Hillfort

There are about 27 early-medieval hillforts in Podkarpackie Voivodeship. Due to their good state of preservation, 16 of them could become
tourist attractions. The article presents the Trzcinica hillfort as an example of a tourist product. Subsequently, its genesis, concept, and manner
of implementation of the Carpathian Troy Open-Air Museum were discussed. The next step was the determination of the conditions that a site
should meet to become a tourist attraction of at least regional importance. Hillforts in the following locations were discussed: Budy Głogowskie,
Przeczyca, Wietrzno, and Tuligłowy. The sites were compared in terms of: location, state of preservation, and the attitude towards them of their
researchers or institutions that might transform them into sites that would be as popular among tourists as the Carpathian Troy. All the analysed
sites offer good conditions for potential future investments. However, the essential difference lies in the attitude of researchers, who can become
involved in the creative process or remain passive. The final part of the article offers thoughts on how the analysed sites could come into existence
on the tourist map of Poland.

La présente contribution vise à préciser les aspects géographiques et chronologiques liés à l’apparition, au développement et au déclin d’un type de construction en pierre sèche localement appelée « torre ». Ces édifices monumentaux, qui présentent une forme de tour tronconique, sont élevés selon un cahier des charges architectural précis, et trouvent leur strict équivalent en Sardaigne avec les milliers de nuraghi monotorre du Bronze ancien et moyen. La publication du détail du maigre corpus des torre de Corse, ainsi que la révision des données chronologiques fournies par les fouilles et les prospections opérées ces cinquante dernières années, seront également l’occasion de souligner l’importance prise par ces monuments dans l’évolution de la construction du discours archéologique depuis les années 1960 et les travaux de Roger Grosjean.

A través de la excavación arqueológica en el castiello de Curiel (Peñaferruz, Gijón, España) se documenta la transición de una fortificación altomedieval en un castillo feudal. En la cima de un cerro se construyó en una primera fase altomedieval un recinto amurallado (siglos IX-X). En una segunda fase (siglos XI-XII) se superpuso un torreón y nuevas estructuras. El castillo desempeñó un importante papel de dominio sobre el territorio. A finales del siglo XIII su función decae, sustituida por las nuevas villas de Siero y Gijón que reordenan el territorio, repartiéndose en sus respectivos alfoces el anterior territorio de Curiel.
Archaeological excavation in the Curiel castle (Peñaferruz, Gijón, Spain) documents the transition of a high-medieval fortification into a feudal castle. On top of a hill was built in a first phase a walled enclosure (9th-10th centuries). In a second phase (11th-12th centuries) a tower and new structures were built. The castle played a central role over the territory. At the end of the thirteenth century its function declined, replaced by the new towns of Siero and Gijón.

L'oppidum du Moulon, situé dans la moyenne vallée du Rhône entre Montélimar et Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, présente la particularité de posséder cinq enceintes de pierres sèches qui englobent une superficie de 22 hectares. Les prospections et sondages effectués entre 1997 et 1998 permettent de dater quatre d'entre elles des VII e -début du VI e siècles avant notre ère. La cinquième enceinte pourrait dater de la fin du second âge du Fer. MOTS-CLEFS Site fortifié, oppidum, enceintes multiples, âges du Fer, céramique. done between 1997 and 1998 have shown that four of these walls can be dated between the 7th and the beginning of the 6th century BC. The fifth fortification may belong to the Second Iron Age.

Радивоје Арсић, Завод за заштиту споменика културе Ваљево Дејан Булић, Историјски институт Београд Владимир Пецикоза, Истраживачка станица Петница апстракт: Локалитет Вито налази се на око 25 km западно од Ваљева у селу Брезовице. Проспекцијом терена документовани су остаци добро очуване градине из старијег гвозденог доба. Бедем има неправилну издужену форму око простора укупне површине око 0,7 ha. За основу бедема са једне стране увек је коришћена природна кречњачка стена и рађен је техником сухозида без коришћења везивних материјала. Очуван је до 2 m висине. Подаци који су прикупљени површинском проспекцијом јака су индиција за постојање добро очуване фортификације из периода старијег гвозденог доба, какве се ретко срећу на простору Србије. Kључне речи: западна Србија, ваљевски крај, Повлен, Брезовице, Вито, старије гвоздено доба, градина, бедем. Abstract: The site Vito is situated approximately 25 km west from Valjevo in the village of Brezovice. Field survey revealed well preserved remains of Early Iron Age hillfort. The wall has irregular elongated form thus enclosing the area of approximately 0,7 ha. The natural limestone rock was entirely used for the wall foundations from one side, and the wall itself was made by the drywall technique, without connective materials. It is preserved up to the 2 m height. The data collected by field survey give strong indications for the existence of well-preserved fortification from Early Iron Age, which are rarely encountered on the territory of Serbia.

