Earthen Construction

The main purpose of this thesis is to prove that Earthen Architecture is a feasible, affordable, durable, cost-effective, environmentally-friendly, alternative to modern time's construction materials, and to all the related methods, techniques, and practices. As the negative impact of the modern construction materials has without doubt many dimensions, by systematically criticizing Modern Architecture in all its aspects, we discover the numerous ensuing problems that can be quite diverse of nature, theoretical, technical, social, economic, environmental, cultural and scientific.

Through another viewpoint, an in-depth examination of the modern construction side effects which helps us realize the challenges that Modern material causes at a global level; this examination makes clear that the modern times construction materials are unsustainable, and so are most of the techniques involved. That is why, it would be very important to understand that environmental damages are not caused only in the building phase, and that the use of modern construction materials causes a troublesome amount of pollution in both, the pre-building and the post-building phases.

Earthen Architecture is nowadays viewed as an alternative construction method that involves diverse materials and incorporates a wide range of modern techniques and technologies; however, Earthen Architecture is not really something 'new' to the mankind. Earthen Architecture is a construction method that goes back to thousands of years and reflects a universal architectural tradition that was used in both, early cultures of the Neolithic Age and all the important historical civilizations in Asia, Africa, Europe and America. The study of historical examples (whereby wood, stone, thatch and earth were used as architectural material) does offer to today's architects and scholars an insight into how the historical architectural knowhow can be re-employed and be at the same time very well adapted to the particular characteristics of each locality and habitat, while also facilitating and ameliorating the construction process due to modern technology.

In addition, this thesis is a selected models or types of Earthen Architecture used in diverse projects carried out in different places offers to today's architectural scholarship the most persuasive argument for the need of Earthen Building as an environmentally-friendly, sustainable and cost-efficient alternative to modern construction. The use of Earthen Architecture in today's world can be quite extensive and address the needs of many economic sectors, namely Education, Culture, Health, Public Administration, Tourism, Trade, and Construction (residential districts).

Key words: Construction, Earthen Building, Environment, Sustainable, cost-effective

La mobilisation des matières premières « terre » et « fibre végétale » dans la construction, utilisées séparément ou ensemble, relève de longues traditions à  travers tous les continents. De multiples techniques utilisant ces ressources  ont  été  développées  en  fonction  de particularités  qui  dépendent  de  contextes  géologiques, géographiques, climatiques et culturels, mais aussi de la nécessité de faire avec les moyens disponibles sur place.

Aujourd’hui, le recours aux énergies fossiles doit être réduit drastiquement en raison des émissions de gaz à effet de  serre  (GES)  et  du  réchauffement  climatique  qu’il  induit.  Devant  l’urgence  actuelle  de  réduire  l’impact environnemental  du  secteur  du  bâtiment,  on  assiste  à  un  intérêt  mondial  croissant  pour  des  matériaux  peu consommateurs de ressources non-renouvelables, à la fois pour leur fabrication et pour leur mise en œuvre.

Cette  attention  particulière  pour  les  matériaux  «  bas  carbone  »  croise  celle  d’une  meilleure  efficience énergétique pendant la phase d’utilisation du bâti, notamment par une isolation thermique adaptée. Dans de telles perspectives, il a été prouvé que l’utilisation de matériaux biosourcés peut impacter très efficacement la consommation  énergétique  des  bâtiments  (C&B,  2012).  Par  ailleurs,  un  retour  à  la  construction  de  murs régulateurs  du  confort thermique  et peu  énergivores  est également  primordial,  car  il  constituerait  l’une  des réponses  à  adopter  face  à  l’évolution  actuelle  des  exigences  en  termes  de  confort  thermique  et,  de  façon générale, pour un environnement bâti sain.

Au Sénégal, le roseau Typha australis est devenu envahissant, notamment dans les fleuves et lacs du nord du pays. Jusqu’à présent, il était considéré à juste titre comme nuisible. L’exploitation raisonnée de cette plante, transformée en ressource-matière, constitue ainsi une opportunité en vue de contribuer à un développement local durable au Sénégal. C’est dans ce cadre qu’a été lancé le Projet PNEEB / TYPHA :
« Transfert de technologie : Projet de production de matériaux d’isolation thermique à base de Typha ». Afin de le mettre en œuvre, le projet a  engagé  CRAterre  pour  des  services  de  Recherche  et  Développement  qui  concernent  la  production  et l’utilisation, au Sénégal, de matériaux de construction à base de Typha et de terre.

Qu’il s’agisse de maçonnerie en terre avec des matériaux denses et monolithiques, ou d’éléments légers et de petites dimensions, ou encore d’isolants  thermiques en doublage de parois existantes, ces stratégies doivent être pensées de manière globale à l’échelle de l’habitat (elles doivent par exemple inclure une réflexion sur la gestion des protections solaires, de la ventilation et de l’humidité).

