Lexical-Functional Grammar

Situations in which conflicting constraints clash can potentially provide linguists with insights into the architecture of grammar. This paper deals with such a case. When predicative modifiers of morphologically rich languages head relative clauses, they are involved in two, sometimes conflicting, agreement relationships. Different languages adopt different strategies in order to resolve situations of conflicting constraints. This paper focuses on Standard Arabic and the hybrid agreement strategy which it employs. It argues that the HPSG theory of agreement, which distinguishes between morphosyntactic and semantic agreement, constitutes an appropriate framework for accounting for the phenomenon. In addition, it shows that contrary to claims made by Doron and Reintges (2005), a non-derivational framework such as HPSG is adequate for accounting for this non-trivial agreement pattern. Moreover, with a constructional approach, whereby constraints can target syntactic structures above the lexical level, better empirical coverage is achieved.

The work presented below is part of a PhD project that deals with the acquisition of the English
Resultative Construction (ERC hereafter) by Spanish native speakers who learn English as a foreign language
(EFL). Our main interest is to explore whether there is a sequence in the acquisition of different ERC types
correlated with the proficiency level of Spanish speakers. 
There is a substantial amount of research carried out on the English-Spanish acquisition of the
lexicalization of manner of motion and path in boundary crossing events, as stated by Cadierno (2004),
Cadierno & Ruiz (2006), Robinson, et al. (2009), Larrañaga, et al. (2012), Alonso (2015), among other.
Interestingly, these papers analyze the differences in foreign language acquisition in terms of Talmy’s
typological classification into Satellite-framed and Verb-framed languages (2000) and suggest that L1 has a
significant effect on L2, especially if typologically different languages are at stake. 
There is also a variety of research conducted on the acquisition of ERC by different languages as L1 such
as Chinese (Cao & Zhou, 2014), Portuguese (Oliveira, 2016) and Korean (Kim, et al, 2019). Again, these
works support the claim that L1 affects the acquisition of a specific structure in English as L2. Yet, to our
knowledge, no work has been published on the acquisition of ERC by native speakers of Spanish who learn
EFL. Therefore, we elaborated an Acceptability Judgement Task that enabled us to explore to what degree
Spanish subjects accept the different types of ERC and how they identify non-acceptable combinatory of
unlicensed ERC. 
This paper is organized as follows. The next section describes the general differences between the
Spanish-English contrast in event representations, followed by the detailed description of the different
subtypes of ERC considered in this work. In addition, the English Depictive Construction (DC, now onwards)
are described and exemplified, and the objectives and predictions are stated. Next, we present the
Methodological Design of the AJT, followed by the results obtained and the general conclusions drawn from
this data.

This paper analyses a phenomenon not frequently dealt with in the grammar of Romance languages: closest conjunct (number) agreement [CCA] between determiners, adjectives and nouns in Spanish structures containing conjoined singular Ns: [ DP D (A) [N 1 y N 2 ] (A)]. Using new corpus data, we apply statistical tests to assess the theoretical and empirical claims of the analysis. We first offer a description of the plural semantics of these structures. Regarding syntax, we show that, despite the plural semantics of the DP, determiners and prenominal adjectives agree with the closest conjunct (N 1) (e.g., Una.F.SG fuerte.SG lluvia.F.SG y viento.M.SG azotaron.PL la ciudad 'A heavy rain and wind battered the city'). As for postnominal adjectives, CCA with N 2 alternates with full (plural) agreement (e.g., Una.F.SG lluvia.F.SG y viento.M.SG {inoportuno.M.SG / inoportuno.sM.PL} azotaron.PL la ciudad 'An inopportune rain and wind battered the city'). Within a generative framework, we analyse CCA in the prenominal field and full agreement of postnominal adjectives as syntactically derived from the interaction of the

Апресян, Юрий Дереникович. Лингвистическое обеспечение системы французско-русского автоматического перевода ЭТАП-1 : [Часть] III : Французский синтаксический анализ / Ю.Д. Апресян, И.М. Богуславский, Л.Л. Иомдин ; Под ред. В.Ю. Розенцвейга. – М., 1984. – 60 с. – (Предварительные публикации / Институт русского языка АН СССР ; Проблемная группа по экспериментальной и прикладной лингвистике. Выпуск 155).

