орды, Кок Орды, Боз Орды, а также изложена историографическая традиция их появления.
Книга будет полезна для исследователей истории улусов-государств золотоордынского времени, специалистов по истории средневекового Казахстана, докторантов и магистрантов. Научное издание подготовлено в рамках реализации научной программы «История и культура Великой степи» Комитета науки МОН РК.

The Sword and Buckler were an ubiquitous duo in the middle ages and the Renaissance, although it can be traced back to antiquity.

In spite of being often neglected, the buckler has an interesting story to tell.

This book offers a new and deep insight into this fascinating small shield.

The list of contents:

Defnition of a buckler
History of the buckler
Typology of the buckler
Bucklers and their usage
Construction of bucklers
Carrying the buckler
Catalogue of original bucklers – complete with measurements
Buckler comparison chart
Excursus / Exkurs Benennung des Bucklers im europäischen Sprachraum


Format: Paperback, 264 pages, 24.6 x 18.9cm, Full Colour
ISBN: 978-0-9929918-3-8
Published by Wyvern Media

Сравнительный обзор двух историографических традиций исследования Золотой Орды – российской и казахстанской, то ясно видно, что последняя, при таком сопоставлении, выглядит более консервативной, с явно устаревшим идейно-теоретическим инструментарием. Сейчас, с учетом как негативного опыта изучения истории Джучиева улуса, так и успешно апробированных методологических приемов, включая и новые междисциплинарные подходы, совершенно очевидно необходимо на основе комплексного привлечения всей совокупности разнородных источников осмыслить ключевые проблемы политической, этнокультурной и социальной истории Золотой Орды (Улуса Джучи) в XIII-XV века.

Parchment documents of the Piast dynasty from Teschen from 1408–1566 from the Austrian National Library in Vienna
The presented edition together with the introductory study and scientific apparatus makes fully accessible 23 documents that were issued by the Piast dynasty from Teschen in 1408-1566. The collection comes from the dynasty of Skrbenští z Hříště and they are currently stored in the Collection of manuscripts and rare books (Sammlung von Handschriften
und alten Drucken) of the Austrian National Library in Vienna. The documents concern dependencies which became the property of the Skrbenští z Hříště throughout the 16th and 18th century. They primarily include so-far unknown information about the localities from the former Těšín princedom, their owners, property background, family situation and position in the then society. The documents of Boleslav I. dated 1408 and 1420 (n. 1 and 2) bring interesting data about Šenov and the Šašek dynasty, about Rudice and local dynasties respectively. A series of sources from the period of the rule of Kazimír II. (n. 3-8, 1482-1501) relates to Kunčice nad Ostravicí, Řepiště, Václavovice, Vratimov and Rudice, originally a small princedom village between Skočov and Bílsko that became the seat of several noble dynasties in the 16th century (Barkalové z Malé Rudice, Rudičtí z Kyčic, Čamerové z Jiskřína) as well as the point of an enormous interest of influential chancellor Václav III.
Adam Rudzký z Rudz († 1582).

The castle of Khust – from the depths of the centuries
The research deals with the history of origin and built up of a castle complex in the town
on Khust. A new concept which implies analyses of architecture of the castle’s fortifications
and its development during the period of 1353–1766 in a context of medieval history of
Hungarian Kingdom and Principality of Transylvania is introduced in the article. Based on
numerous archival drawings and original project of the castle’s reconstruction, the author
argues for uniqueness of the castle of Khust as a monument of fortification. The castle of
Khust is considered as an example of European historical and architectural heritage which
is based on traditions of old Italian bastion system, achievements of Hungarian,
Transylvanian, and Austrian engineers of fortifications of 14th–18th centuries.

The article describes the heraldry of "kazada", specific social groups in medieval Perast. Each "kazada" consisted of several different families gathered around an "antique" family. It was a great honor for these kazadas to guard the war flag of the Republic of Venice. Article is in Serbian language, Cyrillic.

