Lexical-Functional Grammar

Barayin is an East Chadic language spoken by around 5000 people in the Guera region of the Republic of Chad. This dissertation examines a particular type of syntactic construction in the language, serial verb constructions, from the perspectives of typological (or comparative) syntax, descriptive grammar, and the formal syntactic theory of Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG). Typologically, serial verb constructions are problematic because they represent a heterogeneous set of multiverb constructions that have features that do not fit into traditional syntactic categories like subordination, conjunction and adjunction. Part A of this dissertation describes these problematic features in detail, providing a succinct overview of the literature which can serve as a resource for field linguists describing similar constructions. Part B of the dissertation gives a detailed description of the morphology, syntax and semantics of serial verb constructions in Barayin. These chapters contribute to our knowledge of the world’s languages by documenting a complex syntactic phenomenon in an area of the world where most of the languages are significantly understudied. The most common type of SVC in Barayin involves a deictic motion verb. The motion is normally (but not always) understood to take place prior to the activity or state predicated by the main verb. The formal analysis of Barayin SVCs in Lexical-Functional Grammar in Part C uses recent developments in the theory to show how argument sharing in SVCs can be represented in a connected s-structure that conforms to the standard mechanisms of LFG. The approach is compared to two previous analyses of complex motion predicates in other languages which appeal to a non-standard formal mechanism to model complex predicates.

This paper presents an analysis of sentences featuring superficial coordinations of unlike categories in English, such as John is a Republican and proud of it (NP and AP) and Pat is stupid and a liar (AP and NP). We argue that, despite the fact that examples like these have been grouped in the literature on coordination of unlikes, there are significant syntactic differences that justify distinguishing between them representationally and derivationally. We propose two categories of coordination of unlikes: anaphoric and intersective coordinations. In particular, we will focus on how to formulate a structural description that gets the right reference for it in a Republican and proud of it, a point unexplored in many current proposals.

This paper was written for the Cambridge Delta Module 2 and focuses on grammar, specifically, on the difficulties that the present perfect simple and present perfect progressive (sometimes called the present perfect continuous) present to learners of English. 

I briefly describe these areas and their differences and attempt to present some strategies that can be employed in the classroom to help highlight the distinction of the present perfect progressive. 

Comments, critiques, and questions are welcomed.

"This paper compares various approaches to argument structure. We start out presenting the lexical proposal that we want to defend in this paper. We then introduce phrasal proposals that are common in Construction Grammar. A historical section describes the oscillation between early lexical proposals in Categorial Grammar, phrasal approaches in phrase structure grammar (early Transformational Grammar, GPSG) back to lexical approaches in HPSG and Minimalism. We argue that there were good reasons for returning to lexical models and that the respective issues are not addressed in phrasal approaches. We go on discussing approaches that assume that sematnically compatible verbs are inserted into phrasal constructions and point out that lexical specification of valence plays an important role in various levels of description and that phrasal models can not account for this. A similar criticism applies to so-called Neodavidsonian approaches, which are discussed in a separate section.

We will show that certain relations between constructions cannot be captured with inheritance or unification but require transformations or lexical rules, and hence in non-transformational syntax the lexical approach is the only option.

Three sections are devoted to arguments from language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and statistics. We show that contrary to frequent claims the respective experiments do not provide evidence for phrasal constructions.

We conclude that argument structure properties should be represented together with lexical items. "

Сборник «Севернорусские говоры» — научное издание, посвященное проблемам диалектологии, а также межъязыковым и межэтническим контактам на Русском Севере, прежде всего контактам русско-прибалтийско-финским. Сборник является регулярным, выходит раз в год, издается с 1969 г. Межкафедральным словарным кабинетом им. проф. Б.А. Ларина филологического факультета Санкт-Петербургского государственного университета. Сборник продолжает традиции сборника «Слово в народных говорах Русского Севера», издававшегося под редакцией Б.А. Ларина.