Hillforts in Ireland and Europe have often been regarded as defensive structures or monuments built to facilitate and strengthen community cohesion and identity. Recent discourse, however, stresses the importance of competitive display, promoting the idea that hillforts were built to convey the power and strength of a community. The enclosing elements themselves were an effective mechanism to display this, being highly visible and permanent features in the landscape. The costly act of construction, in terms of time, effort and resources, reflects the conspicuous and highly visible consumption of resources and labour. As such, larger and more elaborate works could reflect a bigger community who had a more substantial labour force and resource base. Impressive enclosing earthworks found at many hillforts in Britain and mainland Europe contrast with the unimpressive nature of Irish sites. This paper considers the Irish evidence with regard to this recent narrative and assesses whether Irish hillforts were built to signal the power of local communities.

The archaeological investigations of Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire – which took place over a twenty-five-year period, with the help of several thousand volunteers – led to many exciting discoveries. Since the final season of excavations, post-excavation work has continued, processing an enormous archive, in order to create reports relating to the various phases of activity (from the Neolithic to the Middle Ages). This paper provides a summary of Romano-British and early Medieval settlement and ritual activity on the hilltop. The post-Roman settlement consisted of two separate (but related) late Roman or early post-Roman zones – perhaps demonstrating rare evidence for social stratification. It introduces new discoveries made by the author during post-excavation analysis, considering Crickley Hill in relation to the Roman and post-Roman archaeological landscape of Southwest Britain.

Die Reihe "Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie" soll einem in der jüngeren Vergangenheit entstandenen Bedürfnis Rechnung tragen, nämlich Examensarbeiten und andere Forschungsleistungen vornehmlich jüngerer Wissenschaftler in die Öffentlichkeit zu tragen. Die etablierten Reihen und Zeitschriften des Faches reichen längst nicht mehr aus, die vorhandenen Manuskripte aufzunehmen. Die Universitäten sind deshalb aufgerufen, Abhilfe zu schaffen. Einige von ihnen haben mit den ihnen zur Verfügung stehenden Mitteln unter zumeist tatkräftigem Handanlegen der Autoren die vorliegende Reihe begründet. Thematisch soll darin die ganze Breite des Faches vom Paläolithikum bis zur Archäologie der Neuzeit ihren Platz finden.

Based on an analysis of the field situation, within all available documentation and data, this article revises the original interpretation of the “circular pagan shrine” in southern part of the Northern suburbium of the Early Medieaval hillfort Mikulčice – Valy. There is realized an correction of previous assumption that this was a cultic feature and also casts doubt upon its intentionality and dating of this feature to the end of the Great Moravian Period. According to the new theory this was an irregular recessed area, formed partly on the bank of the northern suburbium and partly over a silted-up Early Mediaeval channel, probably fluvial. The revision of the documentation and published arguments has shown that there is absolutely no relevant proof that this feature (building) served a cultic purpose.