Anahtar Kavramlar: Dünyanın İlk Okulları, Dünya’da İlk Eğitimciler, Eski Çağda Eğitim, Anadolu Medeniyetlerinde Eğitim, Eski Türklerde Eğitim, Uzakdoğu Medeniyetlerinden Eğitim (Hint, Çin ve Japonya), Mezopotamya’da Eğitim (Mısır, İran, Asur, Babil, İsrail, İbraniler), Eski Yunan ve Sparta’da Eğitim, Romalılar ve Eğitim.

This text was inspired by the three entries I wrote for ‘The Crusades: An Encyclopedia’, ed. by Alan V. Murray (2006) on Finland, Sweden and the Wendish Crusade (1147), respectively (now uploaded on academia.edu). This made me wonder whether the first Swedish crusade to Finland (tentatively dated to 1155/57) should not be seen in context with the general call for the Second Crusade, which allowed to crusades to target pagans in the periphery of western Christianity. To that end I compared the Wendish crusade of 1147 with the Swedish crusade suggesting that in the wording in Pope Alexander III’s Gravis admodum bull of 1171/72 to the Swedish archbishop of Uppsala and his suffragans and Duke Guthorm we find the same frame of mind, which was expressed by Bernard of Clairvaux in his famous dictum, "either the religion or the nation [the Wends] be wiped out (Lat. aut ritus ipse, aut natio deleatur)". The Gravis admodum is published with an English translation and diplomatic comments in the appendix.

A first result of this was a paper given to a section on the Second Crusade at the IMC Leeds 2006. The paper was completed for publication in 2008 together with other papers of the section. Nevertheless it took the publishers until 2015 for the book to appear, partly, it seems, due to the delaying and often inexpert process of peer reviewing.

In 1328, Constance of Saluzzo, coming from a long line of Subalpine nobles related to the kings of Aragon, married Pietro, heir to the throne of Arborea. They governed peaceably and dedicated themselves to bettering their kingdom; in 1343 they founded a monastery of Poor Clares, for which they obtained particular Papal privileges. Use is made of both published and as yet unpublished documentation to shed light on the different stages of this foundation, the monastic community living first next the church of St. Vincent and then, once the construction was done, next that of St. Clare. Founding the monastery not only made available for the royals a place for their retreats, but also guaranteed them the prayers of the Poor Clares. Great civic and political value was
assigned to these prayers. Indeed, the nuns’ prayers for the royal couple, and for the safety of the kingdom, were thought of as an indispensable resource for the proper functioning of the State

Yazıcızâde Ali tarafından kaleme alınan Tevârih-i Âli Selçuk (Selçuknâme- Oğuznâme) adlı eserin Topkapı Sarayı Kütüphanesi Revan Bölümü Nu: 1391 kayıtlı nüshanın transkripsiyonu ve diğer nüshalarla edisyon kritiği yapılarak varak karşılaştırmaları verilmektedir.

http://pawet.net/library/history/bel_history/dziarnovich/43/%D0%A6%D1%96_%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9E_%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4.html

Алег Дзярновіч (Мінск)

ЦІ ІСНАВАЎ ФЕАДАЛЬНЫ ГОРАД?
НЕКАТОРЫЯ МЕТАДАЛАГІЧНЫЯ ПРАБЛЕМЫ ДАСЛЕДАВАННЯ ЎРБАНІСТЫЧНЫХ СУПОЛЬНАСЦЯЎ ПОЗНЯГА СЯРЭДНЯВЕЧЧА І РАННЯГА НОВАГА ЧАСУ [in]
Гістарычная ўрбаністыка: асновы метадалогіі і крыніцазнаўчая база : зб. навук. арт. Гродна, 2011. С. 31–38.

