Crowd Psychology

Dieser Aufsatz liest das während des Ersten Weltkriegs begonnene Lustspiel-Fragment Timon der Redner als einen Versuch HofmannsthaIs, ausgehend von der Geld-thematik und Figurentypik bei Shakespeare zu einer kritischen Inszenierung des mo-dernen Massenstaates und dessen Sozialdynamiken zu gelangen. Hierbei stützte er sich auf sozialpsychologische Studien Sigmund Freuds und Gustave Le Bons sowie auf Max Webers Herrschaftssoziologie. Als Wirkungsabsicht hinter dieser Ironisie-rung des allegorisierten Masse-Führermodells zeichnet sich die Re-Etablierung von legitimen Autoritätsstrukturen im Faszinosum der Dichtung ab, welche das Politi-sche authentisch gestaltet. This survey interprets Hofmannsthal's fragmented adaptation of Shakespeare's Timon of Athens as a comedy on the masses of modernity. Combining contemporary theories of the crowd (Freud, Le Bon, Weber) with the staging of the political and economic sphere in Shakespeare's works, HofmannsthaI tried to elaborate critical poetics of the modern state and its most urgent dangers. His ironical dramatization of brute anarchy versus corrupted aristocracy tended to re-establish a consciousness of true authority-which should be found in literature. »Hofmannsthai sehnt sich nach dem extensiven, vielseitigen und polyphonen Leben Shakespeares, des alten englischen Dramas.« (Georg Lukacs, 1911). »Nie in meinem ganzen Leben hat das productive Element diesen Raum ein-genommen, von unten her mit solcher Kraft sich nach oben gedrängt, meine bürgerliche Lebensführung so erschwert und gewissermaßen ironisiert wie in diesen Jahren seit 1916. Das was nach oben will, sind Massen, die ich natürlich seit weit längerer Zeit in mir trage.« (HofmannsthaI an Hermann Bahr, 15.VI. 1918).1 Timon der Redner gehört zu den vergleichsweise wenig beachteten Arbeiten Hugo von Hofmannsthals. 2 Aus den überlieferten Materialien des schon 1975 1

Die Zeitschrift wird von der Forschungsstelle Kultur-und Kollektivwissenschaft herausgegeben oder in ihrem Auftrag von wechselnden Gastherausgebern betreut. Die Forschungsstelle ist eine wissenschaftliche Einrichtung an der Fakultät für Sprach-, Literatur-und Kulturwissenschaften der Universität Regensburg. Die Forschungsstelle widmet sich der Förderung der Kollektivwissenschaft und wird von der Universität und der Hansen-Stiftung finanziert. Die Forschungsstelle besteht aus einer Geschäftsführung und fünf Mitgliedern, die als wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Zeischrift fungieren.

This paper situates contemporary social scientific studies of crowd events and crowd behaviour in their historical and ideological context. The original ‘crowd science’ developed from definitions of ‘social problems’ that emerged in the late nineteenth century – in particular the concerns among the French
establishment about the threat of the ‘mass’ to ‘civilization’. This, and the surrounding intellectual context, encouraged the development of theoretical models of the crowd characterized by forms of reductionism and irrationalism. Early accounts of ‘mass panic’ similarly suggested that collective behaviour was irrational because it was governed by primitive bio-psychological processes. After describing these early approaches to the crowd, the paper outlines how changes in the late twentieth century, whereby those writing about the crowd were no longer necessarily ‘outside’ crowd events, have coincided with the development of accounts of the crowd which draw upon contemporary social scientific concepts (such as social norms, social identities, and cognition) and which assume that
crowds are not alien to meaningful social and political participation, but integral to it.

This book challenges the widespread view of Kierkegaard's idiosyncratic and predominantly religious position on mimesis. Taking mimesis as a crucial conceptual point of reference in reading Kierkegaard, this book offers a nuanced understanding of the relation between aesthetics and religion in his thought. Kaftanski shows how Kierkegaard's dialectical-existential reading of mimesis interlaces aesthetic and religious themes, including the familiar core concepts of imitation, repetition, and admiration as well as the newly arisen notions of affectivity, contagion, and crowd behavior. Kierkegaard's enduring relevance to the malaises of our own day is rmly established by his classic concern for the meaning of human life informed by re ective meditation on the mimetic origins of the contemporary age. Kierkegaard, Mimesis, and Modernity will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working on Kierkegaard, Continental philosophy, the history of aesthetics, and critical and religious studies.