Dilbilim alanıyla birlikte diğer bilim alanlarında da karşımıza çıkan tipoloji (sınıflandırma, taksonomi) terimi “belli unsurların yapılarının karşılaştırılması sonucunda oluşan benzerlik ya da farklılıkları bir araya getirme, bir yapının tipik özelliklerini tespit etme” gibi anlamlar taşımaktadır.
Dilbilim tipolojisi; diller arasındaki ses, biçim, dizim farklılıklarını ortaya koyarak bir dilin yapı bakımından karakteristik özelliklerini tespit etmeye, bir dilin dünya dilleri arasındaki konumunu belirlemeye ve tipolojik olarak sınıflandırmaya çalışır. Dilbilim tipolojisi dilbilimsel sistemlerin türlerinin incelenmesi ve yorumlanmasıdır. Ayrıca diller arasındaki dilbilimsel sistemlerin karşılaştırmasını içerir, bu karşılaştırma hem eş zamanlı hem de artzamanlı olabilir (Velupillai 2012: 15). Uzun’a göre ise dil tipolojisi; dünya dillerini benzer ve farklı yapısal özelliklerine göre gruplamak üzere ele alan, diller arası ortaklıklardan hareketle dil grupları ve ailelerinin genel karakteristiğini ortaya koymaya çalışan ve dillerin birbirine nasıl benzediğini, birbirlerinden hangi yollarla nasıl farklılaştığını açıklamaya çalışan bir alandır (Uzun 2013: 551). En genel ifadesiyle dilbilim tipolojisinin dilsel sistemlerin ve dilsel sistemlerin tekrar eden kalıplarının incelenmesi olduğu söylenebilir. Tipoloji, kalıpların haritasını çıkarabilir ve bu, bu tür kalıpları neden bulduğumuza ilişkin araştırmalar için bir başlangıç noktası olarak hizmet edebilir. Tipoloji, dillerin analizi için bir rehber olarak da kullanılır (Velupillai 2012: 15).
Dilbilim tipolojisi ile ilgili araştırmacıların tanımlarını incelediğimizde dil yapılarının benzer ve farklı yönlerinin araştırılmasına, incelenmesine ve yorumlanmasına yönelik vurgu göze çarpar. Bu noktada “dilbilim tipolojisi” kavramı ile “dil evrensellikleri” kavramının ayrımının belirlenmesi zorunluluğu ortaya çıkar. Bernard Comrie, bu iki kavramın ayrımını şöyle açıklar: “Dil evrensellikleri araştırmaları bütün dünya dillerindeki ortak özellikleri ortaya çıkarmakla ilgilenir; dilleri tipolojik olarak sınıflamak için, yani onları farklı tiplere ayırmak için diller arasındaki farklılıkların ortaya konması gerekir. Bu zıtlaşma, diller arasındaki farklılıklar üzerindeki çalışma ile diller arasındaki benzerlikler çalışması arasında bir zıtlaşma olarak özetlenebilir.” (Comrie 2005: 49). Dilbilim tipolojisi ve dil evrenselliği kavramı bir dilbilimciyi karşılaştırmalı dilbilim alanında çalışmaya yönlendirir ve bu iki konudan biri üzerinde çalışan bir araştırmacı aslında diğer konu üzerinde de çalışmış olur. Çünkü diller arasındaki farklılıkları ve benzerlikleri ele alan bu iki kavram her ne kadar birbirlerine zıt görünse de konu alanı bakımından birbirlerini destekleyen ve birbirine paralel olan iki kavramdır.

Introduction: A suprising contrast Compounding is extremely productive in the old Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit (Mikkola 1967; Lowe 2015b); moreover, the internal order of Sanskrit bahuvrīhi compounds (henceforth, bahuvrīhis) involves puzzling patterns that call for an explanation. 1 Thus, the internal order of "non-verbal bahuvrīhis" such as ugra-putra-'whose sons are fierce' behaves differently from the internal order of "verbal bahuvrīhis" such as kr. tágas-'by whom an offence is committed'. Specifically, while the internal order of non-verbal bahuvrīhis unexceptionally follows generalization (1) (see Mocci 2022; Lowe &Mocci 2022), the internal order of verbal bahuvrīhis often violates (1). (1) If a bahuvrīhi's external referent is in a dependency with the bahuvrīhi member X, X is allocated to the right-hand slot of the bahuvrīhi.

This paper gives an overview of constructions with propositional proforms in three languages: English, German and Hungarian. Starting from the position that these elements are not meaningless expletives, four strategies are identified, which are different in terms of the syntactic/semantic type of the proform (regular pronoun, specialized propositional pronoun, pronoun realizing an elided nominal) and the way a clause is associated with them (anaphoric reference, adjunction, unification). The different analyses are justified based on formal differences (morphosyntactic features, selectional restrictions) and they are compatible with the architecture of LFG, previous analyses, as well as framework-independent theoretical considerations.