La taïfa de Grenade au XI ème siècle : d'après les « Mémoires » du dernier roi ziride 'Abd Allāh 1 Page du manuscrit de la Bibliothèque d'al-Qarawiyyin des « Mémoires » de 'Abd Allāh, Folio 13 r. Évariste Lévi-Provençal. Un texte inédit sur l'histoire de l'Espagne musulmane dans la seconde moitié du XI ème siècle : les Mémoires de 'Abd Allāh, dernier roi ziride de Grenade. Fragments publiés d'après le manuscrit de la

150 pages in English. Due to neglect of foreign impact and several mistakes a part of the traditional Swedish prehistory is reinterpreted in this paper. In 553 AD the Byzantine historian Procopius wrote about a group of Heruls following their dynasty to the Scandinavian Peninsula around 512 AD after being defeated by the Lombards. Their presence in Scandinavia in 548 AD is well documented, while their claimed Scandinavian origin is totally unattested. <| |> Historically we know this East Germanic people since the 3rd century at the Black Sea from where they followed the Huns and settled as a warrior class in Mähren/Moravia. Here they became famous as Roman mercenaries and terrorized their neighbours until their defeat. A group choose to join the East Roman emperors after 512 AD and were baptized. A smaller group, the Western Heruls at the North Sea coast, were known as Roman mercenaries since 286 AD and later as pirates until they disappeared in 476 AD. <| |> Gold and solidi hoards are indicating that the Scandinavian warriors had joined the Huns and later the Heruls. The Heruls and their dynasty followed after their defeat their companions, but except for a short contact in 548 AD and maybe a few runic inscriptions the known history of the Heruls ended with their arrival to Scandinavia. The North European poems and sagas contain distant memories of the event, but they cannot be regarded as history. Consequently, the destiny of these trained and frightening mercenaries has been discussed for centuries. Their arrival is certain, but how many arrived and where did they settle? <| |> The hypothesis of this paper is that they first settled in Blekinge/Värend, but before 548 AD most of them were expelled north by the Danes – mentioned by Jordanes. The next target for most of these soldiers would probably be the expanding economy of Uppland, which afterwards flourished during the Vendel aera with obvious characteristics of an earlier Roman mercenary culture. Probably they simply served there as mercenaries and military advisors as they did in the two Roman empires. When they were integrated in the Nordic kingdoms their name disappeared and probably i became the title earl. In the legends they were therefore often confused with the Huns, whom they had followed for 75 years.

