Legal Aid

"Using evidence from around the world, this book seeks to demonstrate that early intervention by lawyers and paralegals can have a positive impact on pretrial justice in general, and pretrial detention in particular. The evidence shows that early intervention schemes can reduce the use of pretrial detention, improve the performance of criminal justice personnel, lead to more rational and effective decision-making, and increase accountability and respect for the rule of law.

"

This dissertation is a social, political, and cultural history of the organized Chilean legal profession in the first half of the twentieth century. It explores the causes for the creation of the Chilean Bar Association and its Legal Aid Service in the mid-1920s and follows their evolution until the mid-1960s.
The relative success of the Bar Association in imposing its model of lawyering in the first half of the twentieth century allows us to understand why the legalistic framework that Chilean lawyers had inherited from the nineteenth century did not change over the course of the twentieth despite the momentous social and political evolution that both profession and country experienced in this period.
The history of the Chilean Bar Association thus provides an institutional explanation for the continuity of ideas about the law in the face of accelerated social transformations. At the same time, by revealing the tensions and the resistance that this project faced, the history of the Bar also reveals the gears that would eventually lead to the legal profession’s historical change.

Abstrak UU Bantuan Hukum memberi ruang bagi daerah untuk mengalokasikan dana penyelenggaraan bantuan hukum dalam APBD. Apabila daerah berkehendak mengalokasikan dana bantuan hukum dalam APBD, maka pemerintah daerah dan DPRD harus mengaturnya dalam Peraturan Daerah (perda). Sampai saat ini, di Provinsi Sumatera Utara belum memiliki Peraturan Daerah yang secara khusus menjamin terlaksananya hak konstitusional warga negara tersebut, khususnya bagi orang atau kelompok orang miskin. Metode penelitian yang digunakan pada penulisan ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif, dengan pendekatan yuridis normatif (legal research). Sifat penelitian ini adalah deksriptif analitis yaitu suatu penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan (menggambarkan) tentang fakta dan kondisi atau gejala yang menjadi objek penelitian, setelah itu dilakukan telaah secara kritis. Hasil Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sampai saat tulisan ini dibuat ranperda tentang bantuan hukum belum dilakukan penyusunan, masih sekedar dicantumkan dalam Prolegda 2013. Mengingat pentingnya perda tentang bantuan hukum sebagai landasan hukum bagi daerah untuk memenuhi hak-hak masyarakat miskin dalam mengakses keadilan dan perlakuan yang sama di hadapan hukum, dibutuhkan komitmen kuat dari DPRD maupun Pemerintah Daerah Provinsi Sumatera Utara beserta stakeholder untuk segera mengimplementasikan pembentukan perda Bantuan hukum serta mengalokasikan dana bantuan hukum dalam APBD sebagaimana amanat pasal 19 UU Bantuan Hukum. Abstract Legal Aid Act gives space for the local government to allocate fund to enforce Legal Aid in

The poor need legal assistance and access to justice in civil matters and in spite of legal aid or justice centres (statutory bodies) acting under a constitutional mandate, they are unable to provide the necessary service. Tenants who do not have the financial means are denied access to legal assistance and to justice to enforce their contractual rights or to challenge their landlords’ unlawful actions. The poor have waited far too long for their freedom and we must all work together to ensure that the government translates Madiba’s dream into a reality.

The Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO) made deep cuts to legal aid in the UK from April 2013, withdrawing state aid from almost all private family cases. The authors carried out a micro-study of solicitors providing legal aid and Citizens Advice Bureaux in the Kent and London areas to investigate the impact of the LASPO cuts. Findings from this scoping study suggest that legal aid firms have closed or merged, that legal aid work is often partially carried out in solicitors' own time, that 'unbundled' services for litigants in person (LiPs) are increasingly common, and that family cases are being complicated and extended by the new ubiquity of the LiP. Respondents suggest that litigants may increasingly be 'giving up' on pursuing their cases, with clear implications for financial justice as well as contact with children. Further studies are required to further analyse the financial and affective impact of the cuts and the distribution of losses and difficulties between genders, but the study suggests that increasing post-separation poverty, debt and capital losses are likely to increase in the post-LASPO environment and that firms and bureaux are having to find various methods of dealing with clients abandoned by the state.

