Body parts terms

METAPHORICAL EXTENSION
OF THE BODY-PART TERM ТЕМЕ ‘THE CROWN OF THE HEAD’
IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL LEXIS OF BULGARIAN LANGUAGE

As a metaphor describing landforms, the Bulgarian body-part term теме ‘the crown of the head’ is defined in some toponymic monographs with the dialect meanings of ‘the upper part of a crest (of a mountain)’, ‘part of a crest without vegetation’, ‘a mountain peak without vegetation’, in Macedonian as ‘the upper and flat part of a mountain, a flat summit of a mountain’. In explicative and etymology dictionaries none of those meanings is included. Though, the word is used as a landscape term in Bulgarian geographical discourse. In this paper is examined its usage and its current meaning as ‘the upper part of an eminence, especially when rounded or flat’ is defined.

This study illustrates how body-part vocabulary can contribute to linguistic gender construction. As a starting point, gendering mechanisms pertinent to body-part terms are delineated. On a theoretical plane, the study is indebted to poststructuralism and the notion of performativity in identity construction. Gender performativity via body-part vocabulary is explored by quantitatively and qualitatively analyzing material from a corpus of 2,000 advertisements from the two magazines, Cosmopolitan and Men's Health , yielding evidence on how two specifi c commercial versions of femininity and masculinity are discursively constructed. The fi ndings are highly ste-reotypical and therefore bear witness to body-part lexemes as traces of dominant gender discourses whose gender indexicality can be strategically exploited. The concluding discussion advances a theorization of linguistic identity construction in line with performativity, which departs from more traditional variationist approaches that see identity as a pre-discursive fact. (Language and gender, body, advertising discourse, body-part vocabulary, poststructuralism, performativity)

The essay focuses on the law that governs the human body and each of the products that can be created from it, in our globalized and technologically advanced society. The research compares the two different approaches of common law Courts on this matter – rigidly sticking to the doctrine based on proprietary interest or denying it at all – to offer a third possible view, built on the principle of human dignity.

A key question in categorisation is to what extent people categorise in the same way, or differently. This paper examines categorisation of the body in Punjabi, an Indo-European language spoken in Pakistan and India. First, an inventory of body part terms is presented, illustrating how Punjabi speakers segment and categorise the body. There are some noteworthy terms in the inventory, which illustrate categories in Punjabi that are unusual when compared to other languages presented in this volume. Second, Punjabi speakers’ conceptualisation of the relationship between body parts is explored. While some body part terms are viewed as being partonomically related, others are viewed as being in a locative relationship. It is suggested that there may be key ways in which languages differ in both the categorisation of the body into parts, and in how these parts are related to one another.

The Doctrine of Signatures is an old tradition, or a part of many traditions, that plants (as well as animals and minerals and perhaps even phenomena) have clues or signatures in their shapes and forms and actions and things that tell what their purposes are. It is an ancient European philosophy that held that plants bearing parts that resembled human body parts, animals, or other objects, had useful relevancy to those parts, animals or objects.  This makes all wonder if there were fruits and vegetables out there that are good for a certain part of human body and look like that body part as well. All will actually very surprised as to know this, Have you ever wondered to know that there are some foods that look like body parts. Here is the list of these foods that look like body parts they're good for and their benefits.