Dr. Rainer Land (Thünen-Institut, Potsdam) hat eine Debatte zur gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungstheorie initiiert, dazu Vortragsveranstaltungen organisiert und relevante Texte auf seiner Internetseite veröffentlicht (http://www.rla-texte.de/?page_id=535 und http://www.rla-texte.de/?page_id=635). Zwei Artikel sind in diesem Zusammenhang in der Zeitschrift "Berliner Debatte Initial" (Heft 2/2016) erschienen.
Der hier veröffentliche Beitrag knüpft an die Diskussion in der Geschichtswissenschaft an, daß nicht hinreichend klar sei, was historischen Tatsachen zu solchen macht, daß und wie historische Wahrheiten durch die Forschung erzeugt werden. Es wurde eine „quantentheoretische Wende“ der Geschichtswissenschaft gefordert. Die gleiche Forderung sei an eine Theorie gesellschaftlicher Entwicklung zu stellen. Funktionalität wird als Tatsache stattgehabter Entwicklung festgestellt, Entwicklung und Fortschritt wird anhand der Änderung der Gegenstände, Resultate und Mittel des Verhaltens, als Tatsache von einem gegebenen Entwicklungsresultat ausgehend festgestellt. Der Autor verwirft den allgemeinen Begriff des gesellschaftlichen Fortschritts. Fortschritt könne nur quantitativ nach stattgehabter Entwicklung festgestellt werden. Wie Entwicklung nicht prognostiziert werden könne, sei auch vorausschauend eine Vorstellung von Fortschritt verfehlt und letztlich teleologisch.
Der Autor macht geltend, daß gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen immer als eine Gesamtheit vielfältiger Momente und Entwicklungslinien, als Kulturentwicklung zu fassen sei. Die Forderung, gesellschaftliche Entwicklung nicht vom Resultat ausgehend, sondern von ihrem Einsatz her, in der Richtung ihres tatsächlichen Verlaufes zu denken – eben die „quantentheoretische Wende“, könnte erfüllt werden, indem ausgehend von grundlegenden Basisinnovationen verfolgt wird, wie durch solche Basisinnovationen unterschiedlichste bereits vorhandene Inventionen zu einem neuen Ganzen durch die Menschen, Gemeinschaften und Gesellschaften zusammengeführt werden, wie neue Kulturen entstehen und durch die menschliche Tätigkeit entwickelt werden. Die Erklärung der industriellen Revolution durch Fernand Braudel aus der Basisinnovation in Gestalt des Import billiger Textilien (indiennes) nach England wird vom Autor als eine ideelle Modellbildung aufgefaßt, die bestimmte Momente der Wirklichkeit herausgreift und natürlich nie die Realität vollständig erfassen kann, wie jede andere Erklärung historischer Ereignisse auch. Dieses Modell, grundlegende historisch-kulturelle Entwicklungen aus einer Basisinnovation zu erklären, wird als Handlungsmuster für das Verständnis der Renaissance, der agrarisch-urbanen Revolution des europäischen Mittelalters und der neolithischen Revolution geprüft. Dazu werden als Hypothesen vorgeschlagen: Die Basisinnovation der Renaissance sei die Wiederentdeckung der Melioration in Mittelitalien, die des wirtschaftlichen Aufschwungs im europäischen Mittelalter das genagelte Hufeisen, die der neolithischen Revolution der ortsfeste Speicher.
Gesellschaftliche Entwicklungstheorie werde damit zu einer theoriegeleiteten Geschichtserzählung. einer Historiographie, die mit einer allgemeinen Entwicklungstheorie fundiert ist. Der Autor knüpft dabei an die französische Annales-Schule und an die Leistungen der deutschen Renaissanceforschung bis 1933 an. Eine allgemeine Entwicjlungstehorie, die für die biologische wie historische Entwicklung, für Wirtschafrs-, Kultur-, Wissenmschaftsgeschichte gleichermaßen gilt, bleibt allerdings noch auszuarbeiten.

This article deals with struggle for supremacy of Indian ocean and Persian guelph, between Ottoman Turks and Portuguese in early 15th century AD. Seydi Ali Reis was Ottoman Naval commander who was accidentally driven by Typhoon to Gujarat where Portuguese were fighting for the control of Ports in western India.

A mohácsi síkság releváns részét lefedő fémkeresős vizsgálat eredménye alapján kijelenthető, hogy mohácsi csatához köthető hadi lelet jelentős számban és koncentrációban mindeddig csak Majs mellett került elő. A régészeti bizonyítékokra támaszkodva a kutatást vezető Dr. Bertók Gábor azt a hipotézist vetette fel, hogy a mohácsi csata központi területe az egykori Nagymajs falu környezetében lehetett. Az elgondolás szuggesztív, a tárgyi bizonyítékok meggyőzőnek tűnnek... van ugyanakkor néhány nyugtalanító stratégiai kérdés, melyre szükséges felhívni a figyelmet, mielőtt a határidő szorításában a hipotézisre rákerül a konszenzus pecsétje. Mivel a felvállalt ördög ügyvédje szerep komoly félreértésre adhat okot, fontosnak tartom kihangsúlyozni: jelen dolgozat NEM az általam nagyra becsült kutatók ellen irányul. Épp ellenkezőleg! Meggyőződésem, hogy a közelgő félezer éves jubileum miatt a téma messze túlmutat a személyes-szakmai kereteken, mivel ha utólag bebizonyosodik, hogy a felfokozott média és politikai érdeklődés közepette „rossz” helyre került felállításra a csatatér központját jelölni hivatott megszentelt „Nagy Kereszt”, akkor a
történettudomány hitelessége a finanszírozását biztosító döntéshozók komplett generációja számára kérdőjeleződhet meg. A felelősség kollektív, a következmény kézzel fogható, így -mivel a bizonyosság maximalizálására az érvek ütköztetésénél nincs hatékonyabb eszköz- a gyenge pontok felvetése itt és most sokkal inkább szükségszerűség, mint opció. Dr. Pap Norbert és csapata 2020-ban már publikált 17 észrevételt a nagymajsi helyszínnel kapcsolatosan. A magam részéről továbbhat potenciális gyenge pont felvetésével szeretnék hozzájárulni a munka sikeréhez, melyek többsége a hipotézis velejét képező lövedék szóródási kép ellentmondásait állítja reflektorfénybe.