Los derechos a la tutela judicial y a la asistencia jurídica se encuentran en los incisos 1°, 3° y 4° del artículo 19 Nº 3 de la Constitución. El inciso 1° del artículo 19 N° 3 incluye lo que en este capítulo se denomina tutela judicial. En la doctrina nacional y comparada también se le ha llamado derecho a la acción, derecho a la tutela judicial efectiva y derecho de acceso a la justicia. Sin embargo, en mi opinión es más preciso el concepto de tutela judicial. Su importancia radica en que permite asegurar el ejercicio de los derechos sustantivos, a través de una decisión independiente e imparcial. Por esto, el Tribunal Constitucional (en adelante "TC") ha señalado que corresponde exclusivamente el conocimiento de asuntos contenciosos a la jurisdicción 2. Los incisos 3° y 4° del artículo 19 N° 3 de la Constitución se refieren a la obligación del Estado de otorgar asesoramiento y defensa jurídica a quienes no pueden proveerla por sí mismos, desde una perspectiva general y específicamente con relación al ofendido por el delito y el imputado en el proceso penal. La asistencia jurídica se relaciona directamente con la tutela judicial, y también con el inciso segundo que consagra el derecho a la defensa, pues puede leerse también como una garantía de este último derecho. El tratamiento conjunto de estos derechos se justifica en tanto ambos se encuentra íntimamente vinculados. El TC ha explicado esa estrecha relación, en base a que la posibilidad de defenderse frente a la eventual vulneración de un derecho requiere dos situaciones. Primeramente, la posibilidad de interponer la acción respectiva en forma previa; y, en segundo lugar, sustentar esa acción a través de los medios establecidos por la ley durante todo el procedimiento, para que ella pueda llegar a ser acogida 3. Se puede afirmar entonces que esta íntima vinculación tiene por objeto evitar la indefensión, que se produciría cuando un justiciable no cuenta con asistencia letrada. De allí que los estudios empíricos sobre acceso a la justicia habitualmente analizan el estado de los servicios de ayuda legal que otorga el Estado, pues su no existencia implica un obstáculo, a veces insuperable, para satisfacer adecuadamente una necesidad jurídica 4. En este capítulo, analizaré la estructura y contenido de estos derechos. Me concentraré en la lectura de los incisos citados del artículo 19 Nº 3 de la Constitución, así como en la jurisprudencia del TC y lo señalado por la doctrina constitucional nacional. Por lo tanto, una inevitable limitación de este estudio es que las referencias al derecho

Cómo citar: Cofré, L. 2020. Derechos a la tutela judicial y a la asistencia jurídica. En Contreras, P. y Salgado, C. (eds). Curso de Derechos Fundamentales. Parte Especial. Valencia, Editorial Tirant lo Blanch, pp. 317-346.

In common law jurisdictions litigants are free to represent themselves in person. A right to self-representation in civil proceedings has been taken for granted as an obvious expression of the right of access to court. Consequently, no attempt has been made to investigate the theoretical justification of self-representation, and mandatory legal representation has never been contemplated. This article identifies three possible reasons for the conflation of the right to litigate in person with the right of access to court: (1) the long history of self-representation, (2) the conceptual perception of procedural rights as necessarily personal, and (3) the empirical belief that litigants in person are typically poor. The article challenges the capacity of these reasons to justify vesting litigants with an unfettered power to decide whether to represent themselves in person or to instruct counsel. It argues that as a matter of principle the right of access to court does not entail a right to self-representation in all circumstances. When a litigant in person lacks the skills and expertise to conduct his or her case competently and imposes a disproportionate strain on court resources, the court should be entitled to require the litigant to obtain legal representation as a prerequisite for proceeding with the case.

Access to justice is a core fundamental right and a central concept in the broader field of justice. The question of its efficient exercising through the legal aid system is one of the most important tasks of modern societies. While access to justice typically means having a case heard in a court of law, it can more broadly be achieved or supported through primary legal aid. In the last few years the issue of gaining the right to primary legal aid has become widely discussed and criticized in the Croatia. In this paper, we express the view that primary legal aid can encourage early resolution and discourage unnecessary litigation while enabling access to effective protection of citizens’ civil rights at the same time.