RÉSUMÉ Cet article fait partie d'un projet de recherche onomasiologique plus vaste, relatif aux termes désignant les parties du corps dans les langues iraniennes. L'auteure se con-centre ici sur les termes iraniens utilisés pour désigner les « gencives » ‒ aussi bien d'un point de vue notionnel que dialectologique. L'objectif est d'identifier les diffé-rents modèles cognitifs servant à désigner, dans les langues iraniennes, cette partie du corps, et d'établir l'aire de diffusion de mots simples ou d'ensembles de mots ap-parentés. L'auteure, d'une part, met ici en évidence de forts liens conceptuels entre les « gencives » et d'autres parties de l'intérieur de la bouche, et, d'autre part, suggère des modèles concurrents en termes de conceptualisation des éléments constituant ce cadre. Plusieurs étymologies iraniennes inédites sont également avancées. Mots-clés : lexique iranien, onomasiologie iranienne, termes des parties du corps iraniens, dialectologie iranienne, étymologies iraniennes ABSTRACT This paper, which is part of a broader onomasiological research project on the body part terms in Iranian, focuses on the Iranian terms for 'gums of the teeth' from both a motivational and a dialectological perspective. The goal is to individuate the different cognitive patterns of denomination for this body part in the Iranian languages and to establish the areal diffusion of single words or set of cognate words. The strong conceptual links between 'gums' and other parts belonging to the 'interior of the mouth' frame have been pointed out and competing models in conceptualising the elements making up that frame have also been suggested. Several new Iranian etymologies have been proposed.

Recent investigations of lexical semantics have demonstrated that there are sufficient examples to show how “etymological memory” inherited in lexical units determines their behavior in discourse to a certain extent. Therefore, clarifying the etymology of a given word or an idiom may have synchronic relevance. Such an approach, however, is not established in reverse direction – in using the synchronic data of the semantics for clarifying the etymological origin of the lexical units.
The aim of the present paper is to show that specific behavior of the lexical units, considered as a memory about their old motivational and onomasiological connections, along with the facts of the semantic parallelism, can shed light on their etymology. For this purpose, various hypotheses about the etymology of lexical units originating from PIE *deḱs- and denoting ‘the right side’ are evaluated, with a view to their synchronic semantic behavior.
Continuants of PIE *deḱs- that denote the right hand and are metaphorically extended to express the meaning ‘a person who helps a lot in someone else’s work’, together with those which have developed the meaning ‘dexterous, skillful’, can be regarded as instances of “etymological memory”. In addition, they can also be used to corroborate the hypothesis about the “physiological” motivation of items with the original sense ‘dexterous, skillful’.

The speakers of any language, even if at a small extent, concur to change the lexicon, which they have inherited as a whole. They are driven to do that by the necessity of naming something new or optimizing the onomasio-logical salience of already existing words, with a continuous changing in the way they express concepts. In order to avoid an overloading of the memory system, they are encouraged to recycle what is already existent in the lexicon. Through a small set of associative strategies, people relate a concept which has already been verbalized, with another one which has to be verbalized, producing lexical changes. Over time, however, the conceptual motivation which originated a particular designation becomes obscure to speakers. Large scale lexical surveys aid us in discovering recurrent schemas of designating a concept and recovering the relevant motivation for each designation, i.e. its 'iconym' (the Engl. term iconym has been currently utilized, e.g., by Joachim Grzega in his contributions to Onomasiology Online). In the general framework of cognitive onomasiology, I have been carrying out since the 1990s (at L'Orientale University, Naples) a project aimed at singling out the different 'pathways' through which natural physical concepts have been designated in the Iranian languages, in order to get insight into the way Iranian speaking peoples have perceived and conceptualized the physical environment which they concurred to change with their millenary activities. There are several types of associative relations on which lexical innovation relies on; one of these is similarity. The best known process based on similarity is that of metaphor, a process through which we speak of a concept in terms of another, and whose main lines are similarity of shape, similarity of spatial configuration , functional similarity, etc. Since human beings perceive their bodies as an interface between themselves and the surrounding world, the body part lexicon overlaps in many points with those of other conceptual domains; first of all, with the lexicon used to describe the environment.

Th ere are six different terms to refer to the 'face' in Buryat. The aim of the present paper is to clarify the difference in the usage of all these various terms: which one is used as a body part anatomically, which one is used mostly with metaphorical meanings, which one has a common meaning as appearance, or whether all of them are used equally in all categories. Th e terms are explored from etymological, semantic and morphological aspects.

