Politeness

There are situations in life where we can’t get free from inconvenient obligations but only through saying “No”. However, there are ways to soften the blow especially when it comes to requests. This word no matter how little it is, it hurts badly. Therefore, this word can be said in a less shocking way. As the result is always declining the request, it’s better to do that positively and more tenderly.

Abstract. The aim of the present paper is to examine the routine of apologizing in spoken business communication. Being face-threaten-ing acts, apologies are of special importance in communication. Since apologies express sincerity and are remedial acts, apologizing helps to enhance mutual respect and to keep the relationship between col-leagues stable, which is especially important in business communica-tion. The present analysis focuses on four main expressions of explicit apologies, i.e. apologies with sorry, I apologise, pardon and excuse me. The data have been obtained from the sub-corpus of the British National Corpus, which includes transcripts of business communica-tion and amounts to 1,321,844 words. The analysis accounts for the general frequency of different forms of apology in business commu-nication as well as their frequency in relation to gender. The paper also focuses on the most typical patterns of apologies and argues that apologies range from neutral to highly emp...

Where we have been going (Karen) In 2010 Derek Bousfield and I were honoured to take over editorship of the journal. At that point it had been in existence for 5 years and was already very successful in developing and expanding the field of politeness studies and in bringing together in one place key theoretical debates and empirical studies. By this time, it was already unusual for papers based on purely Gricean approaches to politeness to be published since, under Chris Christie's original editorship, the journal had been instrumental in moving politeness theory on from the Brown and Levinson approach. Instead, papers in the journal tended to assume a discursive approach and to explore such concepts as face, identity, relational work, and impoliteness as valid themes. It was also common for papers to analyse politeness in a variety of contexts (both historical and contemporary) and languages and from the perspective of different disciplines. 2015 saw the publication of the 10th Anniversary special issue, at which point I was sole editor, with Isabelle van der Bom as editorial assistant (and guest editor of the special issue). In their introduction to the special issue van der Bom and Grainger (2015) note that politeness research had by then been identified as coming in "waves" of theoretical and ontological orientation, with most contributions falling into the second "discursive" wave or the third "sociological/interactional" wave. The second wave tended to focus on first order definitions of politeness and the evaluation of interactions by participants themselves. The later third wave (Grainger 2011) has been characterized by Haugh (2018) as taking the middle ground between traditional politeness theories, combining some of the insights from the first Gricean wave with those of the discursive second wave such that

Jang, J. (2018). Descubriendo las imágenes predominantes en el grupo sociocultural de Medellín (Colombia): Hacia la construcción de un modelo teórico y metodológico para estudios de cortesía sociocultural, atenuación e intensificación. En Castañeda, L. et ál. (Eds.), Investigación lingüística en Colombia. Interacción, escritura académica y lexicografía (pp. 51-68). Peter Lang: Frankfurt.

国語学・日本語学関係の研究は、以前から敬語・敬語表現・待遇表現・言葉遣いなどを問題にしてきた。それらの諸概念を、小論では、総合的に待遇情報 (honorific modification -HM) として扱う。待遇情報とは、従来の「敬語論」が定義する、「敬意を表す」あるいは「人を立てる」目的で発言内容に含まれる／追加される情報（だけ）でなく、情報伝達過程（コミュニケーション）に不可欠なメッセージ内容である。待遇情報は言語の情報伝達管理補助組織であり、メッセージの下層（非情報部分）として上層（情報部分）に奉仕する組織であると考えられる。
以下、第一に待遇情報と話者の「顧慮」の関係について論じる。「顧慮」は情報伝達環境の普遍的要素であり、階層モデルの下層パラメータ感知・分析活動を含む。続いて下層レベルの働きをめぐってメッセージの情報部分と非情報部分の対立について述べる。次に、現代日本語の例文を利用して非情報部分の選定は「敬語論」に基づいた判断より階層モデルのプロシージャー・プロトコル各層活動によって決められることを指摘する。最後に、「敬語論」より階層モデルの応用性・普遍性について論じ、ポーランド語の待遇情報を分析する。

In spite of their unquestionable elements of idealization, critics have pointed out the importance of De oratore as a source for the study of the Roman aristocracy’s social practices. The analysis of one of the basic resources of «positive courtesy» - i.e. humor - in the excursus de ridiculiis shows that it is presented as a powerful catalyst for social intercourse. As long as it fits to some sort of «laughable ethics», humor would be a key factor in creating solidarity among elite members, whose relationships present, as a rule, a strong agonistic slant.