Poor and vulnerable people need legal aid services the most. According to 2010 figures from Uganda Bureau of Statistics, above seven million Ugandans are estimated to live below the poverty line and a significant number live just beyond (in the boarder) the poverty line whereby a slight blow, like an injustice could plunge them below the poverty line.

W niniejszym artykule podjęto zagadnienie polityki nagradzania nauczycieli i innych pracowników oświaty za wybitne zasługi położone przez nich w procesie dydaktyki i wychowania. Nagradzanie i honorowanie osiągnięć danego człowieka jest zasadniczo przedmiotem zainteresowania nauk pedagogicznych, jednak niuanse tej polityki zostały uregulowane w licznych aktach normatywnych, stąd znajduje ona odzwierciedlenie także w nauce prawa. Z pracą nauczyciela, jak każdego człowieka realizującego się zawodowo, jest związana potrzeba uznania i aprobaty jego indywidualnych osiągnięć. Z drugiej strony, nie można pominąć także szerszego, społecznego aspektu tej polityki, polegającej na wyjaśnieniu tego, za co przyznawana jest dana nagroda, aby uniknąć reakcji negatywnych ze strony osób towarzyszących nagradzaniu: zazdrości, niechęci, czy poniżenia. W artykule przedstawiono nie tylko oczywiste korzyści, jakie niesie za sobą otrzymanie nagrody, ale przede wszystkim przybliżono warunki, które musi wypełnić osoba, która w przyszłości chciałaby liczyć się z możliwością otrzymania nagród i odznaczeń, w tym Medalu „Komisji Edukacji Narodowej”.

Book Edited by
Asher Flynn and Jacqueline Hodgson
Carolyn McKay, Chapter 6 "Face-to-Interface Communication: Accessing Justice by Video Link from Prison"
Audiovisual communication technologies are radically changing the criminal justice system and the concept of access to justice. Globally, remote sites such as prisons, police stations and courtrooms are interfaced into a matrix of justice and law enforcement agencies, with digital innovations facilitating legal procedure and transforming the way we ‘do’ justice. This chapter focuses on the shifting paradigms of legal advice, specifically the increased reliance on video links in place of face-to-face legal representation and consultation between prisoners and their lawyers. In light of successive and significant funding cuts to legal aid services, the use of video link technologies is likely to further expand. Drawing on fieldwork interviews conducted with prisoners in two New South Wales (NSW) (Australia) correctional centres, this chapter examines prisoners’ experiences of using video links to access justice and legal representation. As traditional face-to-face legal conferencing transmutes into ‘face-to-interface’ (Richardson 2010), it is critical to contrast these forms of communication.

Penúltima versión (septiembre 2021).
Texto final: Cofré, Leonardo. 2022. El derecho a la asistencia jurídica en la nueva constitución. Aportes para el debate constituyente. En Ezurmendia, Jesús (ed.). Principios de Justicia Civil. Barcelona, J.M. Bosch Editor, pp. 421-448.

This dissertation will seek to address the civil legal aid crisis in Northern Ireland (Hereafter referred to as NI).  It will contend that the current budget is unsustainable and that the proposed reforms are insufficient.  It advocates for the use of mandatory mediation in family disputes as a means of bringing civil legal aid spending within budget whilst providing access to justice. 
It will examine how current family disputes are dealt with and the role of mediation in doing so.  It will contend that an escalating rate of disputing is causing more delays on an already overburdened system. This dissertation will include research gathered from Mary Lynch, Director of Mediation NI and Joan Davis Director of Family Mediation NI to demonstrate the high success rates of mediation and will suggest reasons as to why it is being underutilised. 
The dissertation will argue that mandatory mediation whilst not a panacea has a proven track record and is not, as purist mediators would argue, an affront to the very principles of mediation.  It will address the main arguments against its usage and demonstrate that it is a viable option by drawing upon various jurisdictions and their experiences and examine how these could effectively be used in NI.