Jean, dit de la Grille ou de Châtillon, fut une figure très importante du XIIe siècle breton. Ses origines ne sont pas connues, mais des éléments le rattachent à la mouvance de Blois-Champagne à laquelle il était très certainement lié, et à Paris où il a certainement séjourné et fait ses études. Chanoine de Bourg-Moyen dans le diocèse de Chartres, il arrive en Bretagne à l'occasion de la fondation de l'abbaye de Sainte-Croix de Guingamp dont il devient le premier abbé. Par la suite, élu évêque d'Alet, il se singularise par une action réformatrice intense : en quelques années, il déplace le siège épiscopal d'Alet à Saint-Malo, crée un chapitre régulier, entame des travaux sur la cathédrale et crée ou réforme la chancellerie épiscopale. Son action de pasteur n'a pas été en reste ; s’il s'inscrit dans la continuité de ses prédécesseurs, il sait néanmoins imprimer sa marque personnelle à la réforme grégorienne en promouvant les ordres nouveaux dans son diocèse. Son aura en a dépassé les frontières, puisqu'on le retrouve mêlé à plusieurs affaires ecclésiastiques de la province de Tours et même au-delà ; mais, figure grégorienne, il apparaît distant des pouvoirs laïcs. Il laissa un tel souvenir qu'à mort en 1163, il fut honoré comme saint par les Malouins.

In the village of Drenova, next to Leposavić, there is a church dedicated to the Annunciation of the Most Holy Mother of God, and it was built during the renewal of the Patriarchate of Peć. It is built of hewn stone, small in size and covered with stone slabs. It has a wooden iconostasis made in a modest woodcut and painted with geometric and floral motifs of various colors. The throne icons of Christ and the Mother of God from the iconostasis have not been preserved. The second row of icons is the Deesis row with the Apostles, and above them are the icons of the Great Feasts. Due to the small space, part of this repertoire found its place in the middle of the church, on a vertical partition, within the roof construction. The stylistic analysis of painting shows that its master was of modest abilities, but excellently trained in his craft. In terms of artistic expression, he is a decorator, whose color is transparent and not constructive, and he is influenced by Cretan painting. Its palette is modest, composed of only a few saturated tones. As the main color solutions, he uses harmony performed by the contrast of complementary colors and the collision of light-dark shades. The master paints the incarnate with a certain dose of plasticity, while with the draperies the plasticity is extremely emphasized. Linearity matches the color that carries the form. The characters have anatomical deformations, but they radiate spirituality. The general image of this painting exudes expressiveness, immediacy and cold beauty. Based on the iconographic solutions of the royal doors and their coincidence with
the doors made by the painters from the Linotopi workshop, it can be concluded that the painter from Drenova belonged to one of them. The village of Linotopi is located in the area of Kastoria in northern Greece. By analyzing the text preserved on the icons, it can be concluded that the
painter is of Cincar (Aromanian) origin, which corresponds to the geographical determinants. Based on the great similarity of the visual language of iconography in Drenova with the Deisis in the Piva monastery, this painting can be placed in the last years of the 16th century.
Key words: Church in Drenova, iconostasis, icons, iconography, style, analogies, Linotopi painters.