The French verb laisser ('to let') allows for two different syntactic constructions, an Exceptional Case Marking (ECM) construction and a Faire-Infinitive (FI) construction with a postverbal Causee, and for two different interpretations, authorize Isogloss 2024, 10(4)/6 Raffy, Donazzan & von Heusinger and not-intervene. According to previous studies (e.g. Kayne 1975), constructions are related to interpretations: the ECM can express intentionality, the FI cannot. In this paper, we explore a different hypothesis: the ECM construction is underspecified and allows for both interpretations, while the FI is restricted to the not-intervening interpretation. We provide empirical evidence from three distinct forced choice tasks in which participants had to match constructions and interpretations. The results reveal that, contrary to both early observations and our initial hypothesis, both constructions may allow for both interpretations, and variation depends less on the syntactic configuration than on semantic and pragmatic factors, namely on the lexical inferences triggered by the embedded verb and the authority relation between Causer and Causee expressed in the contexts.

It is argued that switch-reference, as it is exhibited in Papuan languages, is not primarily a syntactic device like reflexivization or verb agreement for indicating nominal reference, but rather its main function is that of a thematic device for linking sentences in text formation, and that coreferencing certain nominals across clauses is included in, but subsidiary to, this basic function.

Generative syntax was built on the foundations of Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis, and IC methods and heuristics were an important tool in the early days of the generative enterprise. However, developments in the theory entailed a departure from some fundamental IC assumptions: we will argue that structural descriptions in contemporary generative grammar (transformational and non-transformational) define not constituents, but strictly ordered sequences closer to arrays. We therefore define and characterise IC approaches to syntax as opposed to what we will call Array-Based (AB) approaches. IC grammars define distributional generalisations, and proper containment and is-a relations between indexed distributionally defined categories. AB grammars, in contrast, define strictly ordered sequences of categories. In this paper we introduce and define the fundamental properties of IC grammar, and the changes in the generative theory that introduced arrays in phrase structure. We argue that it is crucial to distinguish between IC and AB grammars when evaluating the empirical adequacy of structural descriptions used in current syntactic theorising, as structures in AB and IC grammars represent different relations between expressions and may be better suited for different purposes.

In a collocation, the choice of one lexical item depends on the choice made for another. This poses a problem for simple approaches to lexicalisation in natural language generation systems. In the Meaning-Text framework, recurrent patterns of collocations have been characterised by lexical functions, which offer an elegant way of describing these relationships. Previous work has shown that using lexical functions in the context of multilingual natural language generation allows for a more efficient development of linguistic resources. We propose a way to encode lexical functions in the Lexical Functional Grammar framework.

This paper describes what we take to be the correct perspective on the'empiri-cist'vs' rationalist'debate which is the dominant theme of this workshop, and describes a technique for dealing with the translation problems that arise where languages differ in the conditions they impose, and the strategies they employ for expressing different kinds of referential or anaphoric dependence. 1. Introduction: Rationalism vs. Empiricism, a Perspective. This paper has two aims: the first is to describe what we think is the correct ...

This study uses a corpus linguistic approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, to analyze epistemic modal lexical verbs (EMLVs) in six of George W. Bush's speeches from September 11, 2001, to December 16, 2004. The speeches total 24,209 words with 308 instances of EMLVs. Using AntConc software, the research identifies how Bush used EMLVs to persuade and justify actions. Nine primary functions of EMLVs are identified in State of the Union speeches, and eight in other speeches, with Assertion being the most frequent function. The study highlights the significant role of EMLVs in political discourse for motivating, advancing agendas, and garnering support.

This is the first chapter of the book "The verbal kaleidoscope: perspectives on the syntax and semantic of verbs" in which the authors and editors of the book introduce the topic of the book to the readers. Verbs are often considered a major word class and a central part of the sentence, while the distinction between verbs and nouns is considered to be «one of the few apparently universal parts-of-speech distinctions» (Schachter & Shopen 2007: 5). The perspectives on how to define verbs are numerous and diverge from one another depending on the formal and functional criteria taken into account. This chapter discusses possible definitions of verbs and it constitutes a survey of the possible perspectives on verbs, of their features and of the different domains relevant for their analysis showcasing their multifaceted nature. Finally, an overview of the volume is given with a description of 10 original scientific contributions included in it (Chapter 2-11).

The volume is available here: https://morepress.unizd.hr/books/index.php/press/catalog/book/120

The change of the mode of narration from first person in the drafts to third person in the final version of Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment has received surprisingly little attention from either literary critics1 or linguists. Yet the first-person drafts contain episodes depicting the same events as in Dostoevsky's final text, providing perfect laboratory conditions for exploring both the linguistic and the literary implications of the change. The reasons for the change of narrative mode are not immediately obvious. Dostoevsky employed first-person narration quite often. In some of his works the firstperson narrator plays the marginal role of a chronicler or confidant who bustles between characters, listens to their confessions, collects facts and rumours and puts them together for the reader (The Insulted and the Injured and to some extent The Brothers Karamazov). In others, the first-person narrator is a main character; in Dostoevsky's first epistolary novel, P...