El objetivo de la obra que aquí se presenta es sencillo; pretende ofrecer una aproximación a la génesis, evolución y repercusión lingüística de una teoría gramatical conocida como la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, pretende asentar los fundamentos teóricos de dicha gramática así como describir sus principales aplicaciones a la lengua castellana. Para ello, partiremos muy especialmente de dos trabajos capitales en el desarrollo de esta teoría, a saber, el capítulo de Kaplan y Bresnan (1982) –trabajo en el que se asientan las bases teóricas de la gramática– y el libro de Bresnan (2001) –trabajo en el que su autora desarrolla las últimas propuestas teóricas de la gramática–.
Para llevar a cabo esta empresa, el presente libro consta de seis capítulos. En el primer capítulo, queremos dar respuesta al primer objetivo formulado, esto es, qué es la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, cuáles fueron sus orígenes y qué ha supuesto la introducción de esta gramática para el conjunto de teorías gramaticales ya existentes. En concreto, nos centraremos en la cuestión de las influencias que ha recibido de, posiblemente, la teoría gramatical más importante desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX, a saber, la Gramática Generativa Transformacional así como de la repercusión que ha tenido para esta teoría gramatical el desarrollo de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional.
En segundo lugar, en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4, la finalidad que se persigue es presentar los conceptos básicos de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional que permitan comprender su funcionamiento así como los fenómenos sintácticos en los que estos conceptos se fundamentan. En estos capítulos, se introducirán conceptos tales como estructura-c, estructura-f, función matemática, Integridad léxica, Condición de Unicidad, Condición de Completitud, Condición de Coherencia, lenguas configuracionales y lenguas no configuracionales, ecuación funcional... Como se tratará en los capítulos indicados, la unión de algunos de estos conceptos otorgan a la Gramática Léxico-Funcional una considerable robustez y explicitud teórica que la convierten en un buen formalismo gramatical en el que todo queda bien justificado, relacionado y especificado.
Por último, en los capítulos 5 y 6, se introducen algunas de las aplicaciones más importantes de la LFG en el estudio de las lenguas naturales. En concreto, en el capítulo 5, se tratan cuatro fenómenos sintácticos cuya elección no es casual sino que responde a la importancia que se les ha concedido a estos fenómenos en las últimas décadas. Respecto al capítulo 6, cabe señalar que este capítulo presenta tanto un aspecto teórico –i e. presentar la teoría argumental de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional– como de aplicación a la lengua castellana –i. e. se describe cómo se asignan los papeles semánticos en los argumentos de algunos verbos del castellano–.

Сборник «Севернорусские говоры» — научное издание, посвященное проблемам диалектологии, а также межъязыковым и межэтническим контактам на Русском Севере, прежде всего контактам русско-прибалтийско-финским. Сборник является регулярным, выходит раз в год, издается с 1969 г. Межкафедральным словарным кабинетом им. проф. Б.А. Ларина филологического факультета Санкт-Петербургского государственного университета. Сборник продолжает традиции сборника «Слово в народных говорах Русского Севера», издававшегося под редакцией Б.А. Ларина.

The impersonal experiencer construction is well known among the Papuan languages of New Guinea, regularly appearing in typological descriptions (Foley 1986; Foley 2000). This has two regular features: an idiomatic nominal as a possible subject and an experiencer formally coded as an object. In one particular Trans New Guinea language, Yagaria of Eastern Highlands, this is true only on the surface; other parts of the grammar reveal this experiencer to be a subject like any other. There is some evidence this mismatch of behaviour and form derives from an earlier stage of the language where the experiencers were unequivocal objects. This development from object to non-nominative subject meets the suggestion of Cole et al. (1980). There is, however, a significant difference from the instances previously described. This is the presence of noun-verb complex predicates. This has allowed the idiomatic nominal to be reanalysed as part of the predicate and lose its subjecthood. Thus this was not just a change in grammatical relations: the erstwhile transitive clause was reanalysed as intransitive and the experiencer, the only argument, as subject. Both these noun-verb complexes and the impersonals themselves are modelled in the formal syntactic framework of Lexical Functional Grammar (Bresnan 2001).