This is a compulsory research work in fulfillment of the requirements of Bachelor of Laws of the University of Dar es Salaam School of Law. The research is entitled, The Right of Education of Street Children; A case study of Kinondoni District -Dar es Salaam.

Justice is the bedrock of peace and tranquillity in every society. Justice cannot be guaranteed when there is no access to court, fair hearing and fundamental rights due to financial constraint. The people of each country have contracted their power to their government to secure their rights and interests. Therefore it is incumbent on the government to strive towards equality before the law. One of the means to secure this is through availing indigent people free legal aid services. In Nigeria, the Legal Aid Council was established to serve the needy. Aside from the government legal aid service, there are several voluntary legal aid services. Despite the services, the bias of the Nigerian legal system to the detriment of the poor people is not quenched. This work then looks at the background of the legal aid service in Nigeria, challenges and the possible solutions to serve as corrective tools for the lacunae in the present legal aid service in the country.

Sri Lanka has a rich history of providing access to justice for marginalized and vulnerable populations through the provision of legal aid. The main legal aid provider is the Legal Aid Commission which is present at district level around the country. There are also a number of non-governmental organizations providing legal aid for diverse segments of the population, the most far reaching services provided for women victims of violence by Women In Need. This paper traces the recent history of legal aid in Sri Lanka and outlines the current status of legal aid provision. It is expected to stimulate critical thinking and analysis of the strengths and weaknesses in legal aid as one component in enabling access to justice in Sri Lanka with the aim of promoting and building momentum for positive reforms.

The paper analyses the Legal Aid Act of Tanzania, and how is it effective in realizing the administration of justice particularly on the right to legal representation.This Act replaces the then Legal Aid (Criminal Proceedings) Act which was applicable only in criminal proceedings the Legal Aid Act goes further even in civil proceedings. The Act also recognizes paralegals which were formerly not recognized by the law. The paper analyzes the contents of the Act by examining their effectiveness in achieving justice in Tanzania.

Hak untuk memperoleh bantuan hukum merupakan hak mendasar atau asasi bagi seseorang yang terkena masalah hukum. Sebab memperoleh bantuan hukum merupakan salah satu bentuk akses terhadap
keadilan bagi mereka yang atauberurusan dengan masalah hukum. Memperoleh bantuan hukum juga merupakan salah satu
perwujudan dari persamaan didepan hukum.
Prinsip equality before the law ini sudah
9 786236 168660
ISBN 978-623-6168-66-0
dimuat dalam pasal 28D ayat (1) Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, yaitu bahwa setiap orang berhak
atas pengakuan, jaminan, perlindungan, dan kepastian hukum yang adil serta perlakuan yang
sama di hadapan hukum. Ini merupakan konsekuensi Negara Indonesia adalah negara hukum
(Pasal 1 ayat (3) UUD 1945 hasil perubahan ketiga). Ada tiga prinsip negara hukum (rechstaat),
yaitu supremasi hukum (supremacy of law), kesetaraan di hadapan hukum (equality before the
law),dan penegakan hukum dengan cara-cara yang tidak bertentangan dengan hukum (due
process of law)
Buku ini menguraikan mengenai etika profesi dan bantuan hukum di Indonesia. Bantuan
hukum pada dasarnya bukan hanya didasari aturan hukum semata, namun juga etika yang
terdapat di dalamnya. Dengan buku ini diharapkan dapat menjadi panduan bagi penegak hukum,
organisasi bantuan hukum, mahasiswa, ataupun masyarakat awam mengenai pelaksanaan
bantuan hukum di Indonesia. Penegak hukum, organisasi bantuan hukum, mahasiswa, ataupun
masyarakat awam dapat mengerti bahwa pelaksanaan bantuan hukum pun dilandasi dari nilai
nilai etika.
Secara khusus penegak hukum, organisasi bantuan hukum, mahasiswa, ataupun
masyarakat awam dapat memahami Bantuan Hukum melalui materi mengenai definisi bantuan
hukum, tujuan dan ruang lingkup bantuan hukum, prinsip bantuan hukum, pengertian pro bono
dan prodeo. Pembaca juga dipandu menyelami perjuangan sejarah bantuan hukum, pembaca
juga dapat menyelami korelasi negara dan bantuan hukum. Hingga pada tahap praktek, penulis
juga menggambarkan teknis/ mekanisme bantuan hukum dan kualitas bantuan hukum.