NTROPOLÓGICA • Partes del cuerpo en el Códice Badiano • El léxico de las partes del cuerpo en el mexicano de la sierra noreste de Puebla • Léxico de las partes del cuerpo humano y algunas de sus extensiones semánticas en el bñabñu de Xochimilco y San Pablito Pabuatlán, Puebla • Las partes del cuerpo humano en amuzgo y su proyección semántica • Partes del cuerpo e incorporación nominal en expresiones emocionales mayas • Verbos con parte del cuerpo humano en el zapoteco de San Pablo Güilá • Las postales sugestivas de los años veinte (Colección Garza MárquezJ

The paper deals with the lexical set of cognate words to which Kurdish bažn, Persian bašn (generally recorded as 'stature') belong. These words are attested in Middle and Modern Western Iranian and are dialectologically connoted, being nowadays mostly found in Central dialects, Kurdish, Go-rani and Zazaki areas. By reviewing lexicographical and textual sources, the author picks out the semantic peculiarities of the bašn-forms. Starting from the notion of HEIGHT and through meta-phorical associations and shift of reference, bašn-forms have acquired different senses mostly involving the body domain ('body', 'waist' etc.) but with extensions to other domains. They have also undergone grammaticalization processes. As far as Western Middle Iranian is concerned, all the occurrences of Pahlavi bašn, Manichaean Parthian bašnān and Middle Persian bašnāy have been listed and discussed.

According to linguistic classification, Dagur is one of the archaic Mongolic languages. This language is unique, connected to Old Mongol language Khitan, and it has a close relationship with Manchu and Solon Ewenki—two Tungusic languages. The aim of this paper is to show the uniqueness of Dagur language through the representation of the names of body parts from etymological aspect. This paper tries to shed light on how body part names may play in the determination of Dagur language’s place among other Mongolic languages

This paper studies the conceptualizations of four Basque internal organs: bihotz 'heart', gibel 'liver', urdail 'stomach' and heste 'intestine', and their use in compound words and idiomatic expressions. In the first part, it examines the main conceptualizations associated with these internal body organs. It is argued that there are at least three different groups of meanings in these words: (i) internal reference: the word refers to a specific internal organ and to the processes related to it; (ii) external reference: the internal organ acts as a focalized centre and is used to metonymically describe a specific physical -internal and externalarea of the body, and (iii) emotions. The second part of this paper focuses on the cultural models and embodiment of some of the conceptualizations of these internal body parts, with special attention to those related to the group of emotions. It also discusses the main differences and similarities found in these internal organs and their conceptualizations in comparison with other Basque body parts, especially those relating to the mind and intellect. Data come from monolingual and bilingual dictionaries as well as from idiomatic dictionaries and compilations of idioms and proverbs.

Human body as a universal possession of human beings constitutes an interesting domain where questions regarding semantic categorisations might be sought cross-linguistically. In the following, we will attempt to describe the terms used to refer to the body in Hawrami, an Iranian language spoken in Paveh, a small township in the western province of Kermanshah near Iraqi borders. Due to the scarcity of written material, the inventory of 202 terms referring to external and internal body parts were obtained through a field work, which took a long time, and techniques, such as the " colouring task " , observation and recording the terms as used in ordinary conversations and informal interviews with native speakers. The semantic properties of the terms and the way they are related in a partonymy or locative relationship were also investigated. As far as universals of body part terms are concerned, while conforming to 'depth principle' concerning the number of levels each partonomy may consist of, Hawrami violates an important feature of this principle by not allowing transitive relations between different levels of partonomic hierarchies. In addition, Hawrami lacks a term for labelling the 'whole'.