Öz: Tipolojik olarak yapım ve çekim sistemi bakımından sondan eklemeli diller arasında yer alan Türkçede, söz yapımı ve çekiminde ekleme dışında yöntemlerin de kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Bunlardan birisi olan yineleme, pek çok dünya dilinde yapım ve çekim kategorilerinde işlevsel olarak kullanılmaktadır. Söz türetim işleviyle kullanıldığı dillerde yineleme, farklı bir morfo-sentaktik sınıfa ait olmasına gerek kalmadan, onu oluşturan kelimelerden farklı bir anlama sahip yeni kelimeler türetebilir. Gramatikal bir işaretleyici olarak ise, özellikle eklemeli dillerde bir çekim eki gibi davranarak çeşitli çekim kategorilerinde bazı eklerin yerini alabilmesi dikkat çeker. Türkçede yineleme yöntemi işlevsel açıdan incelendiğinde, çeşitli tarihî ve çağdaş Türk dili alanlarında hem bir söz türetim yöntemi olarak kullanıldığı hem de çekimsel bir işaretleyici gibi davrandığı görülür. Bu çalışmada, tarihî ve çağdaş Türk dili alanlarında söz yapımı yollarından yineleme ile oluşturulmuş örnekler incelenmiş; yineleme yönteminin, diğer bazı dünya dillerinde olduğu gibi Türkçede de söz türetimi işleviyle kullanıldığı ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca, yineleme yoluyla oluşan bazı dil birimleri gramerleşme teorisiyle açıklanmaya çalışılmış; yinelemenin semantik ve morfolojik kategorilerde çokluk, sıralamaüleştirme, benzerlik, sınırlama, küçültme, derecelendirme, yüklemleştirme gibi çok çeşitli işlevlerle farklı semantik değerleri işaretleyen bir çekim unsuru olarak kullanıldığı, örnekleriyle birlikte sunulmuştur. Anahtar sözcükler: yineleme, ikileme, sözlükselleşme, söz yapımı, gramatikalleşme, dilbilgiselleşme

In Arabic grammar the term MASDAR is applied to a variety of noun forms derived from verb and other stems according to a set of partially regular but largely irregular morphological patterns (Ryding 2005). Three deverbal masdar forms allow complex event interpretations in which the verbal argument structure is inherited, but at the same time, they display a range of nominal properties. In both transformational and LFG treatments, these phrases have been assumed to have both verbal and nominal syntax. We propose instead that verbal functions be permitted inside what is categorially an NP from top to bottom.

The purpose of this thesis is to augment our empirical knowledge of the English resultative and to provide a theoretical treatment of the syntax and semantics of the resultative using current linguistic tools. This involves using both theoretical and experimental methods to ensure that the model reflects human usage of natural language and follows the principles required for formal language modelling.

The main questions addressed are 1) Is the result phrase an argument, an adjunct, or something else (an added/derived argument, sometimes called an argument-adjunct)? 2) How do we best capture the properties of the resultative in a formal model? In order to address these questions, it must be determined what falls into the overall category of the resultative and how the resultative can be sub-classified into further sub-categories to best reflect the potentially distinctive properties of related resultative constructions. These divisions are then tested for fit with the theoretical categories of argument, adjunct and added/derived argument. Lastly, an analysis is provided using Lexical-Functional Grammar and Glue Semantics.

This thesis presents an account of the properties of Relative Clauses in Modern Greek, with particular focus on the distribution of the resumption and gap relativization strategies. For the most part relative clauses have been regarded in the literature as a type of Long Distance dependencies with unique properties.This thesis looks at the properties of three types of relative clauses in Modern Greek (restrictive, non-restrictive and free relative clauses). Working in the framework of Lexical Functional Grammar, we present an overview of the most important properties of Modern Greek Relative Clauses focusing on the distribution of the gap and resumption strategies in these constructions. We propose an analysis of Relative Clauses that brings forward the similarities of the three types of Relatives while at the same time manages to account for their dissimilarities, and it is shown that such constructions can be accommodated in LFG quite straightforwardly. The thesis also presents a computational implementation of the analysis using XLE (Xerox Linguistics Environment) a platform for testing and writing LFG grammars.

Abstract : The analysis considers the manner in which a class of matrix verbs, the so-called raising verbs, have been fitted into some generative linguistic models. Taking as a cue the difficulty posed for these models by sentences of the kind, *Linda believes Gary to murder David, the analysis proceeds beyond existing criteria for "raising" to the notion of Relative Tense.

It is found that Relative Tense has a direct bearing on the infinitival complements permitted by raising-to-object verbs and some raising-to-subject verbs. The relevant constraints are formulated for incorporation into Bresnan's Lexical Functional Grammar as the Independent XCOMP Singularity Condition. The IXCSC may be recorded for convenience in the functional structure of LFG as a complex feature. When IXCSC carries a positive marking the functional structure of a sentence, that sentence may only be interpreted if ASPECT (AUX) is also marked as positive.