La réflexion menée sur la production des éléments de construction en terre et en Typha a donc été menée dans ce sens :
•      rechercher de modes de construction économiques,
•      utiliser de matériaux moins dépendants des énergies fossiles,
•      redécouvrir des qualités urbaines et architecturales du patrimoine et des savoirs y afférents,
•      mettre à profit des propriétés thermomécaniques inhérentes aux matières premières naturelles.

Ce  rapport  constitue  donc  tout  d’abord  une  capitalisation  des  recherches  bibliographiques  et  des expérimentations  menées  sur  les  matières  premières  «  Terre  »  et  «  Typha  »,  ainsi  que  sur  les  éléments constructifs qui ont été produits dans le cadre du projet. Il propose ainsi :
•      un aperçu de l’état actuel des connaissances sur  les propriétés mécaniques et hygrothermiques du Typha australis, ainsi qu’un panorama d’applications sur le Typha et les mélanges de Typha et de terre, réalisées dans plusieurs pays et dans différents laboratoires de recherche,
•      un compte-rendu du travail effectué et des activités organisées durant les deux années du projet.

La synthèse globale des résultats atteints est présentée en trois parties et huit chapitres :
•    La première partie constitue la dimension « recherche en amont » sur les matières et les matériaux Typha et Terre-Typha
  o  dans le chapitre 1 nous présenterons le cadre de la recherche, les antécédents à la phase actuelle de R&D, les livrables rendus en accord avec les termes de références,
  o  le chapitre 2 nous permettra d’exposer quelques prérequis et définitions préalables sur les propriétés que nous recherchons dans les éléments de construction que nous avons développés  et,  à  cet  égard,  pourquoi  les  matériaux  à  base  de  «  Typha  »  sont particulièrement intéressants,
  o  le chapitre 3 constituera un aperçu des méthodes suivies pour initier et développer la démarche de recherche-développement ancrée à la fois sur une prospection théorique et pratique ainsi que sur une recherche participative.
•    La deuxième partie présente les résultats de la R&D, tant sur la mise au point de méthodes spécifiques que sur les objectifs atteints. Elle suit la logique de « Recherche et Développement », à savoir une démarche qui débute avec l’analyse des « matières premières »  et qui va jusqu’à la proposition de « systèmes constructifs » :
  o  le chapitre 4 dresse un bilan des activités ainsi qu’une synthèse des livrables exigés pour la R&D,
  o  le chapitre 5 restitue les résultats du volet d’identification des
« matières premières » afin de les transformer en « matériaux »,
  o  le chapitre 6 présente la mise au point des « éléments de construction » ainsi que le développement  des  «équipements  »  et
« outils  »  spécifiques  nécessaires  à  leur production.
  o  le chapitre 7 décrit les modalités de mise-en-œuvre des éléments de construction et comment  ils  s’intègrent  aux  « systèmes  constructifs »  existants  et/ou  comment  ils permettent d’en constituer de nouveaux,
•    La troisième partie est consacrée à l’évaluation des performances des matériaux produits (Typha et Terre-Typha). Cette partie est d’abord basée sur une synthèse de la littérature, puis sur les premiers résultats actuels de la caractérisation des matériaux réalisés :
  o  le  chapitre  8  présente  les  premiers  résultats  des  essais  de  caractérisation hygrothermiques et mécaniques réalisés en laboratoire,
  o  une discussion sur l’ensemble des résultats obtenus est ensuite proposée, permettant de mettre en lumière les résultats probants, les pistes de recherche à poursuivre, ainsi que les compléments d’action nécessaires.
Tous les éléments présentés dans ce rapport constituent des
« propositions » pour le contexte Sénégalais. Les résultats de R&D testés lors des différents essais de mise-en-œuvre ont été sélectionnés et validés par l’équipe PNEEB-Typha. Si ce travail donne déjà des résultats permettant de passer à une phase opérationnelle, il est bien entendu que d’autres équipements de production et d’autres matériaux pourraient être développés par la suite.