The paper critically reconstructs the crowd psychological heritage in phenomenological and social science emotion research. It shows how the founding figures of phenomenology and sociology uncritically adopted Le Bon's crowd psychological imagery as well as what I suggest calling the disease model of emotion transfer. Against this background, it can be examined how Le Bon's understanding of emotional contagion as an automatic, involuntary, and uncontrollable mechanism has remained a dominant force in emotion research until today. However, a closer look at phenomenological descriptions and empirical investigations of how emotion's spread shows that there is little evidence supporting Le Bon's crowd psychological framework. Thus, I suggest that the disease model should be dismissed in favor of more plausible approaches to interpersonal emotion dynamics.

Metropolises are common contexts of unevenness and disproportions. In architectural and social theory, writings on the ‘great cities’ introduce a similar imbalance in the definition of the metropolitan psychological condition. The human body, naturally aroused by the subtlest sound or movement, is forced to a blasé mind-set in the midst of the ever-shifting metropolis. This resistance against over stimulation and involuntary body proximity is achieved through intellectual distance; a mental interval between the individual and the crowd, between the individual and the metropolis and between the individual and his own subjectivity. Beyond the blasé is the alienated mind, studied with Georg Simmel’s highly synchronized money metropolis. The research then looks at three modern metropolises, Paris, Berlin and New York through products of their civilization process, namely boulevards, crowds, monuments, exhibitions, neurasthenia, electricity, skyscrapers, or amusements. One finds metropolitan vertigo in instances of subjective asynchronism with the rational modern metropolis.

Scipio Sighele, _The Criminal Crowd And Other Writings on Mass Society_
Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by Nicoletta Pireddu
Translated by Nicoletta Pireddu and Andrew Robbins
Foreword by Tom Huhn

The so-called “age of crowds” still evokes primarily the late nineteenth-century French context, with the fearful popular uprising leading to the Paris Commune, the numerous disturbing images of masses in novels by Balzac, Sue, Maupassant, Zola, Huysmans, and Adam among others, and Gustave Le Bon’s renowned volume The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1895).
Yet, four years before Le Bon, Italian jurist, sociologist, cultural and literary critic Scipio Sighele (1868-1913) had published La folla delinquente. Saggio di psicologia collettiva [The Criminal Crowd. An Essay on Collective Psychology], to be followed by other pioneering explorations of group behavior and of the power of suggestion upon collective crime.
This volume offers the first English translation of Sighele’s seminal book and of excerpts from his subsequent works in the domains of sociology, psychology, law, politics, and literary criticism: La coppia criminale [The Criminal Couple], La delinquenza settaria [Sectarian Delinquency]; L’intelligenza della folla [The Intelligence of the Crowd]; La donna nova [The New Woman]; Eva moderna [Modern Eve]; Letteratura tragica [Tragic Literature]; Nell’arte e nella scienza [In Art and in Science]. An extensive introduction by Nicoletta Pireddu contextualizes Sighele’s overall contribution as a public intellectual negotiating between tradition and modernity in the European fin de siècle, able to grasp both the destructive and the constructive power of masses.
This collection draws the multifaceted portrait of a provocative and problematic thinker who, by participating in crucial international debates, brings to post-unification Italy a new outlook on paramount issues like the role of urbanization in the development of criminality, the unstable borders between individual and collective accountability in mass society, the legal and ideological constraints in the education and emancipation of women, the social and institutional challenges to the care and upbringing of children, and the responsibility of literary representation in the relationship between aesthetic standards and ethical norms.

The development of an artificial agent-driven rescue robot capable of interacting naturally with humans under urban emergency conditions brings out a number of issues that need to be addressed: among these are (i) providing a full description and understanding of the user's perspective, and thus creating a reliable and functional user model, (ii) addressing the question of appearance and design, including the interface to be implemented, and (iii) evaluating the reliability and credibility of such a robot under conditions of panic, both in terms of group and personal panic reactions to stressful, extreme conditions. This article addresses these topics with a set of suggestions for future research in the field. In particular, we propose a research agenda focused on the appearance of the humanoid agent, and its trustworthiness under circumstances of panic in emergency situations, together with suggestions for experiments aimed at informing a user model of crowd and individual behaviour in emergency situations.