This monograph investigates discourse-related clause-initial, left peripheral constructions within the framework of Lexical-Functional Grammar. The following structures are to be scrutinized: English topicalization, clause-initial adjuncts and left dislocation; Hungarian left dislocation and operator fronting. The overall goal is to provide an account for these structures, especially with regard to their syntactic and information structural properties and to put them into cross-linguistic and theoretical perspective.

This book introduces formal grammar theories that play a role in current linguistic theorizing (Phrase Structure Grammar, Transformational Grammar/Government & Binding, Minimalism, Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, Categorial Grammar, Head-​Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Construction  Grammar, Dependency Grammar, Tree Adjoining Grammar). The key assumptions are explained and it is shown how the respective theory treats arguments and adjuncts, the active/passive alternation, local reorderings, verb placement, and fronting of constituents over long distances. The analyses are  explained with German as the object language.

The second part of the book compares these approaches with respect to their predictions regarding language acquisition and psycholinguistic plausibility. The nativism hypothesis, which assumes that humans posses genetically determined innate language-specific knowledge, is critically examined and alternative models of language acquisition are discussed. The second part then addresses controversial issues of current theory building such as the question of flat or binary branching structures being more appropriate, the question whether constructions should be treated on the phrasal or the lexical level, and the question whether abstract, non-visible entities should play a role in syntactic analyses. It is shown that the analyses suggested in the respective frameworks are often translatable into each other. The book closes with a chapter showing how properties common to all languages or to certain classes of languages can be captured.

Gender-marking in language is a relatively common phenomenon and it illustrates how a language community apprehends the notion of gender at the cultural level. Gender-marking in words can also be seen as a form of discrimination, whereas words of the same grammatical category are ranged into marked and unmarked. These important aspects of gender has caused a number of scholars to analyze how to account for the phrase structure and bring out the flexion of gender and other grammatical features in the lexicon. The Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) and the Minimalist Program (MP) are two examples of theoretical frameworks which propose a phrase structure taking into account language features in the lexicon. Both theories are born and developed within the larger framework of the Generative Grammar. This paper aims at comparing the phrase structure analysis in general and gender in particular within the Lexical Functional Grammar and the Minimalist Program. It helps to apprehend common features and differences in their accounts for the Phrase Structure, especially in French, a gender-marked language where the manipulation of morphemes related to gender are differently approached throughout both theories. The outcome of this paper is also about which theory fits a better analysis of phrase structure in a gender-marked language, such as French, and consequently, provides a better methodology of teaching a gender-marked language.

Serial verb constructions (SVCs) have attracted the interest of linguists for decades; they are a frequent phenomenon in Mabia (Gur) languages but have been the topic of debate in the Mabia language Mooré, since its multi-verb constructions show a linking element which most common definitions of SVCs do not allow. This thesis discusses multiple definitions and constraints of SVCs and provides an overview of previous and my own research on SVCs in Mooré to analyse the status of multi-verbal constructions in the language. On this fundament, it develops a theoretical analysis of a serialising connector in Mooré and subsequently presents an account of this theory within the framework of Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG).

This paper contributes to the debate over the number of features needed in order to offer an adequate analysis of agreement. Traditional grammar and some recent proposals, notably by Alsina and Arsenijević (2012a, b, c), operate with two typeswhat is conventionally referred to as syntactic versus semantic agreement. Adopting : 800, 2003 model, which envisages a division into three types of agreement (two syntactic ones, in addition to a separate, purely semantic feature), this paper argues that we need such a tripartition, because without it we cannot account for the facts in languages like Serbian/Croatian, English and Bulgarian. Joan Maling, John Payne, Mitko Sabev, Christo Stamenov, Tsvetomira Venkova and Palma Zlateva, as well as two anonymous referees. Andrey Stoevski drew my attention to the discussion in Language. The article has also benefited from feedback received at the Linguistic Seminar of Sofia University's Faculty of Classical and Modern Languages and the LFG13 Conference at the University of Debrecen. Abbreviations: ACC -accusative, AUX -auxiliary, BNC -British National Corpus, BrE -British English, COCA -Corpus of Contemporary American English, Ffeminine, INST -instrumental, M -masculine, N -neuter/noun, NAmE -North American English, OB -Old Bulgarian, OCS -Old Church Slavonic, PL -plural, PPRT -past participle, REFL -reflexive, SG -singular, SC -Serbian/Croatian, VOC -vocative. 2 Traditional sources often use the terms concord and agreement interchangeably. In this paper, following the established LFG and HPSG practice, agreement is used as a cover term, whereas concord is reserved to designate a type of agreement feature.