New names are created on daily bases but old names never change in form. Thus, names offer a window where the archaic linguistics structure of a language can be traced. This study explores the grammatical structure of personal names in Kusaal by focusing on their phonology, morphonology and syntax. Phonologically, the paper explores the phonotactics of personal names; morphologically, it discusses the various morphemes that constitute this category of names, and syntactically, it analyses the rules that underlie the construction of personal names that are phrases, clauses and sentences. The meaning of personal names in Kusaal have been discussed extensively in previous studies for which reason minimal attention is dedicated to it in the current work. The findings show that personal names in Kusaal conform to almost all the structural rules of the language. They occupy specific positions in the noun phrase and in the sentence; they are neutral to syntactic features such as definiteness and plurality. Personal names also take prefixes and affixes and can be compound words. There are instances where insertions and deletions are observed in the compound formation of personal names in the language. The study uses the Basic Linguistics Theory for its descriptive analysis of personal names. Both primary and secondary data are used in this study.

We examine the phrasal vs. clausal syntactic status of French in®nitives. Whereas a number of current theories assume a VP-hypothesis (contra principles and parameters theories, including the Minimalist Program), data relative to causative constructions in French are often treated as clausal constructions (the so-called`proposition in®nitive'). The aim of this paper is to demonstrate (i) that it is possible to account for causative constructions in French according to the VP-hypothesis (e.g. in the HPSG framework); (ii) that it is in fact impossible to maintain a clausal hypothesis for causative constructions with respect to subject inversion in French. We therefore argue in favour of the VP-hypothesis for all (French) in®nitives. 1 introdution We address here the following issue: should French in®nitives be taken as phrasal (the VP-hypothesis) or as clausal? The question is far from new; it is well-known that in early transformational grammar the`in®nitive-clause' hypothesis was a central axiom of the theory, and remains so to the present day (cf. Chomsky, 1995). Wehrli (1980), however, has demonstrated that the clausal-hypothesis is not logically necessary even within Chomsky's framework. He argues at some length that the assumption of a syntactic empty category like the null subject`PRO' for in®nitives runs into serious dif®culties that render the theory both inconsistent and empirically unmotivated: to take just one argument, the fact that most French and English in®nitives do not exhibit a lexical subject crucially lacks any explanation on this account. Moreover, as Chierchia (1984) points out, by virtue of Occam's razor a theory that does not posit empty categories ± other things being equal ± is better than one that does.

Lexical Functional Grammar (Kaplan & Bresnan, 1982; Bresnan et al., 2016; Dalrymple et al., 2019) assumes that word order and phrasal constituency is modeled at a syntactic level called constituent structure, represented as a phrase structure tree. A separate syntactic level, functional structure, represents grammatical functions such as subject and object as well as features such as person and tense. Word class 2 is relevant at constituent structure but is not represented at functional structure. We discuss word class, its place in the LFG architecture, and the inventory of word classes that most LFG analyses assume, including the distinction between projecting and nonprojecting categories. Some LFG literature proposes that word classes can be decomposed into sets of more primitive features which reflect basic aspects of their syntactic behavior. We also review some LFG literature addressing challenges to simple assumptions about diagnostics for word class membership. Finally, we discuss the principle of lexical integrity and the LFG view of the structure of the lexicon.

This thesis describes a tactical generator for Turkish, a free constituent order language, in which the order of the constituents may c hange according to the information structure of the sentences to be generated. In the absence of any information regarding the information structure of a sentence (i.e., topic, focus, background, etc.), the constituents of the sentence obey a default order, but the order is almost freely changeable, depending on the constraints of the text ow or discourse. We h a ve used a recursively structured nite state machine for handling the changes in constituent order, implemented as a right-linear grammar backbone. Our implementation environment is the GenKit system , developed at Carnegie Mellon University{Center for Machine Translation. Morphological realization has been implemented using an external morphological analysis/generation component which performs concrete morpheme selection and handles morphographemic processes.