This paper reports a study on politeness strategies .tment*an English speakers and Chinese speakers use to respond to compliments. !t has three aims: (!) to discover simi!arities and differences of politeness strategies between the two grc ups, (2) to provide empirical evldpnce for or against existing theories of linguistic politeness, and (3) to reveal differences of socla: values between the two cultures.

This paper compares the opening sequences of Finnish, French and Hungarian YouTube videos. We concentrate on addressing, greeting and related gestures, important elements when YouTubers interact with their imagined viewers, using data consisting of 138 videos in the three languages. This study falls within the field of the pragmatics of social media and interpersonal pragmatics, and data were analysed using multimodal discourse analysis. Shared practices included the frequent use of greetings, a preference for general nominal address forms as well as for iconic and deictic gestures. Cross-cultural differences revealed that Finnish and Hungarian were closer to each other than to French. Shared practices may be connected to the genre of YouTube videos, whereas differences appear related to cross-cultural practices generally.

Personal pronouns as referential means have been investigated in general and comparative linguistics mostly with regard to their normal, prototypical use, which usually confirms to the essential combinations of person and number features. This paper deals with a much less investigated topic in the realm of pronouns, the non-prototypical uses of personal pronouns. Non-prototypical uses of personal pronouns are discourse uses, in which the reference (set) of the pronoun deviates from its prototypical one. For instance, a first person plural pronoun can be used to refer to a second person singular in doctor-patient dialogs. Or, a second person singular pronoun can be used impersonally in many languages. Non-prototypical uses of personal pronouns are restricted to certain communicative situations and usually have some additional pragmatic effects. In the first part of the paper, a synchronic typology of the non-prototypical uses of personal pronouns is presented together with a short characterization of the communicative motivations and effects. Examples from a variety of mostly European languages will illustrate these uses. The second part of the paper examines the question whether these nonprototypical uses have an effect on the diachrony of personal pronouns. It will be argued that this is indeed the case and that these effects cannot be subsumed under the heading of grammaticalization. It will be hypothesized that personal pronouns may acquire new person/ number values historically only, if these new category values are semantically either more individuated (plural > singular) or higher on the person hierarchy (3 > 2 > 1), or both.

L'arte di conversare è per lo meno la metà dell'arte di vivere." Per questo la conversazione ha un ruolo centrale nei galatei di tutti i tempi e nelle odierne teorie pragmatiche sulla cortesia. Il libro ripercorre un lungo arco cronologico, dal Galateo di Giovanni Della Casa (1558) sino ai tanti galatei che si continuano a scrivere ancora oggi. Si ricostruisce così l'insieme di consigli, raccomandazioni e divieti che regolamenta la conversazione cortese: l'avvicendamento dei turni di parola, le interruzioni e i silenzi; la comunicazione non verbale, cioè tono di voce, sguardi, espressioni del volto, gesti, distanze; l'ascolto; la scelta del lessico e degli argomenti. Emergono inaspettate, e per certi aspetti sorprendenti, persistenze, al di là delle ovvie differenze tra galatei di epoche diverse. Si delinea così un modello di conversazione ancora oggi attuale: non interrompere, non parlare troppo ma neanche restare troppo a lungo in silenzio; non gridare ma nemmeno bisbigliare; saper ascoltare; non gesticolare come una marionetta ma neppure restare fermi e impassibili come un automa; non avvicinarsi troppo all'interlocutore; evitare parole ed argomenti tabù; scegliere temi che favoriscono la partecipazione e l'accordo, e non quelli che generano conflittualità, come politica o religione, o che suscitano repulsione o semplicemente noia, fastidio e disagio; non parlare sempre di sé ma lasciare spazio agli altri, ecc. Molti di questi "precetti" trovano una qualche corrispondenza nei modelli teorici sulla cortesia, dai quali ci si aspetterebbe una prospettiva puramente descrittiva. Eppure nelle questioni etiche e sociali -cui pertiene la cortesia -la linea di demarcazione tra norme descrittive e prescrittive è difficile, se non impossibile, da tracciare.