This paper proposes an additional layer of annotation for the recently established Hindi/Urdu Treebank. Despite the fact that the treebank already features a number of annotation layers such as phrase structure, dependency relations and predicate-argument structure, we see potential for the inclusion of a dependency layer generated from Lexical-Functional Grammar (lfg) f-structures with relations that we believe are crucial for a deep analysis of Urdu/Hindi. The suggestions are based on theoretical and computational investigations into Urdu/Hindi in the context of the Urdu ParGram grammar, through which we can automatically create the additional annotation layer.

В статье рассматриваются некоторые проблемные случаи падежного маркирования в осетинском языке: групповая флексия, управление предлога ӕнӕ ‘без’, дифференцированное маркирование прямого дополнения, употребление форм местоимения кӕрӕдзи ‘друг друга’ в иронском диалекте в позиции посессора и прямого объекта. Показано, что выбор падежа в этих конструкциях определяется структурой парадигмы зависимой лексемы. Для объяснения распределения словоформ в этих синтаксическим контекстах предлагается разделить падеж в осетинском языке на две категории: «морфологический падеж» (МП), приписываемый словоформам, который состоит всего из двух граммем, ректуса и обликвуса, и «групповой падеж» (ГП), приписываемый именным группам, к которому относятся все традиционно выделяемые косвенные падежи. МП соответствует категории падежа в языках, не допускающих групповой флексии, например в русском и латинском, ГП – падежным граммемам, допускающим групповое оформление, как, например, в тюркских языках. Сосуществование двух таких категорий в пределах одного языка может свидетельствовать о том, что их следует различать и в типологической перспективе. Данные осетинского языка сопоставляются с аналогичными явлениями в других языках: восточноармянском, индо-арийских, калмыцком, тохарском А. Анализ формализуется в терминах лексико-функциональной грамматики.

Periphrasis is a challenging phenomenon for Lexicalist theories to accommodate, given that it appears to intimately involve both morphology and syntax simultaneously. This thesis models two well-known instances of periphrasis: Tundra Nenets nominal periphrasis, and Latin verbal periphrasis, using a combination of Lexical Functional Grammar and Paradigm Functional Morphology, to demonstrate that Lexicalist theories can handle periphrasis. The analyses do however suggest that some of the assumptions of Lexicalism may have to be revisited to cope with periphrasis and other multi-word lexical phenomena in a more satisfying and elegant way.

In this paper, partially motivated by É. Kiss (1992, 1994), I develop the core aspects of the first LFG analysis of constituent and predicate negation in Hungarian. My general framework is the approach to Hungarian finite sentences proposed in Laczkó (2014a). I concentrate on essential c-structural, functional annotational and lexical representational issues.