Developing new energy efficient building materials to reduce the carbon footprint is now the core of sustainability in construction and an essential factor of life cycle assessment (LCA). The extensive and increasing usage of conventional concrete, mortar, plasters and various cement based materials is only one of the many factors contributing towards urban thermal discomfort caused by urban heat island phenomena and the poor thermal insulation of ordinary cement mortar. Not only this, the wide use of concrete and mortar in construction increases the consumption of their primary components mainly -Portland cement- requiring a large consumption of energy and causing a significant rise in CO2 emissions. Embedding natural and artificial cementitious/pozzolana materials in today`s cement-based building materials has become a common practice. Cementitious and Pozzolanic materials are known to provide an added value to mortar/concrete not only in terms of mechanical and durability properties but also in energy efficiency and enhancing sustainability. Sarooj is a local term describing an artificial cementitious and pozzolana material obtained by traditional calcining of the raw clayey soil. Although its usage is nowadays very limited, Sarooj has been used in Oman and other neighboring countries for centuries, in various buildings and defense into an engineered binding material and hence investigating its physico-mechanical and thermal properties. The raw soil used to produce the traditional Sarooj was employed to engineer a modern “Sarooj” under controlled energy processing (grinding and calcination) conditions. The raw clay minded from specific location was ground first to a fine powdered material and then subjected to full characterization. The physical and chemical characterization indicated that the raw soil is suitable for producing a cementitious/pozzolanic calcined clay. The thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis of the clay used reveal that only a moderate temperature of around 800 °C is required for its calcination which preserves energy and reduces CO2 emissions compared to 1600 °C to produce clinker cement. The strength development showed a slow early-age reactivity but an appreciable enhancement in long-term which demonstrates a remarkable latent hydraulic potential of the clay used. It was also found that adding an optimum amount of the calcined clay enhances the thermal properties. The annual energy performance of a typical housing in the hot climate of Muscat, Oman, was evaluated using DesignBuilder software, a whole-building simulation tool. The simulation results showed insignificant savings in annual energy consumption when the developed mixes are used as plastering materials. The clay alkali-activated with NaOH has, however, showed great potential to enhance the mortar`s long-term strength. Using locally engineered cementitious material in a partial replacement of Portland cement can further enhance durability and sustainability by reducing the manufacturing energy of the produced building material such mortars and plasters

Much research has been devoted over the past 30 years to the development of construction materials with low embodied energy that can minimize air conditioning needs and demolition waste, thus lowering the environmental and economic costs of buildings over their entire life. In this respect, raw earth is an attractive material because it is natural and largely available. In its simplest form, this material consists of a compacted mixture of soil and water which is put in place with the least possible transformation.  Raw earth construction has been practiced in ancient times but has only recently been rediscovered thanks to modern technology, which has improved fabrication efficiency. If properly manufactured, raw earth exhibits comparable mechanical characteristics and better hygro-thermal properties than concrete or fired bricks. After a brief historical overview, we discuss the advantages of raw earth construction in terms of environmental impact, energy consumption and indoor air quality together with the main obstacles to its wider dissemination. We also review the hydro-thermo-mechanical behaviour of raw earth in the context of the recent geotechnical literature, by examining the dependency of key parameters such as strength, stiffness and moisture retention on: a) material variables (e.g. particle size and mineralogy), b) manufacturing variables (e.g. density and stabilization method) and c) environmental variables (e.g. pore suction, ambient humidity and temperature).

Recent building research literature demonstrates a renewed interest in the use of natural building materials for constructing mod-ern buildings. This paper considers earth (inorganic) and strawbale (organic) natural materials and their respective methodologies to identify potential for application in mainstream construction in the United Kingdom. It identifies current barriers for their wider uptake, along with developments necessary to enhance opportunities for greater use in new-build construction.

This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the techniques available for the seismic retrofitting of adobe buildings. It analyzes these techniques’ viability from a structural engineering standpoint, and evaluates their suitability in the context of historic preservation. Analysis was based on an exhaustive review of studies addressing retrofitting techniques of earthen structures, as well as consultation with field experts. The guiding principles of conservation relating to the structural reinforcement of monuments were taken into account.

Traditional techniques that enhance the stability of the building, such as wooden ring beams, wooden ties interconnecting parallel walls, corner keys and the addition of buttresses were found to be effective solutions since they employ compatible and low-cost materials such as earth and wood. When these techniques prove insufficient, minimally invasive measures such as introducing a plywood diaphragm, horizontal steel rods, a geomesh covered with mud rendering or a strapping system can be appropriate.

The use of earth as a building material offers many advantages in terms of sustainability: it is a natural material, most probably non-toxic and ecological, with low energy intensity, low carbon emissions and recyclable. Earth-based mortars are regaining its place as building materials for plastering, rendering and repair of earthen walls, not only in the sustainable context but also in terms of efficiency. However, the scientific knowledge about these mortars is still scarce. In particular, the opinions regarding the effects of adding fibers or mineral binders as stabilizers, to improve the performance of the mortar, are contradictory. The study presented in this article is intended to advance the knowledge about the effects of adding low amounts of hemp fibers, hydrated air lime, hydraulic lime, natural cement and Portland cement on the mechanical (flexural and compressive strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity), physical (shrinkage, thermal conductivity, porosity) and hydric (water absorption under low pressure, capillary water absorption, drying) characteristics of mortars formulated with different earth materials. Results show that the addition of the fibers decreases the thermal conductivity of the mortars, which is remarkably good for the mortars made from clayey soil, and slowers the drying of the mortars. They also show that adding the mineral binders will negatively affect the hydric behaviour of the mortars: the water absorption coefficient increases and the drying become slower as the percentage of binder increases. In addition, the use of these binders has no significant effect on the flexural and compressive strength of the mortar.