Arab World English Journal 
Volume 2, Number 1 pp. 18-46
Pragmatic Failure in Refusal Strategies: British versus Omani Interlocutors
Jaishree Umale, PhD.
Dhofar University
Abstract
The article provides the detailed study of the similarities and differences between the British and the Omani ways of refusing requests. A refusal is a face-threatening act that tends to disrupt harmony in relationships. It causes damage to both the face of the speaker and the listener. A lot of strategies are used to mitigate the effect of a refusal and save the relationship. The choice of strategy used can be dictated by the socio-cultural factors generating an inappropriate reply. These may be labeled 'rude' by the native speakers. Transforming the rules and the cultural norms of the first language to the target language also results in pragmalinguistic failure. For this research a discourse completion test was modeled on Beebe et al. (1990). The situations were categorized into three requests, three invitations, three suggestions and three offers. One of each group required a refusal to an equal status person, a higher status person and a lower status person. The test was translated into Arabic and administered to ten Omanis and the English version was given to ten British people. Data was analyzed according to the strategies used by the British and the Omanis, the role of status in refusals and the pragmalinguistic errors surfacing in the study. The study found that the Omanis used more direct strategies than the British in refusing requests and offers. Both the British and the Omanis also used indirect strategies to refuse requests, especially when dealing with higher status people. The British used more direct Jaishree Umale Pragmatic Failure in Refusal Strategies strategies when dealing with lower status people while the Omanis used care for interlocutor’s feelings. The British used more direct strategies when dealing with lower status people while the Omanis used care for interlocutor’s feelings.
Key words
Pragmalinguistic failure, Refusing requests, politeness, pragmatic failure, discourse competence, pragmatic errors, face threatening acts.

语言是交流沟通的工具，是维系人与人之间关系的桥梁和纽带。在世界经济快速发展的今天，语言交流变得越来越重要，它已经成为经济交流发展的助推剂和润滑剂。为了保证语言交流的顺利进行，使用某些方法和手段对语言进行调节就成了必然。这种调节手段在语言范畴中可以称之为礼貌用语。礼貌，作为人类社会一种普遍存在的现象，其主要功能就是运用礼貌的语言行为来避免交际中不必要的误会与冲突，达到交际的目的。作为一个异国他乡的学者来到中国，最重要和必须首先面对的问题就是语言沟通。而要学会语言沟通的前提就是要搞清楚异乡它国的礼貌用语以及这些用语与本国的异同。不同的国家和语言群体用不同的方式表达礼貌。

This chapter discusses popular non-parametric methods in corpus linguistics: conditional inference trees and conditional random forests. These methods, which allow the researcher to model and interpret the relationships between a numeric or categorical response variable and various predictors, are particularly attractive in 'tricky' situations, when the use of parametric methods (in particular, regression models) can be problematic, for example, in the situations of 'small n, large p', complex interactions, non-linearity and correlated predictors. For illustration, the chapter discusses a case study of T and V politeness forms in Russian based on a corpus of film subtitles.

The following article discusses the relationship between materiality and sociality, and more precisely that of an item of clothing–the hoop skirt–and a polite gesture–holding doors for others–applying a historical procedural perspective. After some introductory remarks on holding doors for others as a polite behavior, the history of the hoop skirt is reconstructed as a sequence on the basis of a methodology of processual explanation and is described as a process using Georg Simmel’s fashion theory. Subsequently, a history of politeness is reconstructed as a sequence and explained as a process using Norbert Elias’s theory of civilization. The hypothesis that the gesture emerged due to the exorbitant size of the hoop skirt, which made it necessary to hold doors for women wearing them, will then be plausibilized by a complex reconstruction that parallelizes both sequences in a temporal and social dimension. In addition to the temporal presumption that the gesture appeared in conduct books after the emergence of the hoop skirt, both fashion and politeness present similar reference problems in terms of differentiation in society, inclusion and authenticity. Furthermore, this argument serves as a possible example of a symmetry between materiality and sociality.

This research is about Japanese politeness strategies. It aimed at determining the strategy of politeness in Japanese hotel staff in Bali when providing services to Japanese guests. The data was collected from conversations between Japanese guests and hotel staff were obtained by recording. The total number of participants were 32 participants, 15 person of hotel staff and 17 japanese guests. The result of data analysis founded the hotel staff implemented the negative and positive politeness strategies. The negative politeness strategies can be seen from (1) formal utterance in the form of <em>keigo</em>, (2) utterance that does not contain<em> coercion</em> (giving choices). Positive politeness strategies can be seen from (1) utterance that contains attention, offers of assistance, sympathy for the needs of guests, (2) utterance that uses a variety of <em>futsugo</em> (daily language). This <em>futsugo</em> speech founded in conversat...