The domain of the human body is an ideal focus for semantic typology, since the body is a physical universal and all languages have terms referring to its parts. Previous research on body part terms has depended on secondary sources (e.g. dictionaries), and has lacked sufficient detail or clarity for a thorough understanding of these terms’ semantics. The present special issue is the outcome of a collaborative project aimed at improving approaches to investigating the semantics of body part terms, by developing materials to elicit information that provides for cross-linguistic comparison. The articles in this volume are original fieldwork-based descriptions of terminology for parts of the body in ten languages. Also included are an elicitation guide and experimental protocol used in gathering data. The contributions provide inventories of body part terms in each language, with analysis of both intensional and extensional aspects of meaning, differences in morphological complexity, semantic relations among terms, and discussion of partonomic structure within the domain.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Este trabajo analiza las situaciones de contacto físico en los actos de habla directivos en los que se ven involucrados los términos χείρ y γόνυ. el análisis de estas situaciones en Homero permite, por una parte, establecer la relación entre los actos comunicativos verbales y la gestualidad con manos y rodillas y, por otra, precisar cómo y en qué condiciones se desarrolla este contacto físico. Por último, se determinará con qué actos de habla se vincula el contacto con cada término y cuál es su papel desde la perspectiva de la cortesía y la descortesía.

This paper examines physical contact on directive speech acts involving the terms χείρ and γόνυ. the analysis of these situations in the Homeric corpus allows not only to establish the relationship between communicative verbal acts and hand and knee gestures, but also to specify the conditions for this physical contact. Finally, we shall determine to which speech acts χείρ and γόνυ contact is associated and which is their role from the perspective of politeness and impoliteness.

The metaphorical extension of the body part term череп ‘skull’ in Bulgarian dialect geographical lexis and toponymy is examined in this paper. The study suggests that the word чѐреп, dial. чѝреп ‘skull’, ‘broken pot’, ‘part of a broken pot’, can express the conceptual metaphors THE EMINENCE IS A SKULL, THE ROCK IS A SKULL and THE CONCAVITY IS A CONTAINER.
Keywords: metaphor, toponymy, body parts, skull

The dissertation aims to contribute to the theory and methodology of semantic reconstruction, which is the weak side in the etymology. There are deduced the following theoretical and methodological points, which summarize the achievements of the theoretical mind in this field. The theoretical basis of the semantic reconstruction has to be the conception that every semantic change is subordinated to the more general or particular regularities, concerning both the reasons and mechanisms of the semantic change and the matter of the changes. Etymological analysis needs both the comparative method concerning linguistic form (admitting irregularities too, which depends on frequency, on expressive or onomatopoeic nature of the words) and the method of semantic typology, which has to find the regularities in the semantic evolution and apply them to research. The regularities of semantic evolution can be found in the fields of associating linguistic synchrony with diachrony, individual with social facts in language, in the diachronic interpretation of linguistic spatial continuity. The reconstruction of group of words: such from one lexical field, synonyms, antonyms, etc. is discussed as an objective criterion.Semantic reconstruction needs semasiological and onomasiological approaches to the lexical meaning.The dissertation deals with the problem of the cognitive approach to the semantic reconstruction too and discusses the possibility of giving an account of the universals of lexical fields and language acquisition as objective criteria. It is based on the conception that universal things in the language are more perceptually salient and therefore cognitively simpler and that the order of the acquisition of the concepts shows their cognitive complication too. This approach is very important in the reconstruction of archaic words or of the words designating perceptually salient objects.

These theoretical formulations are applied in etymological research of body-part terminology. The universals of body-part terminology, drawn by E. Andersen [Andersen 1978], are taken into account. Thus for example, has been proved that the meaning hand of baltoslavonic term *ranka does not originate from meaning seizer. This is the judgement of many etymologists, which is determined by taking into consideration the Lithuanian verb rinkti to gather, seize. The connection between meanings to seize and hand would have to go through the meaning quantity contained in a hand; handful.

Inductively, analyzing nondeetimologized terms, it is found out that there is an interdependence between the place of the word in the lexical field and its motivating signs. Thus, the well-known point of view that in the terminologization the motivating sign is accidental is disputed.