Özet
Toplumsal olaylarda güvenlik kuvvetlerinin kalabalığa karşı kullandıkları yöntem ve liderlik özellikleri ne kadar demokratik yönetildiklerine ilişkin ipuçları vermektedir. Bu çalışmada toplumların, yönetici ve liderlerin sahip olması gereken liderlik özellikleri ile diğer amir memur tüm görevli personelin sorumluluğu boyutunda göstermesi gereken liderlik özellikleri incelenmiştir.

ALINTILAMA ÖNERİSİ

Baycan, C. ve Yazılıtaş, A. (2013), Toplumsal Olay Yönetiminde Lider ve Liderlik, Buçak, M.; Dağlar, M.; Doğan, E. ve Harmancı, F. M. (Ed.), "Güvenlik Sektöründe Operasyonel Yöneticilik," içinde (s.599-612). Nobel Yayınevi, ISBN:978-605-4619-15-3

BİR BÖLÜMÜ BURADA YER ALAN KİTABIN TAMAMINA AŞAĞIDAKİ LİNKLERDEN ULAŞABİLİRSİNİZ.
https://www.academia.edu/14613321/G%C3%BCvenlik_Sekt%C3%B6r%C3%BCnde_Operasyonel_Y%C3%B6neticilik_tam_metin_
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343587444_GUVENLIK_SEKTORUNDE_OPERASYONEL_YONETICILIK

Despite sustained scholarly interest in the politics of modernism, astonishingly little attention has been paid to its relationship to Conservatism. Yet modernist writing was imbricated with Tory rhetoric and ideology from when it emerged in the Edwardian era. By investigating the many intersections between Anglophone modernism and Tory politics, Conservative Modernists offers new ways to read major figures such as T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, T. E. Hulme, and Ford Madox Ford. It also highlights the contribution to modernism of lesser-known writers, including Edward Storer, J. M. Kennedy, and A. M. Ludovici. These are the figures to whom it most frequently returns, but, cutting through disciplinary delineations, the book simultaneously reveals the input to modernism of a broad range of political writers, philosophers, art historians, and crowd psychologists: from Pascal, Burke, and Disraeli, to Nietzsche, Le Bon, Wallas, Worringer, Ribot, Bergson, and Scheler.


Read more at http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/literature/english-literature-1900-1945/conservative-modernists-literature-and-tory-politics-britain-19001920#kfO4Ca1gbgl8qDOh.99

The theory of behavioral economics examines the behavior of individuals in markets in order to examine, explain and predict individual behavior. The psychology of behavior has evolved in order to explain the impact of emotions and most common cognitive errors in the decision-making process of individuals. Psychological and sociological aspects, which can be explained by a qualitative case study, are used to understand their behavior. In this paper we shall analyse the rationality of management behavior from the Behavioral Economy perspective through a plural case study. The conclusions drawn from our research show that non-economic factors, such as overconfidence, arrogance, greed and optimism significantly contribute to the management buyout decision.

The multitude’s two bodies. Back to a key concept of Machiavellian criticism

This article focuses on the «multitude», a key term today in Machiavelli’s operaistic and populist interpretations. Through the study of the lexicon of authors belonging to the Aristotelian and Thomistic tradition, this article highlights the substantial ambiguity of this term and collective subject. The analysis that Machiavelli devotes in particular to the multitude as a «loose» component of the political body, reveals
significant analogies with the contemporary reflection of Pietro Pomponazzi (De incantationibus). From a social science history perspective, the hypothesis developed is that the discovery of the psychic dimension of the multitude at the beginning of the 16th century constitutes an epistemic turning point that makes it possible to rethink
the chronology of the crowd as an object of study and government.

Este artículo se centra en la “multitud”, un término clave hoy en día en las interpretaciones operaístas y populistas de Maquiavelo. A través del estudio del léxico de autores pertenecientes a la tradición aristotélica y tomista, este artículo pone de relieve la sustancial ambigüedad de este término y sujeto político. El análisis que Maquiavelo dedica en particular a la multitud como componente “suelta” del cuerpo político, revela analogías significativas con la reflexión contemporánea de Pietro Pomponazzi (De incantationibus). Desde una perspectiva de historia de las ciencias sociales la hipótesis desarrollada es que el descubrimiento de la dimensión psíquica de la multitud a principios del siglo XVI constituye un punto de inflexión epistémico que permite repensar la cronología de la multitud como objeto de estudio y de gobierno