The subject at hand of this paper is intransitive prepositions, which E. Klima (1965) defined as prepositions that do not select syntactic objects. This word group comprises those linguistic units which traditional grammar used to consider as bicategorical, sometimes as adverbs, and in other instances as prepositions created through conversion. Through syntactic and lexical analysis, we intend to confirm that such words in both uses are prepositions rather than adverbs. This type of phrases that are projected only X head does not take complement semantically and structurally. From this point of view, PPs that are generated at level X [P + compl] are opposed, where the presence of a complement is mandatory. Prepositions that project a PPs component at level X have [-compl] feature and are called intransitive prepositions, while prepositions with [+ compl] feature which project a PP at level X are called transitive prepositions. This means that the intuition of an Albanian speaker for...

This paper discusses the control properties of the subjects of Greek gerunds. First, we discuss the control properties of overt subjects that are disjoint in reference from matrix arguments and we conclude that these subjects constitute only apparent counterexamples to the requirement that only controlled null elements appear as subjects of non-finite forms in non-case-marked positions. Then, we focus on covert subjects that are non-coreferential with matrix overt arguments. We conclude that such subjects can only be present when controlled by an implicit argument of the matrix clause. Finally, we point out some problematic aspects of the proposal put forth here.

The article presents Vuosttas Digisanit (VD), an electronic dictionary from North Sami to Norwegian. Its novelty lies in the way we have utilized existing resources (a basic dictionary and a morphological analyser/generator) in order to create a reception dictionary for language learners for a morphologically rich language. With only 7,9 % of the word forms in Sami running text being identical to the lemma form, an approach along the lines sketched here is a prerequisite for a text-integrated e-dictionary. Being a learner dictionary, VD also gives key paradigms for each lemma. This paradigm is generated when building the dictionary, using our language technology tools. We have also built an infrastructure that can be reused for other languages and dictionaries. Our approach shows how it is possible to build textintegrated electronic dictionaries for morphologically complex languages with limited means. The dictionary is available free of charge at: http://giellatekno.uit.no/words/di...

This article discussed the specifics of the translation of comparative constructions in literature from Tatar into Russian. It also suggested methods for the full-fledged translation of such constructions according to semantics and functional features of conjunctions. Postpositions were the main method to represent comparative constructions in simple and complex sentences in Tatar. Conjunctions, the instrumental case of the noun and other means, could further express the meanings of such postpositions when translated into Russian. The analysis of translation of comparative constructions helped to identify the integral and the differential in the semantics and functioning of the conjunctions, which not only connected the components of the comparative constructions, but also created imagery. Using comparative constructions, writers and translators could refer both to the general concepts inherent in their native culture, and to their personal worldview. This seemed possible only with a preliminary comparative analysis of the semantics and the structure of lexical units. Analyzing the translations of literary texts, some functional and semantic correspondences were revealed: comparative postpositions such as kebek, syman, kuk, etc. and Russian comparative conjunctions such as As if for sure, etc. (Eng. like, as if, kind of); relative pair words in Tatar and correlative pairs in Russian; affixes of adverbs such as-cha/-che,-day/-dey in Tatar and the instrumental case of the noun in Russian.

This study aims to describe the deixis used in a single comedy show. Deixis is a word that has arbitrary references. This type of research is a qualitative study using descriptive methods. The data source was obtained from the video of Dodit Mulyanto doing solo comedy. Then, the video was transcribed to make it easier to analyze deixis. Based on the results and discussion conducted by the researcher, it can be concluded that the deixis contained in Dodit Mulyanto's comic speech at a single comedy program consists of four types, namely person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.

Persian is usually assumed to lack a nonfinite clause, as its morphosyntactically distinguished infinitival form is a nominal infinitive. This paper takes a closer look at Persian modal verbs, which, in their impersonal use, take a seemingly past stem or third person singular verb as their complement. We show that the modal syntax of Persian reveals the existence of another type of infinitive in Persian which existed in the earlier stages of the language as well. This infinitive, which has been traditionally called the apocopated infinitive, is clausal in nature. We propose an LFG analysis for modal syntax in Persian, and show how our analysis captures marginal agreement patterns a related raising phenomenon.

In LFG, so-called 'pro-drop' is analyzed as pronoun incorporation, where the person and number marking on the head is the pronoun. The morphology on the head thus serves a dual function: it is an agreement marker when an independent noun or pronoun is present in the clause, and it is an incorporated pronoun when no independent nominal element is present. This chapter spells out the basic analysis of the interplay between pronoun incorporation and agreement marking in LFG. The analysis is illustrated with examples from subject, object, and possessive marking in multiple languages. The chapter also discusses cases where the agreement marker displays markedly different characteristics than the homophonous incorporated pronoun.