Adorno’s Minima Moralia was part of a publishing boom in the genre of advice literature in postwar West Germany. The combination of economic resurgence and attempted cultural restoration resulted in a widespread wish to master forming models of social intercourse; this craving for guidance accounts for the volume’s commercial success. But while Adorno participates in the culture of counseling, he couples practical suggestions with repeated announcements of the demise of the self-determining subject, the projected recipient of advice. He addresses problems that appear in the individual’s frame of attention but consistently disputes that this is a meaningful scene of action in the age of total administration. Minima Moralia both inhabits and violates the conventions of advice literature in order to dramatize the experience of the discrepancy between societal logic and the individual’s resources.

This article compares two military investigative reports using the techniques of corpus linguistics and drawing on the interpretive framework provided by politeness theory and critical discourse analysis. The corpus data for the study comprise tn'o bodies of texts investigating the Kandahar friendly fire' incident of 17 April 2002: The U.S-led Board of Inquiry Report and the Canadian Board of Inquiry Report. The analysis depended on interpreting the use and/or frequency of the following linguistic, pragmatic and rhetorical resources: salient terms of representation, agency, and stance markers. The main purpose was to identify the language resources by which a text expresses and negotiates attitudinal or ideological positions. The analysis reveals similar as well as different patterns in the use of many of these language resources which are motivated by the desire to enhance acceptability and insure the mutual protection of face.

This paper presents an anylisis of politeness strategies in Turkish: bald on record (without taking any redressive action), positive politeness (strengthen solidarity and rapport between speaker and listener, using various means like compliments, intimate address forms), negative politeness (the aim is to avoid imposing on the hearer, using hedges, diminutives) and off record strategies (using hints, metaphors or other devices to sound deliberately ambiguous). Data analysis in accordance with Brown and Levinson' s model showed that positive politeness strategies prevail in the Turkish society; a wide variety of politeness forms exhibit benevolence, solidarity and sympathetic behavior enhancing in-group identity.

Using a conversation analytic (CA) methodology, this study focuses on the preference organization of compliment sequences in German. The paper compares German and American compliment responses given among families and friends. The data show that while rejections and turns containing certain agreement and disagreement features are constructed similarly in German and American English, it is in agreement sequences that the two languages differ. It is suggested that in such sequences, cross-cultural communication can become problematic. I will then present one such example in which a nonnative speaker of English transferred the format of a German compliment response into American English, resulting in communication problems. Finally, I will discuss the implications of these findings for cross-cultural communication, and suggest the incorporation of pragmatics into foreign and second language teaching.

This book re-examines research on women's and men's use of politeness in a critical way, calling attention to a number of problems related with the application by these studies of Brown & Levinson's model (1978. In contrast to the view of politeness as the performance of specific speech acts that has expanded from the establishment of this framework, the author proposes a more interactional perspective on the issue that takes into account both the speaker's production and the hearer's reception of the utterances, on the basis of a conception of politeness as a judgement of the interactants. From the development of this new perspective, Mills critically reviews studies on women's and men's use of politeness, trying to show the problems that arise in the interpretation of data as a result of the application of Brown and Levinson's model. Likewise, drawing on the performative theoretical perspective that most language and gender researchers are currently advocating, the author maintains that the contention commonly defended by these studies that 'women are more polite' than men, is more based on a stereotypical view of 'women's language' than on actual women's linguistic behaviour.

In this article we present the results of a contrastive analysis about the politeness strategies used in the expression of requests in Castilian Spanish and European Portuguese. By using the DCT methodology, we have designed a questionnaire with petitions of different cost-benefit for the conversational partner and with variations relative to power and the social distance that exists between the participants. Once the data was gathered, we did a triple study about the differences in the expression of rquests: 1) between Spanish and Portuguese, 2) from the rank of imposition of the object and the petition, and 3) according to the social distance and the relative power of the participants. The results show that, although using different linguistic and politeness strategies, the expression of petitions is similar between Spanish and Portuguese speakers, although the latter take the social distance and the relative power of the hearer more into account than the Spanish speakers at the moment of choosing politeness forms.