Collective human behaviour such as manifesting itself in crowd behaviour is complex and need to be studied to gain insight into group behaviour. The aim of this study is to provide a general orientation to crowd psychology as a basis for crowd control within the South African National Defence Force. This study starts with the clarification of concepts relevant to crowd psychology. This is followed by an introductory discussion to collective behaviour and the dynamics of crowds, with specific reference to types of crowds, leadership in crowds, crowd dynamics, the social political context of crowds and the physical context of crowd behaviour. Furthermore, crowd management is discussed by firstly referring to the tactics used by crowds, then focusing on the individual, followed by a framework that military commanders can use in negotiations, the principles of crowd control and, finally a brief reference to training in crowd control.

Nach dem Ende des hethitischen Großreiches um 1200 v. Chr. bildet sich im syro-anatolischen Raum ein Netzwerk von florierenden Stadtstaaten. In den Stadtgefügen dieser Zentren nehmen neu angelegten, breiten Platzanlagen eine wichtige Rolle ein. Durch monumentale Tore erreichbar und mit Bildwerke in eindrucksvoller Weise gestaltet, die neuen Plätze bilden das zeremonielle Zentrum der Stadt. Sie sind nicht einfach frei gelassenen Fläche, sondern komplex konstruierten Außenräume. Die These dieses Beitrages ist, dass die syro-hethitischen Plätze als theatralischen Räumen für breitangelegten Festen für den gesamten Stadtbevölkerung konzipiert wurden. Dabei waren die zahlreiche Bildwerke, zum Teil aktiv in Performanzen eingebettet, einen zentralen Element der choreographische Gestaltung.

The crowd always plays a major role in the process of managing social reality. In the framework of mass-elite relations, the politicized crowd has a chance to be a leading factor in the changing social reality. But is the crowd a real factor? In its life cycle, the crowd forms a collective mind, based on the popular mind, and specific aims which are the endpoint of the crowd’s existence. According to the French psychologist Gustave Le Bon the crowd is only the instrument in the process of changing social reality, ruled by separate elite groups. The significant role of the crowd is not to be a factor, because a factor of the power is the ruling class. The crowd is an important instrument for the transition of political power from one elite group to another elite group.

This chapter addresses crowd psychology and breakdown theories within the field of social movement research. Paradigm shifts, in particular the debate between collective behavior and collective action approaches, are exemplified by the American TV series “The Walking Dead”. The interpretation of the series attempts to discuss the issue of the unreasonable and destructive nature of the crowd versus its ability to engage in collective action (instead of mere behavior). Eventually, the boundaries between ‘normal’ social movement politics and ‘abnormal’ crowd action seem to be not that clear-cut anymore.

The Shanghai World Expo attracted over 73 million visitors from May to October 2010 making it the most popular international exhibition in history. Aside from its many spectacular features, the Shanghai World Expo also became famous for its waiting lines, averaging over 4 hours for the most popular pavilions. This paper proposes an examination of those slow, too slow, human gatherings. From classical crowd psychology to the recent political theorizing of multitudes, the bulk of reflections carried forward on crowd phenomena has mainly paid attention to the (hyper)active, noisy, protesting crowds. In this article, I will use the example of these exceptional queues holding many thousands of longing visitors on the site of the 2010 World Expo in order to assert the need for an examination of the stagnant, inactive and at times bored crowd. Another set of actants come into play: instead of riot control forces, molotov cocktails, gas masks, barricades and demonstrators, we have security guards, hats, umbrellas, water bottles, guardrails, watches, VIP passes, and customers.