Ein NPN-konstruksjon består av eit teljeleg substantiv i ubestemt eintal følgt av ein preposisjon følgd av det same substantivet i ubestemt eintal, som ansikt til ansikt og time etter time. Stundom har konstruksjonen modifiserande tillegg, som i kasse på kasse med flasker og vegg i vegg med badet. NPN-konstruksjonar har vore diskuterte ein del i seinare år, framfor alt basert på engelsk materiale, men knapt noko om norsk. Artikkelen går først inn på nokre moment frå tidlegare forsking og den analysen som blir lagd til grunn. Basert på eit stort materiale frå Leksikografisk bokmålskorpus blir det så undersøkt kva modifiserande (i hovudsak adverbiale) og nominale syntaktiske funksjonar NPN-konstruksjonar har i norsk. Vidare blir produktiviteten til konstruksjonar med ulike preposisjonar undersøkt. Fokuset ligg på uttrykk med dei åtte preposisjonane etter, for, i, mot, om, på, til og ved. Nokre av preposisjonane førekjem nesten berre i adverbial, men andre er vanlege i nominale funksjonar òg. NPN-konstruksjonar med etter, på, for og til dels mot viser høg produktivitet, mens dei andre er lite produktive.

This paper addresses the formal properties of constituent structure (cstructure). We demonstrate inadequacies in the formalization of traditional X0 theory by Bresnan (2001) and Bresnan et al. (2016), and in the alternative proposal of Marcotte (2014). We propose “minimal c-structure” as a new approach to phrase structure within Lexical-Functional Grammar, which almost entirely eliminates non-branching nodes, and neatly captures the distinction between projecting and non-projecting words. Our proposal is fully formalized, and has been successfully tested by an XLE implementation.

A problem that crops up repeatedly in shallow and deep syntactic parsing approaches to South Asian languages like Urdu/Hindi is the proper treatment of complex predications. Problems for the NLP of complex predications are posed by their productiveness and the ill understood nature of the range of their combinatorial possibilities. This paper presents an investigation into whether fine-grained information about the distributional properties of nouns in N+V CPs can be identified by the comparatively simple process of extracting ...

Computational LFG grammar in development in Konstanz Aim: large-scale LFG grammar for parsing Urdu/Hindi Grammar is part of the ParGram project Collaborative, world-wide research project Devoted to developing parallel LFG grammars for a variety of languages Features and analyses are kept parallel for easy transfer between languages

A Noun+ Verb Complex Predicate formed by combining a noun and a verb► noun uninflected, light verb inflected both contribute to overall argument structure of clause► 1 argument from noun► 2 arguments from verb► combine into 3 arguments in resulting CP example: Dar lag 'be frightened by'nAdiyah kO hATHI sE Dar lag-A Nadya. F. Sg Dat elephant. M. Sg Inst fear. M. Sg attach-Perf. M. Sg 'Nadya was frightened by the elephant.'(lag 'attach': thing attached and thing that it is attached at; Dar 'fear': thing that is ...

Ahstract: This paper outlines a theory of constituent coordination For l,exicaI-Funetional Grammar. On this theory LFG's flat, unstructured nets are used as the functional representation of coordinate constructions, l"unction application is extended to sets by treating a set tbrmally am the generalization of its Functional clmnents. This causes properties attributed externally to a coordinate structure to be uniformly distributed across its elements, without requiring additional grammatical specifications.

This article aims to analyze the monofinite complex clause in the Kumyk language in terms of structure. The originality of the research lies in the fact that the article proposes a different approach than in Russian studies on the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence. The relevance of the research is determined by the role of the sentence structure and methods of its study in linguistics in general. The main method used in the study is the method of syntactic modeling, which is used in terms of functions (members of a sentence), in terms of morphological forms of words and the semantic structure of a sentence. Turkic languages are not characterized by properly complex sentences with two formally independent finite parts connected by an analytical form. Case affixes and postpositions form not finite verb forms, but infinite verb forms. Such constructions in agglutinative languages are central and most frequent. The monofinite complex clause, or a sentence complicated by ...

Within the field of linguistics, the makeup of the Complementizer Phrase (CP) layer of the clause has been an issue of recurring debate. Being dependent upon the CP, the structure of relative clauses has been particularly contentious. Two different analysesraising and matchinghave received attention as plausible approaches, but both have also faced considerable criticism. This thesis concurs with criticism from Newmeyer (2004) and Sobin (2003) that CP layer is not split in the way that Rizzi (1997) hypothesizes, and determines that van Craenenbroeck's (2007) alternative split CP model also faces obstacles. However, I argue that the CP layer can still accommodate more projections than assumed in a traditional CP analysis, particularly with relative clause constructions. I propose a Bisecting CP Hypothesis which allows for reconstruction of the internal relative clause head in an analogous way as the matching and raising analyses, but which eliminates the stipulation of matching and addresses the issue of case and theta assignments, an area largely ignored by raising. The Bisecting CP Hypothesis effectively unifies the raising and matching analyses of relative clauses. Implications of this thesis extend to the analysis of wh-pronouns and wh-interrogatives, to the D-linking of wh-phrases, and to free relative derivation. Should the CP system be considered an analogous extension of the IP system, hence ultimately of the VP? I believe there is a substantial difference between the two cases. Whatever "inflectional" properties C reflects, they are not encoded in the form of verbal morphology, in the general case: they are expressed on free functional morphemes (that, que, etc.) which, if anything, look nominal more than verb-like, as they often resemble demonstrative pronouns, wh elements, certain kinds of nouns ("fact", etc.), etc. So, I will continue to assume that the C system is fundamentally distinct from the I system…-Rizzi (1997)