This epilogue responds to articles published in a special issue on face and identity in the Journal of Politeness Research. The essay advances a bidirectional call for a deeper consideration of the relationship between face and identity: to scholars of politeness to consider the place of identity in facework; and to scholars of identity to consider the place of face in identity work. Written in the aftermath of a tragic mass shooting in a movie theater in Aurora, Colorado, the commentary outlines how facework, at once rational and emotional, is fundamental to the workings of identity, as human positioning is always sensitive to the reflection of one's image in the eyes of another.

The present study investigates the request behaviour of Tunisian EFL learners (TEFLL). For this purpose, the data were collected using a discourse completion test (DCT). Accordingly, 67 female masters" students studying at the Faculty of Letters and Humanities in Sfax (Tunisia) were asked to respond in English to six different situations in which they carried out the speech act of request. The data were analyzed by focusing on the directness level of requesting strategies according to the analytical framework of Blum-Kulka, et al (1989). A quantitative analysis of the data showed that the participants perform different request strategies (direct and conventionally indirect according to the social factors (social distance, social power and ranking of imposition) which are very influential in the choice of polite request strategies by TEFLL. The results revealed that, when requests are addressed to people in lower positions, TEFLL tend to use more direct request strategies in performing their request. The findings have also shown that TEFLL prefer to use conventionally indirect strategies in addressing their acquaintances and friends when the ranking of imposition is very high. On the other hand, when the requestee is in a higher position, TEFLL use more indirect strategies to show their respect and deference. Indirect request or negative politeness strategies are used to protect both of the requester and the requestees" faces. The study has shown that TEFLL responses are influenced by their linguistic and cultural backgrounds; thus, it is suggested that Tunisian learners of English should be aware of the socio-cultural and pragmatic differences between their L1 (Tunisian Arabic) and English learnt as a foreign language.

ENGLISH: Is it possible to talk about politeness in ancient Greece? Modern sociology defines politeness as a system of rules,
which set behavioural patterns in accordance with different social situations. Ancient Greek thought never conceived
a similar idea. Instead, between the 8th and the 5th century BC, the Greeks seem to have appraised social
conduct through the lens of a principle of correspondence between one’s aspect and demeanour and the virtue of
one’s soul. This study aims at shedding light upon the cultural features of this Greek idea, and to outline the ways
in which it oriented social judgement. The analysis is conducted through categories inspired by the research of the
sociologist Erving Goffman, entirely readapted in order to apply them to ancient sources. The prime focus of the
work is on Homer. This is followed by a study of the role of the principles of ancient Greek politeness, as gleaned
from the epics, with regard to conversation, gestural expressiveness and meeting occasions in the Archaic and
Classical periods.

FRANÇAIS : Est-il possible de parler d’un savoir-vivre grec antique ? La sociologie contemporaine définit le code de politesse
comme un ensemble de règles proposant des modèles de conduite adaptés aux différentes occasions de rencontre.
La pensée grecque antique, quant à elle, ne formula jamais une idée pareille : entre le VIIIe et le Ve siècle av.
J.-C., les Grecs semblent plutôt avoir évalué la conduite sociale en fonction d’un principe de correspondance entre
d’une part l’aspect et les manières de chaque individu et d’autre part la disposition de son esprit. Ce travail vise à la
fois à mettre en lumière les spécificités culturelles de cette idée antique et à étudier les manières dont celle-ci
orientait le jugement social. L’analyse est menée par le biais de catégories inspirées des recherches du sociologue
américain Erving Goffman, entièrement réélaborées afin de les adapter aux sources. L’attention est d’abord focalisée
sur l’épopée homérique, dont l’examen permet de cerner des principes majeurs de la politesse en Grèce ancienne.
Ensuite l’étude se concentre sur le rôle social qu’ont eu ces principes aux époques archaïque et classique,
notamment en ce qui concerne la conversation, la gestuelle et les occasions de sociabilité.

The study of the European Portuguese system of address presents chronological gaps. Despite the investigations on the Middle Ages, the Modern Era and the current distribution, we lack in-depth analyses that account for the 18 th and 19 th centuries. In this paper, I aim to provide empirical data from these centuries thanks to the letter corpus Post Scriptum, since it allows for pinpointing the pronouns and strategies that emerged orally. The results show a dramatic change and the birth of strategies that are now very common. Likewise, I put forth that Portugal has always preferred a system that favours distance and hierarchy by means of new forms that replace others pragmatically devaluated.