“Yığın psikolojisi” kavramı, 19. yüzyılın sonlarında Avrupa’da ortaya çıkan ve bireyin yığın içinde farklı şekilde düşünüp hareket ettiğini savunan bir teorik bakış açısına işaret eder . Yığın psikolojisini irdeleyen eserler genellikle “yığınlar”ı oldukça geniş bir çerçevede, herhangi bir sebeple bir araya gelmiş, farklı özelliklere, kültürlere ve statülere sahip insanların oluşturduğu kalabalıklar -homojen veya heterojen gruplar- olarak ele alır. Yığın kuramcıları yaşadıkları dönemin pozitivist yaklaşımından ve yeni gelişen bilim dalları olan Darvinist zooloji, medikal bilim, ırk antropolojisi ve hipnotizma teorilerinden etkilenir . Yığınlara ilişkin görüşleriyle öne çıkan isimleri kısaca sıralamak gerekirse, Hippolyte Taine (1876), Scipio Sighele (La folla delinquente, 1891), Gabriel Tarde (Les lois de l'imitation, 1901), 1887 yılındaki “Kolektif Suç” (Del delitto collettivo) kitabıyla G.A. Pugliese ve 1896 tarihli “Kitleler Psikolojisi” (Psychologie des Foules) adlı kitabıyla Gustave Le Bon’dur. 1890larda yazılarını kaleme alan bu İtalyan ve Fransız teorisyenler, yığın içindeki bireyi irrasyonel davranan, suç işlemeye meyilli ve telkine yatkın kişiler olarak tanımlamaktadır.

Elinizdeki yazıda, sokaktaki kalabalıkların davranışlarını gözlemleyen çalışmalar üzerine bir tartışma yürütülecektir. Gustav Le Bon’un özelinde 19.yy. sonlarında ortaya çıkan yığın kuramcılarına ve Sigmund Freud’un görüşlerine daha çok eğilerek, sağdan sola düşünce çevrelerinde kalabalık gruplara ve kitlelere yönelik bakışın nereye evrildiğine dair kısa bir özet sunulacaktır. (Hukuk Defterleri Dergisi, Sayı 33-Eylül/Ekim 2021)

In this paper, we examine the changes in motivation factors in crowdsourced policymaking. By drawing on longitudinal data from a crowdsourced law reform, we show that people participated because they wanted to improve the law, learn, and solve problems. When crowdsourcing reached a saturation point, the motivation factors weakened and the crowd disengaged. Learning was the only factor that did not weaken. The participants learned while interacting with others, and the more actively the participants commented, the more likely they stayed engaged. Crowdsourced policymaking should thus be designed to support both epistemic and interactive aspects. While the crowd's motives were rooted in self-interest, their knowledge perspective showed common-good orientation, implying that rather than being dichotomous, motivation factors move on a continuum. The design of crowdsourced policymaking should support the dynamic nature of the process and the motivation factors driving it.

With each paradigm shift people and organisations need to adapt to a radically changed world. The world we know is changing rapidly and is shifting from a consumer to a creator economy. In this third industrial revolution consumers do not only consume but also produce products and services tailored to their individual requirements. This is facilitated mainly through people’s access to open digital networks, in which everyone can express their wishes. Within this context, organisations have difficulties finding, identifying and accepting new ideas.
Crowdsourcing has proved to be aligned with this new condition because it is goal oriented and it is compatible with the prevailing top-down, traditional management structures. It allows companies to tap into the creative and collective mind of the masses whilst still allowing people to fulfil their participatory role.

According to findings in the field of environmental psychology, the architectural and social working environment have a significant impact on overall physical and psychological wellbeing and work performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between architectural and social working conditions, psychological features, and work performance. The 5-year, risk-adjusted (Sharpe) investment performance of 40 Finnish professional fund managers was compared with the characteristics of their work environment and the psychological features of stress tolerance, complex problem solving and risk attitude. The results are in line with earlier findings that open-plan offices have negative consequences on the performance of cognitively demanding tasks. The number of people in the immediate vicinity (the same room and department) had the strongest negative effect on performance, especially because of decreased stress tolerance. These results should be considered preliminary because of the small sample size; further verification using a larger sample is needed.

The fatal August 9, 2014, officer-involved shooting of a Black teenager in Ferguson, Missouri, sparked a series of local protests that culminated in a national social movement: Black Lives Matter. In this study, through a minute-by-minute analysis of crowd dynamics, I find that the eventual social movement strategy emerged from spontaneous acts of anger in protest crowds within the first 48 hours of the shooting. This finding is surprising in light of social movement scholarship, in which strategy is thought to follow from rationality and decision making within formal organizations, not emotionality and spontaneous action within informal crowds. By coupling a historical analysis of protest and policing practices with a comparison of prominent theories of crowds, emotion, and strategy, I theorize how strategy can emerge from spontaneous acts of anger as part of a distributed sensemaking process in crowds, rather than conflating strategy with rationality and deliberate planning in org...