The study of phonology and morphed-soundshifts in both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc remains incomplete. The present research focuses chiefly on morphed-soundshift or velarization and the epenthetic nasal or /n/ (ን). This velarization occurs in both palatals (e.g. /y/ > /g/) and uvulars (e.g /q/ > /g/), and furthermore within velars (e.g. /g/ > /k/ and /k/ > /g/), which all aid in the processes of nasal epenthesis as will be drawn out in the present study. Consequently these processes of change notwithstanding rest primarily upon particular combinations of consonants, such as certain organic double palatals, velars and uvular consonants or couplets: e.g. /yy/ and /gg/, /kk/ and /qq/.
    Therefore the paper deems to draw out and evidence, that, all these organic combinations become in Æthiopic through (morphed) sound shift and as a consequence of epenthesis, shift to what we might call nasal-velars or nasal-uvulars: e.g. /qq/ > /nqq/. While in Old Ænglisc similarly the like or following is observed to occur, /yy/ > /gg/ > /ng/; besides /kk/ > /nc/ or /ng/; and /qq/ > /nc/ (nk) or /ng/.
    Whence most notable is that /yy/, and /gg/, /kk/ and /qq/, may due to their combinational environments all become /ng/ or /nc/.
    This may all be exemplified in both languages by the Æthiopic term /þanqaq|a/ be accurate                                      and its Old Ænglisc cognate þenc|an to think; consider, of which both forms contain /nqq/ or /nc/ respectively, the nasal however not being organic to the root, as here evidenced by the Æthiopic form with the double uvulars. Notwithstanding to further substantiate the latter, the Old Norsk has /-kk/, while the Gothic attests /-gk/, id est both somewhat seem to retain or evidence the final radical, albeit with a morphed-soundshift from /q/ to k/g; ONors. ðekk|ja to perceive  (Vigfusson 1864: 614); Goth. þagk|ian think (Balg 1887 - 89: 753, 754).
    Moreover in addition, it is also to be further noted that the Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc also besides velarizing and epenthetizing, do also labialize, palatize and as already shewn syncopate their velars and uvulars; these changes this is important for it will also be evidenced, of these for example that labio-velars and labio-uvulars and so on, are also of particular import for the present study, as these may affect the process of epenthesis, velaraization an the like: e.g. /gg/> /gwgw; /kk/ > kwkw and /qq/ > / qwqw/ &c.
    Thus the paper endeavours to illustrate all these anomalies towards a better understanding of both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc phonology and synthetic morphology and of further significance for the latter tongue, organic root forms, and thus generally a better understanding of cognation between the two languages and their language families. The research serves also as a contribution to a comparative phonology and grammar of the languages under analysis. Finally it ought to be mentioned that scholars of the Anglo-Saxon language on the whole, including those of the OED, evidently are unaware of the organic root forms of many of the epenthetic terms ending in /ng/ and /nc/ (OED 1933/61:[vol.x] 76). This in the same way that Æthiopic scholars appear to be unaware of the prime movers and processes that causes nasal epenthesis. The latter group (Æthiopic) presently having mainly a labial consideration, id est epenthesis is first considered a labial phenomenon, then occurring it is said, in the so called palatal-guttural-mutes (velars &c.) and asparates and finally sibilants &c. Otherwise little else is mentioned of the processes (Dillmann 1907:134, 135; Leslau 1987 {1989}:222). Also observe that /ng/, organic or epenthetic, phonetically may be considered in both Old Ænglisc (Moore and Knot 1934:6, 16) and Æthiopic as [ŋg], unless palatized, whence [ŋj].

Draft Paper, copyright, January 2018, By Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR

[Title: Velarization & Systematic 'Nasal Epenthesis' in Coupled Velars & Uvulars: contra, Labialization, Palatization & Syncope (A Comparative Study in the Phonology of Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc)
By: Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR,
Æthiopian Linguistic and Philological Association]

This research aims at describing (1) The grammatical aspects in the spoken discourse of ILC talk show, (2) describing lexical aspects in the spoken discourse of ILC talk show, (3) describing the coherence of the spoken discourse supported by the grammatical and lexical aspects in the ILC talk show.
This research was a descriptive qualitative study. The data source in this research was in the form of LC talk show broadcast. The data collection techniques of this research included observation and note-taking. The data analysis technique included distributional method followed by the technique of switch and deletion.
This research shows that the spoken discourse of ILC talk show was a cohesive discoure as it was supported by grammatical and lexical cohesion devices. In this spoken discourse, four aspects of grammatical cohesion were found, namely reference, substitusion, ellipsis, and conjunction. The most dominant grammatical cohesive device to be found was reference, used up to 1092 times (64,19%). It is followed by conjuction, 519 (30,515%); substitution, 62 (3,64%), and ellipsis, 28 (1,64%). Besides the grammatical cohesion aspects, lexical cohesion aspects in the spoken discourse ILC talk show were also invented. These included repetition, used 214 times (66,66%); synonym, 24 (7,47%); antonym, 28 (8,72%), collocation, 16 (6,92%), hyponym, 20 (6,23%), and equivalence, 21 (6,54%).
Each of the cohesion aspect, either grammatical or lexicalcohesion, has its own role in forming the text of spoken discourse, therefore the spoken discoursecould be arranged well and cohesively. Therefore, a study of spoken discourse needs to be done because it is an important aspect that forms the  structure of a discourse born.