Building Simply " is a topic is typically addressed through design-build studios utilizing low-cost materials to produce a rudimentary, one-off design. Yet, too rarely does the unity of material and its construction process lead to the development of a viable model for a self-sustainable building culture. In light of this situation, the honorary professorship of Anna Heringer and Martin Rauch at the Swiss Federal Technical Institute (ETH) Zurich developed two housing prototypes intended to serve as models of material and process-aware construction. Emphasizing earthen construction as a catalyst for resourceful, low-impact, and self-empowering development, their studio entitled " Earthen " , studied straightforward, practical solutions to improve current living standards in Mdabulo, a rural community in the highlands of Tanzania. In the months that followed, ETH students took part in the construction of the two houses, highlighting the realities and possibilities of fostering a building culture and what it means to build simply.

This paper offers a brief enumeration and discussion of the strikingly different environments that are generated as consequences of the diverse architectural practices, techniques and methods carried out by Established (or Cement or Modern) Construction and Earthen Construction. Because of the nature of the topic the largest part of the chapter is covered by thematic comparisons; the last part comprises rather general considerations of important issues related to lifestyle.

This chapter offers a wide overview of the nascent Earthen Construction market; A Marketing approach to the entire sector is hereby discussed, involving methods to pursue, researches to undertake, efforts to carry out, pitfalls to avoid, and ways to deal with all major issues presently related to this market. Basic Marketing tools like SWOT analysis and PEST analysis serve to better document the various market (non-technical) aspects of Earthen Construction.

Unlike other common contemporary construction materials such as concrete, mortars, or fired clay bricks, which are widely supported by international standards and regulations, building with rammed earth is barely regulated. Furthermore, its quality control is usually problematic, which regularly encourages the rejection of this technique. In the literature, many authors have suggested ways to safely build a rammed earth wall, but only a few of them have delved into its quality control before and during the construction process. This paper introduces a preliminary methodology and establishes unified criteria, based in a statistical analysis, for both the production and the quality control of this constructive technique in cases dealing with both samples and walls.

Highlights  Rammed earth wall may suffer degradation with natural ageing and can be repaired with earth-based mortars  Environmental performances of earthen mortars are substantially better than cementitious mortars but their physical properties are not well known  The influence of additions of binders and hemp fibers in earth mortars is assessed  The additions of the hemp fibers decreases thermal conductivity and drying capacity  The addition of the binders increases capillarity, decreases the drying and is not significant for mechanic properties.

Les plateaux d'Eure-et-Loir sont particulièrement réputés pour leur couverture limoneuse parfois épaisse. Celle-ci est soumise à des processus de pédogénèse et de remobilisations naturelles (érosion/accumulation) ou artificielles (pratiques culturales intensives). La combinaison de ces processus a des conséquences majeures sur la conservation des vestiges archéologiques. Elle complique la détection, la lecture et la compréhension des sites. Du fait de leur ancienneté, les occupations du Néolithique sont particulièrement soumises à ces contraintes. C'est particulièrement le cas pour la fin de cette période chronologique qui reste mal documentée dans ce secteur géographique. Il s'agit pour l'essentiel de nappes de mobiliers, généralement appelées « épandages ». La nature des occupations (fonction, temporalité) qu'elles reflètent reste mal élucidée. Le plus souvent, elles sont considérées comme des couches remaniées ou en position secondaire. Le site de Gas " Les Grands Noyers ", localisé à la transition des plateaux de Beauce et du Hurpoix, livre ce type de vestiges, perturbés par une occupation protohistorique, elle-même peu lisible. Une approche manuelle fine des niveaux de mobilier, relevés en trois dimensions, couplée à plusieurs phases de décapage et associée à une étude géoarchéologique (analyses de micromorphologie des sols) a permis de préciser la nature des processus pédo-sédimentaires, naturels ou anthropiques, responsables de leur formation. Ces nappes seraient liées ici à une construction en terre et bois au sol construit et entretenu. Les vestiges lithiques et céramiques ainsi que les datations au carbone 14 situeraient cet habitat au début du Néolithique final soit autour de 2900 Av. J.-C. Abstract : The Eure-et-Loire plateaux are particularly reputed for their often thick loamy cover. This has been subject to pedogenesis and remobilisation due to natural (erosion/ accumulation) or artificial (intensive agriculture) processes. The combination of these processes has major consequences for the preservation of archaeological remains. It complicates the detection, reading and understanding of the sites. Due to their age, Neolithic occupations are particularly subject to these constraints. This is especially the case for the later Neolithic which remains poorly known in the area. The evidence for this period is mostly limited to scatters of finds, generally termed " spreads ". The function and temporality of the occupations they represent is poorly understood. Most often, they are considered to be disturbed layers or to be in a secondary position. The site of Gas " Les Grands Noyers " , located on the transition from the Beauce to Hurpoix plateaux, contains these kinds of remains, disturbed by a protohistoric occupation, itself scarcely visible. An approach using careful hand-excavation of levels with artefacts, recorded in three dimensions, coupled with several phases of sediment removal and associated with a micromorphological study, provided detailed information on the natural or human pedo-sedimentary processes underlying their formation. It seems here that the spreads are related to earth and wood structures with a built and maintained floor. The lithic and ceramic artefacts, as well as the radiocarbon dates, suggest that the settlement belongs to the beginning of the final Neolithic, at around 2900 BC.