This legal research paper investigates the gubernatorial impeachment motions, proceedings and cases in the Kenyan devolved system since 2013 when the first governments took power under the new Constitution of Kenya, 2010. The constitutional, legal and institutional framework for the removal of county Governors from office through impeachment in the Kenyan devolved system is examined. The removal process of county Governors effectively for the realization of the objects of devolution in Kenya is accessed. Nigerian jurisprudence on gubernatorial impeachment is used because it provides instructive lessons on interpreting the Kenyan constitutional provisions on the removal of county Governors through impeachment.The result of this study is that the gubernatorial impeachment process in the Kenyan devolved system is a three-way process. The starting point is the County Assembly (CA) where the Member of County Assembly can table an impeachment motion against the county Governor.Secondly, should the impeachment motion succeed against the sitting county Governor, the Speaker of the CA forwards the resolution to the Senators who then investigate the impeachment claims made against the county Governor. Lastly, where the county Governor facing impeachment proceedings feels that their rights are being violated and or the CA and Senate are not following the stipulated procedure, they are allowed to access the courts to be granted appropriate reliefs. The jurisprudence emerging from the Kenyan courts has been useful in this research. Nigerian jurisprudence on gubernatorial impeachment has also been useful on providing instructive lessons on how the Kenyan constitutional provisions on the removal of county Governors from office can be interpreted. This legal research paper concludes that for the intended purpose of gubernatorial impeachment to be achieved, the people must not only be informed and involved in the removal process of their county Governors but the CAs and Senators must also demonstrate political goodwill while conducting this constitutional process.This is because one of the ways through which the objects of devolution can be achieved in the Kenyan devolved system is through accountable governance from the State Officers

"This book is devoted to criminal defence in Eastern Europe, based on a research project conducted in Bulgaria, Georgia, Lithuania, Moldova and Ukraine during 2010 and 2011.The book starts with an analysis of the key requirements and standards concerning effective criminal defence according to the European Convention on Human Rights, the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights, and legislation under the European Union’s procedural rights ‘roadmap’. Each country in the study is the subject of a separate chapter describing and analysing laws, institutions, processes, practices and attitudes relating to effective criminal defence, and concluding with recommendations for improving access to effective defence as an essential element of the right to fair trial. The data from the five countries is then subjected to a cross-jurisdictional analysis of compliance with European standards including, where relevant, reference to the fi ndings of the original nine country study.

"

Abstract

Strengthening access to local justice for the citizens is critically important in establishing good governance. Local government institution may play an undeniable role in establishing good governance and facilitating local justice services. Union Parishad (UP) is the lowest tier of local government institutions in Bangladesh that is entrusted to run Village Courts, Arbitration Council, forming and running Union Legal Aid Committee etc. locally for its constituency. Traditional shalish run by the elderly or NGOs within the same geographical areas also plays a pivotal role in rural citizen’s life in obtaining legal remedies. Given these circumstances, the objective of this paper is to explore the local justice delivery frameworks currently existing in Bangladesh at the UP level – be it actively functional or inactively lying in paper, analyze the strengths and weaknesses of these systems and explore potentials of making the inactive mechanisms active.

“A presente obra traz contribuições muito valiosas para o atual debate sobre o modelo de assistência jurídica gratuita prestada pelo Estado, inserindo esse tema nos contextos jurídico, político e econômico, nacional e internacional. O renomado defensor público Cleber Alves publica no Brasil dois importantes textos apresentados na Universidade de Londres, durante seu profícuo período como professor convidado, enfrentando os aspectos teóricos e práticos da natureza do direito à assistência jurídica, bem como antevendo o atual debate sobre a ampliação da necessidade desse serviço, por um lado, e a crise de financiamento, que pressiona em sentido contrário. O fundamento democrático do acesso à justiça e da Defensoria Pública são temas centrais das reflexões do jovem e talentoso defensor público Pedro González, analisando as normas constitucionais de proteção às pessoas em situações de vulnerabilidade. Os anexos também são de leitura obrigatória, trazendo para o público brasileiro as reflexões de dois grandes expoentes internacionais sobre o tema, os professores Pascoe Pleasence, da University College London (UCL) e Earl Johnson Jr., um dos principais colaboradores do professor Mauro Cappelletti no famoso “Projeto Florença”, sobre acesso à Justiça, e autor da obra seminal “To Establish Justice for All”.