This paper investigates the politeness strategies and mitigation devices used by native and non-native speakers (advanced learners) of Greek when refusing an invitation from an intimate and their consequences for the expression of politeness. Furthermore, it examines whether length of residence or intensity of interaction with native speakers affect non-native speakers’ performance. The data are drawn from role plays performed by native speakers and non-native speakers of two different groups: one with extended length of residence but limited opportunities for social interaction with native speakers and one with less extended length of residence but considerably more frequent opportunities for social interaction. On the basis of these data, it is argued that with regard to the speech act of declining an invitation from a friend, length of residence can be an insufficient measure whereas intensity of interaction can guarantee better results as regards pragmatic appropriateness and politeness. The significant deviations observed between native speakers and non-native speakers with limited opportunities for intimate interaction are attributed to the fact that the latter being economic migrants, who suffer from social seclusion, cannot rely on length of residence alone, in order to acquire sociocultural norms and develop pragmatic ability in the use of speech acts like the one investigated here. This fact combined with the finding that both groups of non-native speakers displayed an underdeveloped pragmatic ability in relation to mitigation devices, such as lexical/phrasal downgraders highlights the need for pedagogical intervention which aims at providing learners with metapragmatic information and meaningful opportunities for interaction that may promote their pragmatic development.

The “impoliteness strategy”, a kind of parallel to the “politeness strategy”, has dominated research for decades and is still current. However, the notion of a “strategy” is poorly understood and rarely defined. This paper begins by critically examining this notion, as it is used in linguistics. It argues that in politeness studies it has been overly focused on the idea of a rational linguistic means of achieving certain ends or goals. That a strategy might also involve the coordination of communication through routine and shared linguistic means that are recognised within particular communities seems to have been largely overlooked. The next part of this paper outlines Culpeper’s (1996) taxonomy of impoliteness strategies, and follows with a critical review. It notes that most problems and controversies lie at the more abstract level of the "superstrategy". Two particularly controversial areas are discussed. One is the relationship between directness and impoliteness strategies, and especially whether there is some correlation with the degree of offence caused. The other is the relationship between impoliteness strategies and context. The final part of the paper outlines a more recent bottom-up framework of impoliteness strategies or triggers, and one that, echoing Terkorafi’s (e.g. 2001) work on politeness, places impoliteness conventionalized for particular contexts of use at the centre.

This paper focuses on the vocative in Japanese, from the perspective of the politeness theory by Brown & Levinson, showing that the addition of a vocative to an utterance functions as a positive politeness strategy. First, I critically overviewed the work of Takiura (2007) about the politeness of terms of address in Japanese. Then I analyzed the use of vocative in conversation as a politeness strategy based on the hypothesis of Takahashi (2005) that the choice of terms of address in Japanese relies on discernment, i.e. “wakimae” (see Ide 2006), and their use depends on volitional choice as a politeness strategy. My results show that when the vocative occurs with a high-FTA utterance for the negative face of hearer, it functions as a positive politeness strategy. This can be explained in terms of the vocative highlighting the aim of utterance and at the same time shortening the distance toward the hearer, thus making the utterance more casual. A vocative appearing with an FTA utterance for positive face of hearer also strengthens the speech act as a positive politeness strategy. Finally, I suggested the possibility of the vocative being one of the forms of showing modality toward the hearer.

در پژوهشهای معمول بینالمللی دربارة politeness، رفتار مؤدبانه در ایران هم مورد بحث قرار گرفته است و محور این پژوهشها تعارف بوده است. تعارف به طور معمول به «Iranian politeness» تعریف شده است. نگارنده ت ش میکند یک دیدگاه متفاوت را ارائه کند، چونکه میتوان بین ادب (رفتار مؤدبانه) و تعارف تفاوت قائل شد و این تمایز منحصراً از طریق اصط حات قابل تشخیص نیست، بلکه به عوامل مختلف مهمی بستگی دارد. در ارزیابی رفتار اجتماعی و تمایز بین ادب و رفتار تعارفی، محیط، موقعیت، زبان بدن و چهره و بهویژه لحن نقش اساسی دارند. پس رفتار مؤدبانه و تعارف تحت یک
گفتمان اجتماعی مدام و مستمر بین آن آدمهایی که با هم درارتباط هستند صورت میگیرد.