Podstatou článku je revize publikovaných závěrů, týkajících se tzv. kruhového kultovního objektu v Severním podhradí mikulčického hradiště, dokládajícího údajnou pohanskou recidivu v období po rozpadu velkomoravského státního útvaru. Má se jednat o tzv. "kruhový pohanský kultovní objekt" s údajně dřevěným kůlem pro modlu a "zajímavými stopami ohňů", ležící na "jižním mysu" Severního podhradí mikulčického hradiště, datovaný do konce velkomoravského období. Ačkoliv terénní výzkum tohoto objektu proběhl již v 70. letech, teprve o mnoho let později byly výsledky výzkumu poměrně jednoznačně funkčně i chronologicky interpretovány vedoucím mikulčického výzkumu Z. Klanicou (1985a, b; 1997; 2007a) a následně logicky přejímány i jinými autory. Bohužel jsou však tyto citace opřeny právě o statě Z. Klanici, který nikde nepublikoval podrobnější rozbor archeologické situace tohoto objektu. Dle konfrontace publikovaných závěrů s dostupnými daty, především z originální dokumentace, je nutné interpretaci popisovaného objektu jako pohanského kultovního kruhového příkopu s hořícími ohni a dřevěnou stélou považovat za neudržitelnou. Žádná kůlová jáma evokující pohanskou stélu nebyla v úrovni objektu zaznamenána. Jáma 932, kterou připomíná Z. Klanica, leží stratigraficky pod domnělým kultovním objektem, a to v přímé superpozici. Stejně tak nebyly reálně terénním výzkumem registrovány ani žádné výrazné koncentrace uhlíků, jež by měly dokládat přítomnost pohanských kultovních ohňů. Objekt neleží na nijak exponovaném místě charakteru "mysu", jak ho nazývá Z. Klanica. Jedná se o přirozené ohbí toku řeky. Pro kultovní funkci neexistuje vůbec žádný doklad, nálezová situace dokonce hovoří pro neintencionální původ tohoto žlábku.

"In diesem Beitrag sind alle derzeit vorliegenden Informationen über den Burgwall auf der Anhöhe „Svákov“ bei Soběslav (Kr. Tábor) zusammengefasst. Die Fundstelle ist bereits seit dem 18. Jh. bekannt (Abb. 1–2) und wurde in den Jahren 1883 bis 1907 von J. Rychlý, J. N. Woldřich (Abb. 3) und J. Švehla untersucht (Abb.
4). Das Fundmaterial aus diesen älteren Forschungen belegt eine Besiedlung des Burgwalls während des 9. Jhs. n. Chr. (Abb. 7–9). Von dort stammen auch einige endneolithische und  hallstattzeitliche Funde (Abb. 6:9–12), allerdings ohne nähere Fundumstände; ein Bezug zum Burgwall lässt sich deshalb nicht nachweisen. Im Jahr 2007 unternahmen O. Chvojka und Z. Thomová eine Rettungsgrabung, ausgelöst durch die massive Entwaldung des Burgwalls. In den meisten der neun Sondagen zeigte sich eine Siedlungsschicht (Abb. 12; 14), die vor allem frühmittelalterliche, vereinzelt jedoch auch vorgeschichtliche Keramik enthielt (Abb. 6:1–8). Die vorgeschichtliche Keramik (Abb. 6:1) ist nur allgemein in die Bronze- oder Hallstattzeit
datierbar, die frühmittelalterliche Keramik stammt eindeutig aus dem 9. Jh. Das bestätigen auch zwei Radiokarbondaten
aus Holzkohle (Abb. 18), die aus Brandschichten im Wall stammen (Abb. 13; 21–22). Die bis heute sehr markante Anlage mit einer Wallhöhe von bis zu 8 m an der Außenseite (Abb. 19–20) entstand also im Frühmittelalter und ging wahrscheinlich an der Wende vom 9. zum 10 Jh. durch einen Brand zugrunde. In Verbindung mit der archäologischen Forschung des Jahres 2007 wurde das Bodendenkmal modern vermessen und durch Luftbilder dokumentiert (Abb. 10–11). Außerdem konnten Phosphatanalysen durchgeführt werden (Abb. 17). Eine Prospektion mittels Metalldetektor erbrachte nur hochmittelalterliche bis
neuzeitliche Eisengegenstände (Abb. 16). Lediglich ein Bronzeartefakt (Abb. 15) kann vielleicht frühmittelalterlich
sein. Interessante Resultate brachte auch die archäobotanische Analyse der pflanzlichen Makroreste aus den Sondagen, die u.a. das Vorkommen von Weizen bestätigte (Tabelle 1)."

The fortification of the archaeological complex near the village Sidorovo – the largest hillfort of Khazar time on this territory is analyzed in the paper. Fortification consists of two lines of ditches and ramparts, located at a distance of 120 m from each other. The East side of the slope of the hillfort is fortified with the escarpment. Investigations produced on the inner and outer lines of fortification, showed that they were originated at different times. The small settlement was fortified by an internal line (perimeter 1,2–1,3 km). There was a need for the construction of another line of fortification in the process of its growth (the perimeter of at least 2.5 km). The time of the construction of ditches and ramparts internal lines – not earlier than the middle of the IX century – has been defined by the artefacts, found in their filling. Remains of wooden structures in the filling of the ditches indicate that the settlement had wooden or wood-earthen walls. The author considers the materials on fortifications of close type, existed in this territory in the XVII century, which contain data on the size of the garrison necessary for the normal defense of these fortresses. Comparison allows the author to suggest that there had to be a considerable military contingent on the hillfort near the village of Sidorovo. Otherwise, the construction of the fortifications described above would be meaningless.