Проблема появления союза мадьярских племен средневековья продолжает быть актуальной исторической
темой в современной хунгарологии. Ранние мадьяры рубежа раннего и развитого средневековья сформирова-
лись как этнополитическая общность на обширной территории евразийских степей в соседстве с другими
кочевыми народами, преимущественно тюрко-огурского происхождения: огуры, савиры, оногуры, булга-
ры, хазары и др. Разнообразные многовековые этнокультурные контакты с тюркоязычными кочевниками
сформировали не только особый военно-номадный уклад общественной жизни ранних мадьяр, колоритно
выраженный в материальной и духовной культуре, но и оказали прямое воздействие на племенной состав
мадьярской конфедерации. Совершенно очевидно, с точки зрения автора, что тюркские этнокультурные
компоненты органично стали заметной частью формирующегося мадьярского народа. В процессе передви-
жения и переселения на территорию Дунайской Паннонии, как достоверно известно из источников восточной
части, в Поволжско-Уральском регионе, осталась какая-то мадьяроязычная часть, что нашло подтверж-
дение позднее. По сообщениям средневековых авторов, эта восточная группа (или группы) мадьяр компак-
тно проживала вблизи Волжской Булгарии, вплоть до начала Западного похода Чингизидов 1236‒1242 гг.
В ходе монгольских завоеваний восточные мадьяры, также как и другие подчиненные народы, были включены
в чингизидскую улусно-племенную систему Золотой Орды XIII‒XV веков. В течение позднего средневековья
восточно-мадьярское население окончательно было ассимилировано численно доминирующими здесь тюрко-
язычными кочевниками Дешт-и Кыпчака и вошли в состав формирующихся здесь новых этнополитических
общностей – ногаев, узбеков, татар, казахов.

The paper offers a hypothesis which could be summarized as follows.
In 1347, the divorce of the Bulgarian Tsar John Alexander with Theodora I, the daughter of the Wallachian voevode Ivanko Basarab, broke the kinship relations between the two ruling dynasties and questioned their allied relations.
With the new diplomatic marriage - concluded on John Alexander's initiative in 1347 or 1348 - between John Asen, the third son of the Bulgarian Tsar and Theodora I, and an unknown niece of Ivanko Basarab, the kinship between the two dynasties was restored as was the political status quo between Bulgaria and the Wallachian Voevodate. Several years later, the death of John Asen, which overtook him in a battle against the Turks in 1352, put an end to this marriage.
This hypothesis is convincing because it is based on the indisputable parts of the text of the partially preserved Turnovo epitaph and various sources revealing the history of Bulgarian-Wallachian relationships and the family life of John Alexander and his sons.
On the basis of the analyzed sources, I think that there are sufficient grounds for the marriage of John Asen and his second cousin, a niece of the Wallachian voevode Ivanko Basarab, albeit only as a well-founded hypothesis, to be added to the history of the Bulgarian-Wallachian marital diplomacy. It is indicative of Tsar John Alexander's ambition to use the kinship between the Asens and Basarabs through dynastic marriages as a means of guaranteeing the good neighborly and most important allied relations between the Turnovo Tsardom and the Wallachian Voevodate, united by the need to cooperate in protecting their territories from the conquest aspirations of Hungary.

In English. Scholarly papers conclude that the Listerland in the 6 th-7 th century was ruled by a warrior society between the ordinary Scandinavian societies in Skåne and Västra Vång. This article will in an interdisciplinary way investigate the connections between the Eastern and Western Heruls arriving to the Scandinavian Peninsula around 500 AD, the four rune stones in Lister/Blekinge, the Rök Stone, the coastal landscape and the names Lister, Eorle and Wicingas. Possibly the rune stones were raised by some of the Western Heruls, the sea-warriors who disappeared from the Frisian coast after 478 AD. They may have been the Wicingas, ErilaR, Eorle and even the Wulfings of Widsith and Beowulf. Maybe they assisted or joined the Eastern Heruls, who from their kingdom in Mähren settled first time in Blekinge / Värend around 512 AD until they were expelled by the Danes. The expulsion of the terrifying Herulian mercenaries made suddenly the unknown Danes famous from Constantinople to England.