METAPHORICAL FOLK GEOGRAFICAL TERMS DERIVED FROM THE BODY PART TERM ‘FACE’ IN BULGARIAN AND ROMANIAN LANGUAGES
The folk geographical terms derived from the body part term ‘face’ in Bulgarian and Romanian languages are examined in this paper: Bulgarian лице ‘face’, ‘southern or south-eastern slope’, ‘place with southern exposure’; Romanian față ‘face’, ‘southern slope’, ‘forest on a southern slope’,  ‘place exposed to the sun (the moon, the wind, the fire)’, ‘prominent part of an eminence’. In both languages those metaphorical terms have similar meanings and distribution and express the same conceptual metaphors THE MOUNTAIN IS A PERSON, THE EMINENCE IS A PERSON, THE EARTH IS A PERSON. Two of the meanings of the Romanian word față ‘face’ are considered to be metaphtonymies – ‘forest on a southern slope’ and ‘prominent part of an eminence’.

The notion of HEAD is reflected in the basic lexicon of all known languages; the identification of the head as a distinct and vitally important body part, labelled with a simplex word, seems to be a cross-cultural universal. Thanks to their high frequency of use and their "basic concept" status, words meaning 'head' tend to be diachronically stable and therefore important for comparative reconstruction. Their expected retention rate – as estimated on the basis of data from several uncontroversial language families – is on a par with words meaning 'heart' or 'foot'. On the other hand, culture-specific factors may lead to the proliferation of secondary meanings, the rise of stylistically marked near-synonyms, and consequently to locally accelerated lexical evolution. This seems to have happened repeatedly in the Indo-European family, in which not only the oldest recon-structible 'head' word, *ḱreh₂-but also secondary, branch-specific terms have often been subject to lexical replacement. This unusual variability of words for HEAD in Indo-European contrasts with the remarkable conservatism of words for several other body-part concepts, such as EYE, EAR, TOOTH and HEART. In this paper, we shall attempt to identify recurrent patterns of semantic change in the emergence of new synonyms and the polysemic development of inherited 'head' words. Insights derived from recent studies of "embodiment" will be used to explain the observed tendencies.

The evolution of arm-leg relationships presents something of a problem for embodied cognitive science. The affordances of habitual bipedalism and upright posture make our two sets of appendages and their interrelationships distinctively human, but these relations are largely neglected in evolutionary accounts of embodied cognition. Using a mixture of methods from historical linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics and linguistic anthropology to analyze data from languages around the world, this paper identifies a robust, dynamic set of part-whole relations that emerge across the human waistline between upper and lower appendage sets cross-culturally. The general pattern—identified as "arm-leg syncretism" —provides a plausible primary source for the uniquely human penchant for creative analogy, or "double-scope conceptual blending" , said to underlie the human language faculty (Fauconnier & Turner 2002). This account not only addresses a conspicuous gap in the literature but also enables us to better understand what it means to be human—including how we came to be unique among other species and how we are still vitally interrelated with other species. Deely (2010) blends both sides of this tension into a single phrase: "the semiotic animal". The paper further develops this distinction by drawing attention to one of the roles upright posture played in the emergence of semiotic consciousness.

The study of body parts terminology is one of the most popular areas among linguists. Their enormous potentiality for semantic extension into other semantic domains, as well as their development into grammatical forms have attracted the attention of researchers from different domains. Body parts in Basque are no exception. They offer a good, varied and rich laboratory for the study of polysemy and conceptualisation. In this paper, we will focus on two body part terms in Basque: oin foot and begi eye. These two body parts, apart from being very common, show a great variety of meanings, which dictionaries usually list as unrelated. Our goal will be to show (i) how these semantic extensions are organised and structured by means of several cognitive devices, (ii) how they are conceptualised in Basque, not only in terms of their bodily basis but also and more importantly with respect to their cultural basis, and (iii) how they are used in idiomatic expressions. Data come from monolingual and bilingual dictionaries as well as from idiomatic dictionaries and compilations.