Moravia came to an end. There is a small look back at the essay by P. Kouřil, representing the archaeological evidence for the destructive Hungarian attack on the heart of the Great Moravian Empire at the beginning of the 10th century. On the basis of the overall archaeology situation in the settlement in the so-called northern suburbium of the Mikulčice centre (stratigraphy, the presence of the destruction horizon, impious or atypical burials directly in the destruction of the settlement, the traces of fire, datable artefacts and pottery), this article supplements and also backs up this hypothesis.

Northeast of the Štěnec village (Pardubice region) on a promontory of the Vraclavský Ridge there is a hillfort at the “Kozí nožka” site, about which until now only very little was known. Surface survey yielded a small collection of pottery and iron objects which attest that the locality has been occupied in the high medieval period, probably at the same place where once was an early medieval hillfort.

The paper features the results of excavations conducted in 2017 at Isakovo hillfort located in the mouth of the Sviyaga river (right tributary of the Volga) in the buffer zone of the Island Fort of Sviyazhsk. It presents an analysis of the various ceramic complexes and stone implements discovered at the excavations. The authors determined that the initial colonization of the cape on which the settlement is located occurred in the middle of the third quarter of the 3rd Millennium B.C. when it was inhabited by representatives of the Middle Volga variation of the Volosovo cultural and historical community of Late Eneolithic. Then, in the Late Bronze Age the territory was inhabited by representatives of an early (Atabaevo) stage of the Maklasheevka culture (14th –12th centuries B.C.). The construction of settlement fortifications (rampart and moat) on the cape is related to the colonization of the site by the population of the Akozino culture from the Ananyino cultural and historical area (9th –4th/3rd centuries B.C., and when the latter perished, the settlement was abandoned.

The paper features the results of a comprehensive study of the fortifications of the Troitskii-Urai I hillfort. An analysis of a rampart section using the archaeological, geomorphological, palynological and soil science methods has made it possible to draw the following conclusions. The hillfort was built at the site of a community of the Bronze Age – the beginning of the Early Iron Age (12th – 9th centuries B.C.), and the rampart is connected to a saddle, which became an additional element of fortification. Two stages of the rampart’s construction were identified, which was completed by the population of the Post-Maklasheevka culture of Ananyino cultural and historical area. The early rampart is dated the 8th – 5th centuries B.C., and the late rampart was constructed in late 5th – 3rd/2nd centuries B.C. No information on the participation of representatives of the Imenkovo and Bolgar pre-Mongol cultures in the construction of the rampart has been revealed in this section. Throughout the entire period of the hillfort’s existence in the Early Iron Age, its inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, and the predominant consumed food items at its initial and late stages were fish and meat, respectively. The Troitskii-Urai II hillfort was built to the west of the Troitskii-Urai I hillfort in the Imenkovo period (4th –6th centuries).The second one significantly differs in terms of rampart morphology.

Selo Kolan, smješteno u unutrašnjosti otoka Paga, obiluje arheološkom baštinom koja dosad nije detaljno istraživana, osim u sklopu projekata koji se odnose na lokalitete i nalaze cijelog otoka Paga. Područje su još u prapovijesti naselili Liburni, što nam dokazuju ostaci gradina na brežuljcima oko Kolana. Ovim rekognosciranjem obuhvaćena je samo jedna od njih, i to ona na položaju Donji Gradac, koja je bila i djelomično uništena tijekom gradnje lokalne ceste 1970-ih godina. Interdisciplinarnim pristupom, rekognosciranjem terena i geodetskom izmjerom mjernom stanicom i GNSS prijamnikom, pokušalo se dobiti
bolji uvid u dinamiku naseljavanja otoka, a posebno područja Kolana, u prapovijesno vrijeme.