Ripercorrere le vicende storiche del popolo visigoto, dalla leggendaria migrazione scandinava sino alla creazione di un regno nella penisola iberica, significa riflettere su una fase storica straordinariamente cruciale e tumultuosa, che segna l’inesorabile fine del “mondo antico” e l’inizio del medioevo europeo. Dopo la caduta del regno di Tolosa, a opera dei Franchi di Clodoveo, i Visigoti, stanziati definitivamente nell’Hispania, daranno vita a uno stato espressione dell’incontro-scontro tra l’eredità romana e la tradizione germanica, rappresentando nel contempo uno degli ultimi “baluardi” nella conservazione e trasmissione della cultura greco-romana, sia attraverso vescovi cattolici imbevuti di cultura classica sia mediante l’insegnamento impartito nelle scuole presbiteriali ed episcopali a ecclesiastici e laici. Tra sanguinarie congiure di palazzo, intrighi nobiliari per l’eredità al trono, lotte continue contro Vasconi, Asturi, Cantabri, Svevi, Franchi e Bizantini per conservare l’unità e l’indipendenza del regno, i Visigoti produssero un’originale e raffinata cultura artistica ben testimoniata da chiese, sculture ed eccellenti opere d’arte suntuaria. Dopo la conversione al cattolicesimo di Recaredo e il rafforzamento dell’unità statuale, la guerra civile e l’espansionismo della dinastia Omayyade porranno fine, dopo quasi tre secoli di vita, a questa esperienza».

Το μεσαιωνικό κάστρο του Αγίου Ιλαρίωνα αποτελεί ένα εξαίρετο δείγμα φρουριακής αρχιτεκτονικής στην Κύπρο, περιλαμβάνοντας εντός των τειχών και διακριτές οικιστικές υποδομές για την περιστασιακή φιλοξενία και εξυπηρέτηση υψηλών προσώπων, αποκτώντας μία επιπρόσθετη κοσμοπολίτικη φυσιογνωμία, εκτός από τον καθαρά στρατιωτικό ρόλο του. Εντοπίζεται στην κατεχόμενη επαρχία της Κερύνειας και περί το κέντρο της οροσειράς του Πενταδάκτυλου, καταλαμβάνοντας την προσβάσιμη νότια κλιτύ μίας βραχώδους εδαφικής έξαρσης με υψόμετρο 725 μ., ενώ οι υπόλοιπες καταπτώσεις της είναι κρημνώδεις και απροσπέλαστες.

Entwicklung ist die Entstehung von Neuem. Mit diesem Satz könnte man wohl die grundlegende Leistung Joseph A. Schumpeter, den Begriff der Entwicklung in die ökonomische Theorie eingeführt und von Wachstum unterschieden zu haben, zusammenfassen. Allerdings hat sich diese Unterscheidung noch nicht allgemein durchgesetzt und eine allgemeine Entwicklungstheorie ist immer noch ein Desiderat.
Während Wachstum extrapoliert werden kann, ist Entwicklung für die Zukunft nicht voraussehbar, denn Entwicklung voraussehen zu wollen bedeutete die Absurdität, das Neue zu wissen zu wollen, bevor es da ist. Wir kennen Entwicklungen stets nur in die Vergangenheit zurückblickend, was leicht zu dem Irrtum verleitet, daß die Entwicklung notwendigerweise und zielgerichtet zu dem Resultat geführt haben muß, das wir kennen, also garnicht anders hätte verlaufen können, als sie tatsächlich verlaufen ist. Entwicklung hat aber kein Ziel. Der Irrtum, Entwicklung als zielgerichteten Prozeß zu versehen, läßt sich vermeiden, indem man Ausgangspunkte der Entwicklung – Basisinnovationen – annimmt, und von dort ausgehend den Verlauf zu verstehen sucht, der so erfolgt ist, aber auch anders hätte verlaufen können.
Ich mache in der Entwicklung der Menschheit bis zur Gegenwart sieben Basisinnovationen aus.

Der Text ist leicht gekürzt erschienen in Lothar W. Pawliczak: Stadt, Neuerung, Kaufmann. Drei Lobpreisungen für Camilla Warnke zum 90. Berlin 2021, S. 23-50

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