Vlashki/Zheyanski, or Istro-Romanian, is a severely endangered Eastern Romance language spoken on the Istrian peninsula in Croatia. The language is now spoken by less than 120 fluent and active speakers, most of them over the age of 50. The Vlashki/ Zheyanski-speaking communities are in the midst of the language shift to Croatian. Since cohabitation, population mix and bilingualism have characterized these communities for centuries, as a result of intense and long-term contact pressures, the language has undergone many lexical and structural changes under the influence of Croatian. In the lexical domain, the language has adopted many cultural borrowings, but also a significant number of core borrowings. The paper explores the extent of contact influence in the basic vocabulary of body part terms, a section of the lexicon assumed to be one of the most resistant to contact interference. Lexical equivalents of 46 body part meanings found in three different historical sources and in aut...

This paper presents an analysis of the semantic structure of body part terms occurring in compound prepositions in Sahidic Coptic. Based on the corpus of the New Testament translation and with a theoretical outset inspired by cognitive linguistics, it is argued that each of the body part terms can be viewed as a conceptual category based on an embodied prototype with a greater or smaller number of extensions. Thus, rather than providing a list of possible English translations as is often done, the paper shows that it is possible to understand the compound prepositions based on a single body part as a closely related set of categories ultimately rooted in human embodied experience.

The Gumuz suffix/-(á)ts(a)/ on verbs and the related nominal prefix /tsá-/ can be internally reconstructed as the morpheme *tsa ‘body’ (Ahland 2010:165-66, 2012:251 ).  On verbs, the suffix functions as a verbal classifier, a reflexive, and a marker of certain types of complements, most notably perception-cognition-utterance (PCU) complements.  On nouns, it functions as a class morpheme prefix (Ahland 2012). The verbal suffix /-(á)ts(a)/ occupies the same position on the verb as incorporated nouns yet there exists no known free noun form in any variety of Gumuz. In addition to internal evidence, comparative evidence from the Koman languages suggests a cognate free noun form meaning ‘body’ as the lexical source. 

As noted by Schladt (2000:104), lexical sources for reflexive markers are usually nouns, most commonly body part terms.  These lexical sources are typically transparent in African languages and generally represent a direct object before grammaticalizing.  In addition to reflexives, verbal classifiers also begin their lives as nouns (often body part terms) which may also originally function as direct objects (Mithun 1984).  Both reflexive and verbal classifier constructions maintain a Patient but, with reflexive constructions, the Patient is always the same referent as the subject.  The term ‘body’ in Gumuz participates in both reflexive and verbal classifier constructions (with overlap in category, as verbal classifiers can classify both S and O arguments) - but seemingly only as part of reflexive constructions in the Koman languages. In Gumuz, the verbal classifier, /-(á)ts(a)/ ‘body’ has further grammaticalized as a valence increaser that can add clausal complements.

References
Ahland, Colleen. 2010. Noun incorporation and predicate classifiers in Gumuz. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 31.159-203.
Ahland, Colleen. 2012. A grammar of Northern and Southern Gumuz. PhD dissertation, University of Oregon.
Mithun, Marianne.1984. The evolution of noun incorporation. Language 60.847-94.
Schladt, Mathias. 2000.  The typology and grammaticalization of reflexives. Reflexives: forms and functions, ed. by Zygmunt Frayzingier, 103-124. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

En este trabajo se presentan los primeros resultados del analisis del lexico de las partes del cuerpo humano en la variante del hnahnu de Xochimilco y San Pablito Pahuatlan, Puebla. El analisis llevo a detectar algunas de las extensiones semanticas hacia otras partes del cuerpo humano, asi como a otros objetos y entidades del mundo, observando los rasgos tomados por los hnahnu de las partes del cuerpo hacia los otros elementos.