En Ecuador, muchas de las construcciones en tierra son patrimonio tangible de la arquitectura vernácula que se extiende por toda el área andina. La zona de estudio abarca la sierra central del país, construcciones rurales y periurbanas situadas entre los 2.950 m.s.n.m. hasta 6.310 m.s.n.m., en

The City of Phoenix grew from its beginnings in 1870 as an agricultural adobe village through the twenty-first century to one of the largest and fastest growing metropolitan areas in the United States. Phoenix, Arizona is the 5th largest city in the United States of America and is located in Maricopa County, Figure 1, with a population of 4.3 Million residents making the county the 4th highest populated in the United States. Phoenix was incorporated in 1881 after the first settlement in modern time in 1867.  Using data collected from the Maricopa County Assessor’s Office of almost 1.4 million buildings in Maricopa County, about 1900 are built with adobe.

In Chile, there exists a constructive culture in adobe that is the reflex of the incorporation of the seismic local reality to a technique also native and brought by the Hispanic conquerors. It has evolved through time, developing an effective response to seismic events, the element that has determinate the constructive development in the Chilean territory and over all the intelligence of vernacular architecture. Recognize the constructive intelligence of the vernacular architecture that can be read as rules through the Chilean territory is the base of the knowledge to face the adobe construction properly, as in heritage construction as in contemporary interventions. The base of the deterioration of the seismic constructive systems presents in the Chilean territory has been the ignorance and the lack of valorization on the technologies shown in the vernacular heritage. The built of an open, easy ant universal tool is the start of the production of an educative video that could show the ways of building with adobe in Chile and the possibilities in the reparation process and giving value this local technique.

Speaking about the "City of the orient" SUAKIN in the state of Sudan which can be presented as a sample of a Historical city built by Earthen construction which most of the existing buildings needs preservation, Suakin is the primary significance of this paper, where we should take into consideration of Earthen Architecture is a feasible, affordable, durable, cost-effective, environmentally friendly construction method which can be promoted as new architecture Life style for an Orient city which this study will re-purposing the function of each restorted building in a way to make it more modernized as today life style. After restoring this building, we can use the them as the following: Suakin is a port city on the Red sea coast of the Sudan state built between the 16 th and 20 th centuries under both the Ottoman and the Egyptian influence, Suakin is located nearly opposite Jeddah-Saudi Arabia and many of its architects were Hedjaz's, who emulated the Jeddah style. Suakin had two districts, Geif (alongside the coat) and the Gezira (the island) which is a flat oval-shaped island, about 750m long and less than 500m. Suakin as a city which can be presented as a new life style method, where its Earthen Architecture reflects a 500 years of architectural tradition identified Egyptian-Ottoman and Hijazi's Architecture and used in either primitive cultures since 1500 AD, the among all the important historical civilizations across African eastern coast. Examining historical paradigms (use of wood, stone, thatch and earth as architectural material) offers us therefore an insight into how we can re-employ the architectural know how in a way that is fully adapted to the particularities of each locality and habitat, while facilitating and improving the construction process thanks to modern technologies. Furthermore, Studying Old city of SUAKIN-Africa as an example of Earthen Architecture-New life style in project of restoration the entire city that have been carried out in different aspects and provides us with the most convincing argument as regards the need for an extensive use of Earthen Architecture-new life style as an environmentally friendly, sustainable and cost-efficient alternative.