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Özet
Spor birçok insanın hayatında önemli bir yere sahiptir. İnsanların spordan beklentileri ise kişiye göre farklılık göstermektedir. Bu beklentinin gereğinden fazla olması durumunda, sporda şiddet ve saldırganlık olayları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışma, sportif organizasyonlarda meydana gelebilen bu tür güvenlik sorunlarını ve Türkiye'de kurulmaya çalışılan sporda güvenlik sistemini açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. Bu kapsamda, bu alandaki kavramsal çerçeve, sporun taraflarına verilen görev, yetki ve sorumluluklar ve sportif organizasyonlardaki güvenlik stratejileri anlatılmıştır. Ayrıca bu çalışmada, sporda şiddet ve saldırganlığı önleme adına 2011 yılında kabul edilerek yayımlanan kanunda, spor güvenliği ile ilgili tüm taraflara görev, yetki ve sorumluluk verildiği, sporda söz konusu güvenliğin sağlanması için bu tarafları içine alan çok kurumlu bir yaklaşıma ihtiyaç duyulduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.

ALINTILAMA ÖNERİSİ
Güçlü, M., Arıkan, Y. ; Şanlı, S. ve Mil, H.İ. (2014), Sportif Organizasyonlarda Güvenlik Stratejileri, Harmancı, F. M; Gözübenli, M. ve Zengin, C. (Ed.),"Güvenlik Sektöründe Temel Stratejiler" içinde (s.177-206). Nobel Yayınevi, ISBN:978-605-133-960-3


BİR BÖLÜMÜ BURADA YER ALAN KİTABIN TAMAMINA AŞAĞIDAKİ LİNKLERDENULAŞABİLİRSİNİZ
https://www.academia.edu/43834170/G%C3%BCvenlik_Sekt%C3%B6r%C3%BCnde_Temel_Stratejiler
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294836329_Guvenlik_Sektorunde_Temel_Stratejiler

This article offers a new reading of Gustave Le Bon's thought, in particular regarding his conceptions of "crowd", "race" and "people". This paper tries to show the inconsistencies in the vision of the "crowd" proposed by Le Bon's in his books Lois psychologiques de l'évolution des peuples (1894) and Psychologie des foules (1895). In fact, until 1894 Le Bon excluded that it was possible to arrest the process of degen-eration of Latin races, and moreover he used the words "crowd", "people" and "race" as substantially equivalent. On the contrary, in Psychologie des foules, he not only distinguished between "crowd", "people" and "race", but he also believed that it was possible to govern the masses by psychological manipulation. In order to carry out this radical revision, and to present himself as a Machiavelli of the "age des foules", Le Bon must however modify some important points of his former conception of the psychology of people. Erigendo mattone dopo mattone la monumentale saga dei Rougon-Mac-quart, Emile Zola non si propose semplicemente di dipingere un grande affresco della vita durante il Secondo Impero, ma cercò soprattutto di for-nire una sorta di illustrazione scientifica del processo di decadenza della Francia. Modificando il suo progetto originario, Zola allargò infatti pro-gressivamente la prospettiva della sua analisi e trasformò il ciclo in un'inda-gine sulle radici malessere esploso in modo clamoroso con la sconfitta nella guerra contro la Prussia. La disfatta militare e la tragedia della Comune suggerirono così al romanziere l'idea che la storia della famiglia che aveva progettato dovesse anche registrare l'evoluzione delle patologie del corpo sociale, con il ricorso a quelle scoperte medico-scientifiche che neppure gli artisti potevano più ignorare nella loro attività. Dopo avere ritratto la

Family Resemblances: Charisma and Hypnosis as Interactive Relationships

In juxtaposing state and non-state theories, the social psychologist Theodore Sarbin distinguished between scholars for whom hypnosis was akin to „happenings“ and scholars for whom hypnosis resembled „doings“. In a similar vein, work on Hitler’s „charisma“ has relied on two ideal-typical approaches: one position highlights Hitler’s charismatic abilities or the construction of his „charisma“ via propaganda; the other position holds that the expectations
of Hitler’s supporters produced his „charisma“. In the first case („seeing is believing“), Hitler dominated the relationship, in the second („believing is seeing“) Germans projected their hopes and fantasies onto an otherwise non-descript figure. Upon examining both interpretations,
the essay suggests that interactionist perspectives from within the field of hypnosis could be applied to future studies of charisma.

Key words: Charisma, Hitler, hypnosis, social psychology, mass psychology