Periphrasis poses a serious challenge to morphological and syntactic theory. The mor-phosyntactic properties a periphrastic form encodes are not necessarily equal to composition of those of its individual members, and their internal syntax is not always reduced to a simple head-complement relation. This paper illustrates that seemingly straightforward verb clusters involving lexical, auxiliary, and copula verbs in Japanese in fact exhibit both mono-clausal and bi-clausal properties in syntax. Further, a close inspection shows that one specific type of periphrasis realising the past, negative, polite features is employed because of the absence of a corresponding synthetic form. We show how those diverse patterns of periphrasis can be captured in the projection architecture of Lexical Functional Grammar. In essence, the morphological dependency relations are encoded in morphosyntactic structure, while syntactic clausality is encoded in functional structure. The interaction of those structures is constrained by feature specifications of individual members of periphrasis. The analysis also adopts a newly developed morphological component in the framework where a lexical entry is defined in terms of a set of relations, and we argue that the paradigmatic nature of periphrasis found in one type of the periphrasis can be formulated in this component.

Andrews and Manning (1993, 1999) proposed to analyse a number of constructions, including complex predicates and modal adjectives, in a heavily modified version of LFG that could accomodate the fact that these constructions seem to involve more in the way of hierarchical structure than seemed to be supported by the LFG architecture. Here I show that the same results can be achieved by combining the 'hybrid objects' of the analysis of coordinate structures proposed by Dalrymple and Kaplan 2000 with a more extensive use of some of the capacities of LFG's glue semantics.

Copala Triqui has a construction in which predicates of emotion and psychological state appear with one of two special auxiliary verbs, derived historically from verbs meaning 'see' and 'look'.  This paper details the constraints on the syntax of the emotion auxiliary construction and contrasts it with the ordinary verbal syntax of the language. (Ethnologue code TRC)

This paper discusses recent LFG proposals on resultative and benefactive constructions. I show that neither resultative nor benefactive constructions are fully fixed and that this flexibility requires traces or a stipulation of con-structional templates at several unrelated places in the grammar, something that is not necessary in lexical approaches. A second part of the paper deals with the active/passive alternation and shows that language-internal generalizations are missed if constraints are assumed to be contributed by phrase structure rules. A third part examines the parallel constructions in German and shows that cross-linguistic generalizations are not captured by phrasal approaches.

The diachronic pathways of wh-based subordination is a topic that has been extensively studied in the recent literature. The most widely accepted hypothesis, elaborated by Heine & Kuteva (2006), assumes a pathway from indirect questions through headless relative clauses. However, this explanation does not work for the grammaticalization of interrogative-based correlative (IBC) clauses such as those found in old Indo-European languages, e.g. Hittite and Latin (Which man you saw, he is my brother). These are explained, since Hahn (1946, 1949) via the use of interrogatives as indefinites in an originally paratactic structure, i.e. You saw some man. He is my brother. However, this explanation meets with difficulties from a typological point of view, as pointed out by Luján (2009): there are apparently no languages where a non-interrogative indefinite marker has grammaticalized as a relative clause marker. Furthermore, the assumption that proto-Indo-European had full interrogative-indefinite ambiguity (Gärtner 2009) is not backed up by enough evidence.

In this talk, we will demonstrate how the indefinite hypothesis can be refined in order to reconcile the typological observations with the data of Indo-European languages. First, we will demonstrate that some kind of paratactic scenario for the emergence of IBC is unavoidable due to the possibility of indirect coreference (“bridging”) between the relative DP and the correlate in old Indo-European, e.g. Hittite. Second, we will defend our central claim: that the diachronic source of IBCs are asyndetic conditional sentences where an interrogative pronoun in the protasis is interpreted as an indefinite. Specifically, we claim that sentences like Who comes, open the door (= ‘If someone/whoever comes, open the door’), widely attested in IE, developed into correlatives via the innovation of an obligatory anaphoric link between the two caluses: Who comes, open the door *(to them). This process is accompanied by the extension of the semantics from universal to definite contexts. Our analysis is backed up by typological data, which confirm a close link between conditionals and IBCs. Furthermore, the diachronic scenario we propose predicts that the universal interpretation of IBCs should be attested in all languages possessing this construction, whereas the definite interpretation should be optional. This prediction appears to be borne out cross-linguistically.