La construcción sostenible es un área de la ingeniería civil muy amplia y con posibilidades de desarrollarse en Colombia dados los déficits de vivienda actuales, las técnicas constructivas ancestrales y/o populares, y la diversidad de materiales locales aprovechables con que cuenta el país, teniendo un mayor entorno de aplicación en las comunidades rurales. Esta ponencia propone una serie de acciones para implementar un programa nacional de construcción, restitución y mejoramiento de vivienda rural a partir de materiales y técnicas de construcción sostenible y asequible como madera, guadua, tierra, etc. Además, presenta un panorama de los avances y perspectivas de la construcción sostenible en el país, haciendo énfasis en la necesidad de profundizar la investigación e innovación en nuevos materiales y técnicas para activar y viabilizar este mercado, a través del mayor contratante (el estado), el constructor y finalmente, el usuario. Esto permitirá el goce de vivienda digna para las comunidades asentadas en zonas apartadas, la recuperación de las culturas constructivas ancestrales y comunitarias, así como la generación de dinámicas productivas alternativas para la población rural.

The prominent values of earth as a building material are especially attractive in our era of 'sustainable building' and make earth an appropriate material for answering the needs of the less affluent, offering them a sense of agency and a means to access shelter and ownership. The majority of literature around earthen architecture today highlights its benefits, which is a more than welcome initiative in this effort of regaining its place in contemporary construction. There exists, however, a lack of critical investigations of the complexities of the use of earthen material which is essential, in order to consider both its constructive aspects and its contradictions. This paper will contribute toward this critical understanding by demonstrating some contradictions of earthen material use in contemporary building systems through the analysis of three case studies. The first case study demonstrates how the Egyptian government in the mid-20th Century used a locally familiar material (mud bricks) to help pass a hostile housing policy. The second case study demonstrates how unfired clay—a material which also has sustainable potential when sourced and used locally—can be used to brand and market products at a global level, in ways that raise questions around the dubious character of 'sustainable building and development'. The third case study demonstrates how the zeal to please a growingly 'green' market, may lead to a superficial wrapping of buildings with earthen skins, merely offering an appearance of the sustainable. All three case studies are analysed through the concept of " mudwashing "-a term proposed in this paper drawing on A. Parr's concept of " greenwashing " , which refers to the " affective power of sustainability culture to camouflage otherwise unsustainable business practices ". By uncovering the complexities of these case studies, this paper aims to develop a more robust understanding of the potential of earth-use, in order to aid in reintroducing the material today in a more practical and sustainable way in contemporary society.

New Mexico is perhaps unique in the world. Reports indicate that adobe and other forms of
earthen construction suffer from a poor image in the minds of many people. In New Mexico the
opposite is true. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Pueblo Indians built cities of monolithic
adobe (cob) in New Mexico near Santa Fe around 1050. The Spanish brought the technique of
sun-baked bricks assembled with mortar. The two cultures adopted and adapted each others’
techniques.
In 1846, New Mexico became a territory of the United States. The US Army established adobe
forts including officers’ housing. The Territorial Government was established in Santa Fe in the
very buildings that had been used by the Spanish and Mexican governments. New governmental
buildings were built of adobe.
Today there is little new construction of governmental building using adobe although elements
of the style often remain. Interest in adobe resides in residential and some monumental
construction in a nearly reverential way. The wealthy and famous people build mansions of
adobe for all to admire.
Four distinct architectural styles can be discerned: the pueblo style of the Native Americans and
early Spanish, the territorial style brought by the US Army, the high-mountain style of the
Spanish, and the solaradobe style that began in the 1970’s. The high regard for adobe has
drawbacks. Adobe homes now have the image of being unaffordable for all but the rich. Nonadobe copies of all the styles abound and most are not well done.

Memoria para optar al título de Arquitecto:

En Chile la explotación del recurso minero ha generado una reducción de actividades intrínsecamente relacionadas a la historia y el patrimonio étnico de localidades que son fuente de explotación de recursos minerales.
La propuesta corresponde a una respuesta arquitectónica, programática, volumétrica y espacial que provee a la comunidad del Valle del Huasco de una red de fomento a las actividades tradicionales de la zona, a la vez que permite difundir el respeto hacia la identidad y el patrimonio local de las comunidades indígenas de la región.