This paper deals with the close relation between the verb (V) and its direct object (DO) in Greek ditransitive structures, bringing together a formal analysis of the inherent nature of this special bond and a performance motivated treatment of factors determining variation in linearisation, i.e. the effects of performance principles on the permutation of the original order of arguments. Thus, first, by means of lexico-syntactic criteria, we propose that Greek-a relatively free word order language-exhibits the asymmetry between the DO and the IO which has also been observed in other languages (e.g. English, Icelandic, and Mainland Scandinavian languages). On the basis of such criteria, we conclude that in the underlying structure of both the PP Object Construction (PPOC) and the Double Object Construction (DOC), the DO is a sister to V. This structural relationship, represented in the single tree diagram we propose for the two constructions, reveals the V-DO special affinity. Second, we investigate the factors involved in the alternation from the basic to the derived orders both in the PPOC and the DOC. Thus, we suggest that the derivation of the orders V-NP acc-PP and V-NP acc-NP gen from V-PP-NP acc and V-NP gen-NP acc , respectively, is motivated by a number of largely interrelated factors (e.g. information focus, internal complexity, and syntactic weight), which may function either individually or compositionally. Finally, it is observed that the insights about the special affinity between the V and its DO expressed in our formal account of ditransitive orders are also captured in Lascaratou's (1994) performance principles motivated analysis of a small corpus of Greek ditransitive constructions, in terms of the strong preference of the DO to be linearised immediately after the verb.

The article focuses on language norms determining structural and semantic organization of complex sentences in the modern Russian language. The author studies violations of correct combinability of grammatical stems in poly-predicative constructions as well as incorrect use of pronouns, defective word order and other deviations in a complex sentence. Special attention is paid to some variants of correcting these mistakes.

Hierarchies are the hidden backbones of complex systems and their analysis allows for a deeper understanding of their structure and how they evolve. We consider languages also to be complex adaptive systems with several intricate networks that capture their structure and function. Hence, we decided to analyze the hierarchical organization of historical syntactic networks to understand how syntax evolves over time. We created these networks from a corpus of German texts from the 11th to 17th centuries, focusing on the hierarchical levels of these networks. We developed a framework to empirically track the emergence of syntactic structures diachronically, enabling us to map the communicative needs of speakers with these structures. We named these syntactic structures "syntactic communicative hierarchies." We showed that the communicative needs of speakers are the organizational force of syntax. Thus, we argue that the emergence of syntactic communicative hierarchies plays a crucial role in shaping syntax over time. This may indicate that languages evolve not only to increase the efficiency of transferring information, but also to increase our capacity, as a species, to communicate our needs with more and more sophisticated abstractions.

AbstractReference is a connection between words and things which is become references. Magical words is one of culture society. That magical words will be tell and expressed in order to reach the user wishes itself or others wishes. The objective of this research was to describe the specific problem that have been studied, meanwhile the benefit of this research is theorit ically can enrich vocabullary of language of local wisdom which generally is Sambas society and specifically is Jawai District Society and practically has benefit for researcher, readers, and educators. The method used in this research was descriptive, the research form is qualitative and discourse analysis approach. The data source in this research was Batra or magical words user and thedata is that magical words itself. Technique of data collecting in this research was elecitation, recording and writing tecnique. Based on the result of data analysis about referential analysis in magical words of Sambas Malay Soci...

This paper presents a simple parser to parse Arabic sentences. The aim of this parser is to check whether the syntax of an Arabic sentence is grammatically correct or not by constructing new efficient Context-Free Grammar that makes Top-Down technique much valuable. A set of experiments were ran on a dataset contains 150 Arabic sentence. The system achieved an average accuracy of 95%.