André Castro
Defensor Público Geral do Estado do Rio de Janeiro

PRAXIS - The Official Peer-Reviewed Journal of the Alumni for International Human Rights Law.  This is the official version of the inaugural issue of PRAXIS.  This official version supersedes and/or modifies accordingly any and all versions, descriptor, announcement, communication and/or related matter appearing here and/or elsewhere.

There is currently no legislation guaranteeing state provision of legal aid or advice in criminal cases. The only organised provision of criminal legal representation is through the Law Society’s Criminal Legal Aid Scheme (“CLAS”). The purpose of this paper is not just to present the legal issues, but also the political and economic issues involved in state-sponsorship of legal aid and advice for non-capital criminal offences. This paper will examine in three parts not just the legal principles behind state-sponsored legal aid and advice, but also the practical considerations of economic efficiency and implementation.

The first part will begin with the meaning of an adversarial criminal justice system and recommend the political viewpoint with which criminal legal aid and advice should best be viewed from.

The second part will address the practical need for the state to sponsor criminal legal aid and advice by examining the current quality of volunteer legal aid and advice and the means test used under CLAS.

The third part advocates that Parliament acts to extend legal aid and advice to non-capital criminal offences and makes the recommendation that the current Director of the Legal Aid Bureau be responsible for granting criminal legal aid and advice. The operating costs for the Law Society’s Pro Bono Office, which houses the CLAS, operates on a government grant of $300,000 annually plus donations from the public. In contrast, the Legal Aid Bureau, which provides civil legal aid, had an annual budget in 2010 for civil legal aid and advice of about $7.6 million.

This paradoxical situation where civil legal aid is provided but not criminal legal aid should be remedied. As Lee Kuan Yew said in Parliament in 1957, “[i]t is no use telling the people that you have a wonderful democratic machine if you do not offer them the mechanics to operate that machinery for them as and when required.”

En este capítulo, analizaré la estructura y contenido de los derechos a la tutela judicial y a la defensa jurídica. Lo haré desde una perspectiva constitucional, lo que implica que me concentraré en la lectura de los primeros cuatro incisos del artículo 19 Nº 3, así como en la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Constitucional y lo señalado por la doctrina nacional. Por lo tanto, las referencias al derecho internacional de los derechos humanos serán escasas. Asimismo, solo trataré de modo general la legislación que se encarga de llenar de contenido a estos derechos. En primer lugar, estudiaré el derecho a la tutela judicial. Intentaré presentar una interpretación propia de este derecho, apoyada por supuesto en doctrina y jurisprudencia previa, revisando ciertos problemas que se han presentado en la aplicación de este derecho: su denominación (2.1), su existencia o reconocimiento (2.2) y su relación con el debido proceso (2.3). Posteriormente, estudiaré los elementos que a mi juicio constituyen el núcleo de este derecho fundamental (2.4). Finalmente, señalaré algunos aspectos generales respecto de la tutela judicial en contra de los actos de la Administración del Estado (2.5), y presentaré algunos casos recientes en la jurisprudencia constitucional: la mediación previa y obligatoria (2.6.1), el solve et repete (2.6.2) y el discutido derecho a la acción penal del ofendido (2.6.3). En segundo lugar, me referiré al derecho a la defensa y su garantía, la asistencia jurídica. Sobre la defensa jurídica, explicaré su conceptualización y ámbito de aplicación (3.1), su contenido (3.2) y límites (3.3). Explicaré asimismo el caso especial de la defensa jurídica de miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas y de Orden y Seguridad (3.4). Finalmente, analizaré la garantía de asistencia jurídica, en cuanto a su definición y titularidad (3.5.1), contenido (3.5.2), ámbito de aplicación (3.5.3), y el modo en que se concretiza a través de mecanismos de ayuda legal (3.5.4).