For the better part of the 20th century, Swedish hillforts were seen strictly as an iron age phenomenon, and it was not until the mid-1980’s that we had reliable evidence that hillforts were already constructed during the Bronze Age. At the same time, archaeologists were moving away from the old militaristic studies to make way for studies based on the symbolical aspects of these monumental structures. Unfortunately, as we reached the end of the millennium, the general archaeological interest for hillforts dramatically dropped, causing hillfort research to miss out on the digital revolution as the new GIS technology cemented itself as a powerful tool in archaeological research. Today, nine hillforts have received a Bronze Age dating, why it is now possible to preform high quality research on the material without having to include structures from other time periods. However, the lack of GIS-based hillfort research leads us to seek inspiration from British hillfort research where the incorporation of GIS-methodology has proven successful in analyzing the relationship between hillforts and their landscapes. The purpose of this paper is therefore to continue investigating the symbolical aspects of the Swedish Bronze Age hillforts by investigating how GIS can help us locate and understand visual relationship between hillfort morphology and the surrounding landscape.
The analysis is based on a viewshed-method developed by Jessica Murray in her attempts to analyze if hillforts were constructed to visually relate to certain features of the landscape or the local topography. The resulting viewshed rasters are interpreted from a phenomenological theoretical standpoint since phenomenological aspects give us the possibility to bridge the gap between digital and analogue sensory analysis. The results show that viewshed-based analyses can be successfully complimented by phenomenological theory and that the method has successfully replicated previously observed landscape relationships while also exposing previously unknown visual relationships.

Von 1999 bis 2002 fanden auf der Burgwiese (KG Kremsdorf, SG Ansfelden, VB Linz-Land, Oberösterreich) archäologische Ausgrabungen im Rahmen des Forschungsprojektes "Höhensiedlungen im Linzer Raum" unter der Leitung von Otto H. Urban und Erwin M. Ruprechtsberger statt. Die Fundstelle liegt auf einem Sporn der rechten Hochterrasse etwa 60-70 m über dem Zusammenfluß von Krems und Traun (Farbabb. 2). Die Höhensiedlung ist durch zwei Abschnittswälle und -gräben befestigt, deren Zeitstellung bislang unbekannt ist. Auf der Grundlage einer geodätischen Geländeaufnahme (Farbabb. 7) und von geophysikalischen Prospektionen durch Archeo-Prospections (Kapitel 11; Farbabb. 49-50) konzentrierten sich die Ausgrabungen auf das Siedlungsinnere. In vier Kampagnen konnten in drei Grabungsflächen knapp 400 m 2 untersucht werden, was rund 5 % der Fläche innerhalb des Innenwalles entspricht. Die Ausgrabung erbrachte den Nachweis von sechs ur-und frühgeschichtlichen Besiedlungsphasen, deren Befunde und Funde im Katalog vollständig vorgelegt werden. Die älteste Besiedlung beginnt im frühen Jungneolithikum, gefolgt von einer Phase des späten Jungneolithikums, des Endneolithikums, der frühen Bronzezeit, der Hallstattzeit und des frühen Mittelalters (Tabelle 3). Verglichen mit anderen Höhensiedlungen in Oberösterreich ist der Erhaltungszustand überdurchschnittlich gut, und trotz starker Erosion haben sich eingetiefte Befunde aus allen sechs Besiedlungsphasen erhalten.

This paper analyzes a small collection of artifacts attributed to the prehistoric site of Senorady-Hradisko "U Velke skaly" (Land of Moravia, Czech Republic) from a distance of twenty years after initial analyse. It adds some new information about the artifacts and evaluates the hypothesis about an early medieval settlement of The Senorady Hillfort.

The paper features the results of a study of archaeozoological materials from the excavations of 2018 at the Makaryevskoye hillfort located in the Verkhneuslonsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan. The completed species, age and breed studies have revealed the composition of domestic and wild game fauna, and the role of individual animal species in the life and nutrition of the local population. Their comparison with similar information obtained at the excavations of other sites of the Ananyino and Imenkovo periods has allowed to identify similarities and differences in the herd composition of the population of the Volga and Kama region hillforts. Wild game fauna is represented by bone remains of elk, bear, boar, fox, beaver and hare. According to the herd composition of domestic animals and the content of bone fragments of the hunting and fishing fauna, the Makaryevskoye hillfort is a typical monument of the Early Iron Age and the Early Middle Ages.