People understand utterances in real time. Blank [1] described a natural language processor which also parses sentences in linear time. Like human performance, it stays within fixed and finite short-term memory-indeed, these limits prevent it from being overwhelmed by syntactic ambiguities. This paper reviews the parser and describes enhancements that allow it to perform morphosyntactic agreement and semantic interpretation-still within linear time and with predictable resources. The lexicon has been extended semi-automatically, using data from tagged corpora and WordNet, to cover the typical vocabulary of utterances in the domain of air traffic information service (ATIS). Comparing our interpreter with the performance of PUNDIT'S top down parser [2] for utterances in the ATIS domain, we get improvements of at least an order of magnitude and avoid asymptotic cases due to PUNDIT's unbounded backtracking.

This paper presents the results of two experiments in German testing the acceptability of (non-)restrictive relative clauses (NRCs/RRCs) with split antecedents (SpAs). According to Moltmann (1992), SpAs are only grammatical if their parts occur within the conjuncts of a coordinate structure and if they have identical grammatical functions. Non-conjoined SpAs that form the subject and the object of a transitive verb are predicted to be ungrammatical. Our study shows that the acceptability of such examples improves significantly if the predicate that relates the parts of the SpA is symmetric. Moreover, it suggests that NRCs and RRCs behave differently in these cases with respect to the SpA-construal. We can make sense of this observation if we follow Winter (2016) in assuming that transitive symmetric predicates have to be analyzed as unary collective predicates and thus provide a collective antecedent for the RC at the semantic (not the syntactic) level. As we will argue, this accoun...

This paper investigates the prosodic structure of simple prepositions and dependent personal pronouns as weak function words in Leilakhi Dialect with the theoretical framework of Prosodic Phonology or Phonology of Domains. Weak function words (fnc) of this dialect are proclitics or enclitics that form Clitic Group (CG) with their host. One such feature of these elements is their combinatorial restriction with their host, i.e. simple prepositions as prosodic proclitics must precede a noun phrase or independent personal pronoun and absolute prepositions as phonological words join the dependent personal pronouns in the role of enclitics which give form to the clitic group. The phonetic process and phonological process used in this research are aspiration and stress assignment pattern respectively.

This research aims to describe the use of form anda function of cohesion device in Mercusuar Daily editorial discourse including device of grammatical and lexical cohesion. This research is a qualitative descriptive research. The data collection were done in two ways, namely, (1) refer technique and (2) record technique. Data analysis procedures used trough three stages: (1) data reduction, (2) presentation of data, and (3) conclusion / verivication. Based on the research result, there was the use of devices of grammatical and lexical cohesion in Mercusuar daily editorial discourse of may 2016 edition. Devices used in the grammatical cohesion of discourse include, (1) grammatical forms of cohesion devices, including : (a) molding (reference), (b) ellipsis (deletion), (c) subtitution, and (d) a conjungtion. Lexical cohesion devices include (a) reps (repetition) that replicated that same right (intact), repeat with replacement, replicated the shape change, repeat with synonym, repeat with hyponym, and (b) collocation. 2) Cohesion devices function as follows : (a) the reference refer to a participant who had been mentioned first in discourse, (b) subtitution serves to replace the spesific language elements with other elements that are interchangeable, (c) ellipsis (deletion). There are some functions that use ellipsis, namely: (1) the effectiveness of the sentence, (2) language efficiency usage, (3) cohesion discourse, (4) to activate the mind of reader or listener to language which didn't explicitly disclosed, (5) practicality language, and (d) conjungtion. Conjungtions functions are, (1) the relationship of resistance, (2) stating causality, (3) the relationship extra, (4)the relationship comparison and (5) express a temporal relationship. The used of lexical cohesion in the form of repetition. Repetition serves to defend the idea of topic being discussed.

The paper proposes an account of asymmetries in agreement patterns that obtain in restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses headed by hybrid agreement nouns d(j)eca 'children', braća 'brothers', and gospoda 'gentry' in Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS). We note that relative clauses headed by hybrid nouns display different possibilities of agreement morphology on the relative pronoun koji/a/e 'which', depending, on the one hand, on whether the relative clause is restrictive or non-restrictive and on the other, on the case of the relative pronoun. We argue that the observed differences are the result of a conspiracy of the following factors: (i) hybrid number-agreement nouns introduce a null plural pronoun unspecified for gender (Postal 1966; den Dikken 2001; Torrego and Laga 2015), (ii) all plural case forms of the relative pronoun except for nominative and accusative show full gender syncretism (Alsina and Arsenijević 2012b), and (iii) non-restrictive relative clauses involve a null definite pronoun and attach to the head noun higher than the restrictive relative clauses (Postal 1994; de Vries 2002; 2006). We maintain that the facts discussed in the paper argue against analyses which derive the differences between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses from their LF representations, rather than from their overt syntax.