Il presente contributo rappresenta il primo frutto parziale di un più ampio studio sull'evoluzione del diritto alla difesa del povero negli Stati sabaudi, iniziato nell'anno accademico 2008-2009 con un contratto come ricercatore a tempo determinato presso il Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche ed Economiche della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza dell'Università del Piemonte Orientale "A. Avogadro", dal titolo Inquirere et defendere: gli organi 'rappresentativi delle parti' istituiti presso i Senati sabaudi nei secoli XVIII e XIX. 1 Per un commento dell'attuale normativa nell'ambito del processo civile e amministrativo cfr. G. SCARSELLI, Il nuovo patrocinio a spese dello Stato nei processi civili ed amministrativi, Padova 2003; per il processo penale P. SECHI, Il patrocinio dei non abbienti nei procedimenti penali, Milano 2006; su tutti A. BUZZONI, Il gratuito patrocinio spiegato a mia nonna, Gravellona Toce 2010. 2 Risulta indifferente che si tratti del giudice o del pubblico ministero; cfr. A. BUZ-ZONI, op. cit., p. 51.

Since China's reform and opening up started in 1978 and Vietnam's Doi Moi reforms were initiated in 1986, these two East Asian economies have adopted capitalistic models of development while retaining and reforming their socialist legal systems along the way. Tracking the trajectory of socialist laws and their legacy, this book offers a unique comparison of laws and institutional designs in China and Vietnam. Leading scholars from China, Vietnam, Australia and the United States analyze the history, development and impact of socialist law reforms in these two continuing socialist states. Readers are offered a varied insight into the complex quality and unique features of socialist law and why it should be taken seriously. This is a fresh theoretical approach to, and internal critique of, socialist laws which demonstrates how socialist law in China and Vietnam may shape the future of global legal development among developing countries.

Ce manuel sur la qualité de la justice vient parachever le projet européen "Court Quality Framework Design", qui a visé entre septembre 2016 et août 2017 à examiner les pratiques des juridictions de 5 Etats membres de l'Union européenne (Estonie, France, Italie, Portugal, Slovénie), ainsi que les politiques développées par ces Etats. Ce recueil des pratiques a été suivi d'une phase de systématisation afin d'identifier les instruments et standards communs, permettant alors de définir des indicateurs de qualité de la justice. Le tableau de bord de la qualité figurant dans le Manuel offre une vue panoptique de l'ensemble de la démarche et de ses conclusions.

Ce manuel s'appuie sur les travaux menés par les organisations internationales en matière d'évaluation de la justice (CEPEJ, Union européenne, OCDE, Nations Unies). Il identifie les données manquantes et les travaux qu'ils seraient nécessaires de mener à l'avenir pour offrir des outils opérationnels aux magistrats et chefs de juridiction en matière de pilotage de la qualité.

" What is the origin of inequality among men? Is it authorized by natural law? For how shall we know the source of inequality between men, if we do not begin by knowing mankind? " Looking at the animal kingdom, where men belong, there is a natural inequality and stratification. Animals live chiefly for self-preservation and survival. The stronger animals control and dominate other weaker animals in the jungle. This is bolstered by Darwin's theory on survival of the fittest and the elimination of the unfit. Nonetheless, the history of human civilization points to an evolution of men from savage beasts to gentle scholars. The change in times brought the concepts of justice, fairness and equality to human consciousness. Laws promoting these concepts are enacted to correct the natural existence of inequality among men. One of these laws is providing the right to access to justice by the poor. In the early 20 th century, there is a challenge to the legal profession to consider it an obligation to see that justice as law is accessible to all, without regard to ability to pay. Without access to law, the system not only robs the poor of their only protection but it places in the hands of their oppressors the most powerful and ruthless weapon ever invented (Reginald Herber Smith, Justice and the Poor, 1919). We can end the existing denial of justice to the poor if we can secure an administration of justice wherein law shall be accessible to every person no matter how humble. This challenge has first been answered in our country when General Order No 58 was issued in 1900 which authorized the courts to assign counsel to defend persons accused in criminal cases. Because one clear consequence of inequality is inequality in the field of criminal justice. In a criminal prosecution, the accused finds himself face to face with the State and all of its resources of wealth and power. It is for this reason that the law takes a special interest in the poor when brought before the bar of justice to answer for a crime. "Naught is more hostile to a city than a despot; where he is, there are first no laws common to all, but one man is tyrant, in whose keeping and in his alone the law resides, and in that case equality is at an end. But when the laws are written down, rich and poor alike have equal justice, and it is open to the weaker to use the same language to the prosperous when he is reviled by him, and the weaker prevails over the stronger if he has justice on his side"(Euripides). The right of the poor to access to justice is guaranteed and protected by the Philippine Constitution and statutes. Our Constitution is pro-poor. It is a promoter of social justice. Inspired by the Philippines' social justice policy under Article XIII, Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution as well as by the State policies under Article II, Sections 9 and 10 of the 1987 Constitution, it is a matter of right for every Filipino to have access to justice when the State declares that free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate

Profesja adwokata i radcy prawnego, obok lekarza, duchownego, czy dyplomaty, od czasów Cycerona powszechnie uznawana jest za zawód o szczególnym dla społeczeństwa znaczeniu, jako służba publiczna sui generis wyrażająca się w misji ochrony, rozwijania bądź gwarantowania dóbr wyższego rzędu: życia, zdrowia, własności intelektualnej, sztuki, mienia, ładu społecznego i publicznego, a także praw i wolności jednostki. Przywiązanie do znaczenia wartości etycznych podczas wykonywania zawodu przez świadczącego usługi prawne adwokata bądź radcę prawnego znajduje przełożenie już na etapie złożenia roty ślubowania, a wyraża się w podległości normom zawartym w Kodeksach Etyki Zawodowej: Adwokata i Radcy Prawnego. Wspólne dla obu zawodów szczególne normy dotyczą zachowania reguł staranności, niezależności zawodowej, stosunku zaufania i wymogu zachowania tajemnicy, sposobu prowadzenia sprawy i przyjmowania honorarium, a także sytuacji, w których nie jest dopuszczalne zajmowanie się określoną sprawą. Atrybuty tych zawodów odpowiadają wymaganiom zawartym w ustawach zarówno co do formy wykonywania zawodów, identycznych wymagań kwalifikacyjnych, samodzielności i niezależności przy wykonywaniu czynności o charakterze intelektualnym, obowiązku przestrzegania norm etyki i tajemnicy zawodowej, prowadzenia spraw z urzędu, świadczenia usług na własną odpowiedzialność, jak i ubezpieczenia od odpowiedzialności cywilnej z tytułu wykonywania zawodu. Adwokaci i radcowie prawni podlegają bowiem różnym rygorom odpowiedzialności za postępowanie sprzeczne z prawem, zasadami etyki bądź uchybienie godności zawodowej.

Legal Aid & Awareness is crucial for sound judicial system of any country. Article 39A of Constitution of India deals with equal justice and free legal aid. Free legal aid helps the underprivileged to seek justice in timely and efficient manner. Various institutions, organizations, people are involved in legal aid and awareness initiatives touching different legal issues. Law students play crucial role in legal aid and awareness initiatives, being engaged with legal service committee/legal aid cell set up in law colleges/universities. Students volunteer for activities to be carried out under these committees/cells. There are handful colleges/universities in India which are having compulsory requirement of Pro Bono legal aid work as a part of academic curriculum. Gujarat National Law University (GNLU) situated at Gandhinagar, Gujarat is one of those institutions which requires 20 hours of Pro Bono legal aid work in an academic year which comes to a total of 100 hours in a five years course. GNLU through its Legal Services Committee (LSC) & Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) cell administer the Pro Bono Legal Aid Programme. GNLU initiated this policy in the year 2015 as an essential curricular requirement of the University. The major objective of introducing this programme is to encourage and motivate the students of the University to work for the society, offer their services under the legal provisions, which will help them bring closer to the society, besides helping them in their future career. Researcher will highlight the GNLU Pro Bono Legal Aid Programme as a part of case study supported by small survey on compulsory Pro Bono legal aid activities in law colleges as a part of academic requirement.