The paper addresses one of the most representative and significant categories of items discovered in the cultural layers of the Volga-Kama settlements - a spinning wheel. Zuevoklyuchevskoe I hillfort – one of the largest fortified settlements of the Kama Region - is the origin of arguably the most extensive collection of spinning wheels of the Early Iron Age. The interpretation of spinning wheels as artifacts of the weaving culture in archaic societies, starting from the Neolithic period, is no longer unambiguous. Hence the more relevant references to each complete collection of finds. The material, shape and decoration of the spindle wheels originating from the stratified layers of the Ananyino and Piany Bor period are analyzed, and their horizontal and vertical distribution in the cultural layers and sites is assessed, along with the possibility of considering spinning wheels as cultural and chronological indicators.

Na území naší vlasti je velké množství lokalit archeologické povahy, avšak pouze jen jejich zlomek je v současnosti nějakým způsobem chráněn zákonem. Předložený příspěvek se nejdříve obecně zabývá problematikou prohlašování a evidence všech památek v době účinnosti zákonů č. 22/1958 Sb., o kulturních památkách a č. 20/1987 Sb., o státní památkové péči a také jejich rozdělením dle jednotlivých typů. Konkrétněji pak pojednává o druhém, v Ústředním seznamu kulturních památek (ÚSKP), nejčastěji zapsaném typu, o hradištích. Zaobírá se dobou jejich prohlášení, kritérii výběru k zápisu vhodných kandidátů, zrušením ochrany u několika lokalit a s tím také související polemikou, zda je vlastně zápisem do ÚSKP zabezpečena jejich ochrana a neklesají tak na roveň zatím zákonem nechráněných lokalit. V případě, že tomu tak je, je uvedeno několik podnětů a možností, jak se pokusit alespoň zmírnit nežádoucí dopad na archeologický památkový fond. V další části jsou z hlediska památkového potenciálu podrobně vyhodnocena tři hradiště nacházející se v různých částech Čech, včetně vypracování návrhu na prohlášení nemovitého nálezu za kulturní památku u jednoho z nich.

The paper concerns the medieval ware discovered in the territory of the medieval towns of Volga Bolgaria. Technical and technological analysis and comparative characteristics of the ethnic-cultural types of ware are provided, and a statistical table indicating the presence of each type of ceramics at each site is included. Based on the analysis of material items, interrelation of the ethnic-cultural groups is established by the author, and their interaction and influence on the local Bolgar population is outlined. The study of this issue is of great urgency in view of the discussion in the scientific world regarding the ethnocultural composition of the region’s population in the Pre-Mongol and Golden Horde periods. The scarcity of written sources related to the issue is largely compensated by archaeological material, the most substantial and informative of which are ceramic complexes. The ceramics of the Kama-Ural population whose waves penetrated the territory of Volga Bolgaria from the East since the mid-10th century was determined by T.A. Khlebnikova as belonging groups VII and VIII according to the researcher’s classification. It should be noted that this population’s ware is present at all sites of the Lower Kama region of the Pre-Mongol period. But it is most vividly present in the medieval hillforts Alabuga, Kirmen, Chally and Staroe Romashkino.

The paper presents the results of the study of non-ferrous metal products that were found at the hillfort Serny Klyuch with an area of about 1000 m2, located on the top of a high (20–25 m) limestone cliff near Nyazepetrovsk town in the upper reaches of the Ufa River. The hillfort contains materials from the last five millennia. In 1989–1993 archaeologists of the Ural State University uncovered half of the monument with the remains of fortifications, metallurgical furnaces, production sites, industrial and residential premises. Items made from non-ferrous metal were found here as well as wastes of its production (55 specimens). These findings relate to a small camp of metallurgists of the late 3 – early 2 millennium BC of the South Ural Abashevo culture, a non-fortified settlement and a powerful fortified metallurgical center of the 6th/5th – 3rd centuries BC of the aboriginal Itkul’ culture and the ancient fortified settlement of the 8–12 centuries, which belonged to the bearers of the local Petrogrom culture. Spectral analysis of the metal of 34 items, carried out in the laboratory of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, showed that tools, weapons and jewelry were cast from “metallurgically” pure and “contaminated” copper (29 pieces) and bronze (5 pieces).