It is common fact that earth structures have two weaknesses in addition to their quite many advantages. These weaknesses are their poor resistance to water and earthquake effects. This study has been conducted in order to determine the point achieved in earthquake resistance issues and how our standards may be developed. Data are accessed using literature survey method; three different earth construction techniques by “adobe blocks”, “rammed earth wall” and “compressed earth blocks” are studied under the main titles material properties, building structure and geometric form, which are effective in earthquake resistance. It is observed that the Turkish Standards contain adobe material and construction technique, describing only cement and straw as additives, and perpendicular cornered structures as building forms. However, studies indicate that buildings with circular form and/or chamfered corners are much more resistant to earthquake loads. In addition, according to mechanical resistance gypsum-stabilized adobe is more sufficient for use. The study states that timber should be preferred for supporting the basic structural system just as in the past and in the contemporary concept of sustainability. Within this context, the outcome is that the existing Turkish standards need some revisions. The conclusion part of the study puts the criteria and parameters that should be incorporated in the revisions.

The stabilization of the earth by plant-based fibers such as straw, date palm or
others makes adobe brick an anisotropic and highly heterogeneous composite
material. Adobe brick, obtained by mixing straw with soil and water, is currently
reaching interest thanks to its low environmental impact and its ability to provide a
comfortable indoor environment.
Possessing the advantages of a promising building material, the adobe brick is
getting an increasing attention. The present work aimed to model the effect of straw
inclusions on mechanical behavior of the composite material by a numerical
approach. A calculation using the finite element method was used to determine the
Young’s modulus. The numerical results concern a 2D finite element simulation of a
matrix with squared inclusions distributed randomly. The obtained results were in
line with those previously found by other authors.

Profesional y Gestión integral del Patrimonio Universidad de Alicante Año 2016 DAMA 1 2016 DOCUMENTOS DE ARQUEOLOGÍA Y PATRIMONIO HISTÓRICO DEL MÁSTER UNIVERSITARIO EN ARQUEOLOGÍA PROFESIONAL Y GESTIÓN INTEGRAL DEL PATRIMONIO DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE ALICANTE

It is common fact that earth structures have two weaknesses in addition to their quite many advantages. These weaknesses are their poor resistance to water and earthquake effects. This study has been conducted in order to determine the point achieved in earthquake resistance issues and how our standards may be developed. Data are accessed using literature survey method; three different earth construction techniques by “adobe blocks”, “rammed earth wall” and “compressed earth blocks” are studied under the main titles material properties, building structure and geometric form, which are effective in earthquake resistance. It is observed that the Turkish Standards contain adobe material and construction technique, describing only cement and straw as additives, and perpendicular cornered structures as building forms. However, studies indicate that buildings with circular form and/or chamfered corners are much more resistant to earthquake loads. In addition, according to mechanical resistance gypsum-stabilized adobe is more sufficient for use. The study states that timber should be preferred for supporting the basic structural system just as in the past and in the contemporary concept of sustainability. Within this context, the outcome is that the existing Turkish standards need some revisions. The conclusion part of the study puts the criteria and parameters that should be incorporated in the revisions.

Phoenix 5th largest US city with 4.3 million residents.  First modern settlement around 1867, mud, brush, sticks, canvas buildings.
Adobes primary buildings, flat roofs, small openings. Railroad in early 1900’s, brought in milled lumber, sheet metal, windows.
Floods of late 1800’s and early 1900 washed away many adobe buildings, adobes used to fill in potholes in city streets. Washington Ave. was called Adobe Ave because of all the adobe filling the potholes.
Fire limits existed because of available water wells to fight fires.  Early 1900’s adobe buildings were allowed outside the fire limits set by the city.
Remember adobes had wooden ramadas, canvas, and brush which added to the flammability, and wooden awnings and sidewalks in front.
1930’s brought in Works Progress Administration and the Phoenix Homestead area and builders using materials at hand.  Many of these adobes are actually collection items and are marked with a ceramic tile near the fireplace.
Still 20% of the houses in Phoenix Country Club are one and two story adobe houses.
Adobes in Phoenix look like typical ranch houses and mass residential housing in middle class and poorer neighborhoods. While in upper class neighborhoods two story adobes are clearly an upgrade.
Walls are thicker for Phoenix with 16” to 18” walls.  Bond beams in 1932 were added to the building code and steel rebar required in 1970’s.  Interesting note is 30 pound felt as a barrier between the foundation wall and the first course of adobe.  Stabilized adobe was added later as were Portland cement wall coverings on wire mesh, toothed in adjoining walls and soil tests for the making of adobes.  Adobes needed tests themselves for Modulus of rupture and strength.
1994 was the last year I could find of an adobe permitted to be built in the Jurisdiction of Phoenix.  2007 had the last adobe in a county island in Phoenix under the Maricopa Associated Governments Adobe Building Code.
For the last 5 years with my old adobe I have been unable to obtain a building permit for adobe housing without an engineer’s stamp.  I had a permit for an adobe fence which can still be obtained by a homeowner or contractor without an engineer’s stamp. Word on the street by contractors, realtors and engineers is that one cannot build an adobe in Phoenix.  I am still searching for the reasons why.  Some say slump block manufactures, some say the economic costs, and others the class issue, and it could be all of these reasons and more.
Two adobe yards exist in the Phoenix Metropolitan area and Scottsdale had a new adobe in the last year.
I encourage you to search your city and county for the number of adobes existing and being built so we can share this knowledge as we continue to build with the earth.
The complete side by side analysis of the Adobe Codes for Phoenix can be found on Academia.edu
Thank you