In international politeness studies were debates about Iran with a focus on ta'arof, which was typically defined as "Iranian politeness" and described by common phrases. This article tries to present a different view by taking into account that in Iran people differentiate between Adab and Ta'arof. Since there is no definite way to define ta'arof by speech acts, a more structural way to define Ta'arof is presented here. Therefore Ta'arof is a constant social discourse between the involved persons and as a tool to regulate social relations, rather being a specific speech act or action.
The article starts with a discussion about different concepts of politeness and then introduces shortly to a politeness theory by Watts, which is considering regional differences and global similarities. Then the article discuss some historical and contemporary questions and topics related to politeness, which could contribute to a better and more comprehensive understanding of politeness and ta'arof. An important step for further studies about this field is a distinction between the explained and the real structure of ta'arof, because the explained structure is always a coherent narrative of one's actions. At the end of the article the changing of the meaning of Ta'arof is mentioned, and that is may find the meaning of the german word "Höflichkeit" and that the spreading of the conciseness about ta'arof could enhance other language's vocabulary and culture.

The dissertation focuses on the realization features of politeness speech strategies in German Internet-forum discourse. Internet-forum discourse is defined as a cognitive-communicative phenomenon, the process and the result of speech activity of the Internet-forum users, that in hypertrophied form corresponds with the general peculiar features of postmodern Western culture. Within the framework of the proposed realization model politeness strategies function in the German Internet-forum discourse as a global strategy, that has four sub-systems: a) positive unetiquette politeness; b) positive etiquette politeness; c) negative unetiquette politeness; d) negative etiquette politeness, and as local strategies, realized by means of language signals (politeness indicators).

El artículo es un estudio la necesidad y la posibilidad del estudio histórico de las manifestaciones lingüísticas de la cortesía. Se discute sobre los enfoques teóricos más adecuados a tal objetivo y sobre la representatividad de las fuentes documentales utilizables. El corpus objeto de análisis está constituido por los actos directivos en dos comedias "celestinescas" del siglo XVI: la Segunda Celestina de Feliciano de Silva (1537) y la Comedia llamada Selvagia de Alonso Villegas Selvago (1554) y se describen la concepción ideológica de las relaciones interpersonales en la época y su importancia a la hora de interpretar los datos. Se defiende una concepción socio-cultural del concepto de la cortesía frente a enfoques de naturaleza psicológica universalistas.

The two volumes of the Divertissements de Sceaux enshrine the remainder of the  Duchess of Maine's genius to cultivate an aristocratic wordliness. Her cultural effort supports a high political ambition, and contributes to the passage from Classicism to the Enlightenment. The poems, the letters, the stories included in these two volumes, amongst which the synopsis of the Grandes Nuits deserves a special mention, allow the modern reader to rediscover, at least partially, this eighteenth century atmosphere which fascinated the Goncourt brothers.

Whereas graduate English as a second language (ESL) students have been found to use a wide range of appropriate politeness strategies in email, studies have found that emails sent by undergraduate ESL students can be perceived as impolite (Biesenbach-Lucas, 2007). On the contrary, effective use of politeness strategies leads to positive perceptions of students' competence (Bolkan & Holmgren, 2012). Explicit instruction on netiquette guidelines can foster the ability to construct polite email messages. This paper offers a set of strategies and materials devoted to email writing for undergraduate students in ESL settings. The goal of the paper is to promote the development of sociopragmatic competence with a specific focus on electronic requests in academic contexts. In our overview of pedagogical materials and approaches, we draw on current literature regarding teaching pragmatics and on our own extensive experience working with English language learners both in the United States and abroad.

This research article is about phatic communication among English native speakers, about how the native speakers create ties of union. The article is based on the writer's elaborative qualitative research on Malinowski's theory of phatic communion [1], Jakobson's theory of language functions [2], and Brown and Gilman's theory of power and solidarity [3]. The primary data are obtained from the interviews to nine native speakers with different dialects of American English, British English, and Australian English. The research findings show the functions of phatic communication among English native speakers and the types of expressions they use for creating ties of union. The phatic communication among English native speakers is then related to politeness and is also verified by other significant theories in verbal human communication. This chart is also developed from the one proposed by Kridalaksana [9]. speakers is also in line with Bühler's theory [4] on expressive and appelative functions of language, Jakobson's theory [2] on phatic function of language, and Halliday's theory [28] on interpersonal function of language. In the theory of face-to-face communication, phatic communication among English native speakers is also in line with the theory of Johari Window. Phatic communication among English native speakers to close hearers represents the first quadrant or the open quadrant of Johari Window, whereas phatic communication to not close hearers represents the third quadrant or the hidden quadrant of the theory [29].