The rules of person agreement in languages of the Dargwa group (North-East Caucasian) are complex and based on the relative prominence of the core arguments on the personal and grammatical function hierarchies. The rules are also subject to much cross-dialectal variation. I argue that this variation can best be captured by assuming that the agreement marker specifies the person and number of an m-structure function called TH, which can be identified with either of the core arguments. The choice of agreement controller is determined not by functional annotations, but by four OT constraints: Th-1, Th-2, Th-GF^ and Th-Abs. Thus the same f-structure maps to different c- and m-structure pairs in different Dargwa varieties based on variation in constraint orderings. This allows capturing cross-dialectal variation in a uniform way while providing generalizations about which of the logically possible agreement systems are actually attested.

Book review of Manuela Cook's Portuguese Verbs Explained, first published by Able Publishing and since republished in 2009 by Lusophone Publishing. The book is both a reference grammar and a step-by-step course of systematic study. It is aimed at the English-speaking learner of Portuguese, and is a guide through all the Portuguese verb forms and tenses to explain their many uses.

In this paper, I modify and augment my LFG-XLE analysis of negation in Hungarian proposed in Laczkó (2014b) by (i) developing an account of the special uses of negative particles (ii) capturing their interaction with negative polarity items (iii) presenting a formal treatment of suppletive negative variants of the copula. In addition, I argue for a particular distribution of labour in my approach for the three standard XLE devices for handling negation phenomena across languages.

Özet Leksikosemantik çalışmalar arasında yer alan önemli konulardan biri de kelimelerin sınıflandırılması meselesidir. Gerek Türk dilinde gerekse dünya dillerinde kelimelerin sınıflandırılması üzerine yapılmış olan çalışmalar, çoğunlukla isim türünden kelimeler üzerinden yapılmıştır. Fiillerin sınıflandırılması çalışmaları ise, ancak son yüzyılda görülmeye başlamıştır. Bu makalede öncelikle dünya dillerindeki sonra da Türk dilindeki fiillerin semantik sınıflandırılmaları üzerine yapılan çalışmalar değerlendirilecek, sonra da bu sınıflandırmalardan hareketle yeni bir sınıflandırmanın nasıl yapılması gerektiği üzerinde durulacaktır. Abstract One of the important issues in lexicosemantic studies is the problem of classification of words. Studies regarding classification of the words both in Turkic and world's languages have mostly examined nominals. As for classifications of the verbs have been addressed academically only since the previous century. In this article, primarily the studies on the semantic classifications of world's and Turkic languages will be discussed, and then a new attempt on verb classification will be made.

In this talk, I argue that Ossetic has to be analyzed as a language that has two case categories that are simultaneously realized on nouns: purely morphological case akin to those of languages like Russian or Latin, and phrasal case that is analyzed as a phrase marker, like e.g. in Turkish. This idea is formalized in LFG with Lexical Sharing.

The flight of a bird is not in wings, but in the shape of the space-time enclosed by each wing from instant to instant. In other words, flight is a grammar of relationships. An infinite variety and number of wings may participate in this grammar of flight relationships, but it is the grammar alone which remains constant.

This paper presents data from two Indo-European languages, Irish and Hindi/ Urdu, which do not use verbs for expressing possession (i.e., they do not have a verb comparable to the English verb have). Both of the languages use copula constructions. Hindi/Urdu combines the copula with either a genitive case marker or a postposition on the possessor noun phrase to construct possession. Irish achieves the same effect by combining one of two copula elements with a prepositional phrase. I argue that both languages differentiate between temporary and permanent instances, or stage-level and individuallevel predication, of possession. The syntactic means for doing so do not overlap between the two: while Hindi/Urdu employs two distinct markers to differentiate between stage-level and individual-level predication, Irish uses two different copulas. A single parallel LFG analysis for both languages is presented based on the PREDLINK analysis. It is shown how the analysis is capable of serving as input to the semantics, which is modeled using Glue Semantics and which differentiates between stage-level and individual-level predication by means of a situation argument.

This paper presents an analysis of Irish clefting couched within Lexical-Functional Grammar. In Irish, cleft sentences are formed using two syntactic permutations. First, a copula is introduced, taking the clefted phrase or word as a predicate. Second, a relative clause is formed containing the remaining material of the original sentence. This basic pattern is valid across a variety of languages. I present different approaches towards copula predication taken within Lexical-Functional Grammar and discuss my analysis of Irish copula constructions. Based on the insights from simple copula predication, I derive my analysis for Irish clefting, claiming that in principle, a parallel syntactic approach for both simple copula clauses and clefting can be assumed. The syntactic analysis of copula clefting has been implemented in a computational LFG grammar using the XLE software.