This paper discusses the environmental comfort of earth- building dwelling holistically: human body´s comfort, comfort of the soul, pleasure and well-being, culturally and spiritually. Issues involving human being´s comfort and the pleasure of being in a place have been the objective. It analyzes the dwelling and the earth (soil or building construction material) through bibliographic review of diverse areas where the comfort concept could be present (architecture, philosophy, history, medicine, biology, chemistry and religion). The paper was developed in 4 "dimensions" (natural / genetic; spatial; spiritual; and physiologic.), dealing the comfort concept widely and presenting its involvement with memory, perception, physiology, spatiality and physical and psychological comfort. Earth-made dwelling can provide more than comfort neutrality ("not discomfort"). It provides pleasure, well-being, food and console of spirit to its residents, expansion and expression of their body and culture, and expansion of their emotions and feelings, evoking human senses and feelings.

Este artigo propõe a discussão do conforto ambiental na habitação edificada com terra, de maneira holística, tratando dos aspectos do corpo físico e mental, abordando questões subjetivas que envolvem o ser humano e o prazer de estar em um lugar. Analisa habitação e terra através da revisão bibliográfica de diversas áreas nas quais o conceito de conforto esteja presente (arquitetura, filosofia, história, medicina, biologia, química e psicologia). O artigo foi desenvolvido em quatro "dimensões" (natural / genética; espacial; psicológica e fisiológica), tratando o conceito de conforto amplamente e apresentando seu envolvimento com memória, percepção, fisiologia, espacialidade e aspectos físico e psicológico. A habitação construída com terra pode proporcionar mais do que a neutralidade ("não desconforto") exigida pelas normas: proporciona aos moradores prazer, bem-estar, expressão de seu corpo e cultura, além da expansão de suas emoções e sentimentos, evocando sentidos e sentimentos humanos e emocionando.

The Alto Douro Wine Region, located in the northeast of Portugal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, presents an abundant vernacular building heritage. This building technology is based on a timber framed structure lled with a composite earth-based material. A lack of scienti c studies related to this technology is evident, furthermore, principally in rural areas, this traditional building stock is highly deteriorated and damaged because of the rareness of conservation and strengthening works, which is partly related to the non-engineered character of this technology and to the knowledge loosed on that technique. Those aspects motivated the writing of this paper, whose main purpose is the physical and chemical characterization of the earth-based material applied in the tabique buildings of that region through eld tests. Consequently, experimental work was conducted and the results obtained allowed, among others, the proposal of a series of adequate eld tests. At our knowledge, this is the rst time eld tests are undertaken for tabique technology. This information will provide the means to assess the suitability of a given earthbased material with regards to this technology. The knowledge from this study could also be very useful for the development of future normative documents and as a reference for architects and engineers that work with this technology to guide and regulate future conservation, rehabilitation or construction processes helping to preserve this important legacy.

Le mégalithisme des Pyrénées nord-occidentales Malgré une reconnaissance remontant à la deuxième moitié du xix e siècle (Raymond, 1866 par exemple) et un intérêt régulier (Barandiaran, 1953 ; Blot, 1993 ; colloque de la Société d'anthropologie du Sud-Ouest en 1992...), il faut bien reconnaître qu'il est actuellement bien difficile de dresser un portrait précis du phénomène mégalithique des Pyrénées nord-occidentales. Le regain d'intérêt et surtout les pistes ouvertes par les études actuelles, prônant entre autres des approches prenant en compte les architectures dans leur intégralité ainsi que leur implantation dans le territoire, ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives de recherche.

EnglishSantiago Poniente is a quarter in Santiago City, the Chilean capital, born after the Chilean Independence and the establishment of the Republic (1823), currently it represents one of the few historical areas of the center of the capital, despite not being the oldest part, nor the center of Spanish Colonial foundation Its architecture is representative of the transition from the Colonial period to "modernity" in Chile, where the colonial building culture evolves and blends with the eclectic reinterpretation of the architectural imported styles, adapted to local realities, as a result of the liberal ideas brought by the intellectuals who came to live in this part of tthe city. With the migration of people to other parts of the city from the 30s of the XX century, Santiago Poniente began to suffer a progressive process of decline, housing the poorest social classes, who began to subdivide buildings and could not afford the proper maintenance that their homes merited; b...