Applied Research

Traditionally regarded as the Cinderella sector, further education (FE) is not yet recognized for its research potential and, if researched at all, tends to be 'researched on' rather than proactively enabled to carry out research itself. Although Britain's Learning and Skills Council's FE and Post-16 sector encompasses around six million learners, four thousand providers and £7.3 billion worth of provision, little research in the sector uses the extensive data-rich client base it serves. Few, if any, in-house research findings inform its professional practice. The Learning and Skills Development Agency Research Network and LSC Research Centre have begun to address this gap, mapping out a new blueprint for research developments in the sector, and raising a new capacity for in-house FE-focused research. These exciting national developments form the foundation for this book, which builds on the key importance of research to strengthen the role of further education as the main bridging sector between school and higher education at a time of Britain's increased national investment in raising achievements. This groundbreaking core text in a new field identifies and constructs a new theoretical framework for a specialist FE research culture, recognizing the unique contribution to research of FE practitioner-researchers. The book identifies good practice in this field through a series of in-depth case studies linked to appropriate and innovative research methods. The theoretical framework outlined links the concept of the critical reflective practitioner with the development of knowledge management techniques specific to Further Education research. This book will enable its readers to: 1. Recognize the value of undertaking research in their sector 2. Draw upon their current practice to develop research questions 3. Identify appropriate research questions and design appropriate research techniques accordingly 4. Interrogate other research, from associated fields 5. Undertake literature searches and derive information for a variety of sources 6. Use research -- their own or others' -- to inform their professional practice 7. Have the confidence to create, use and evaluate their sector specific research.

More details
Empowering Researchers in Further Education
By Yvonne Hillier and Jill Jameson
Contributor: Introductory Chapter by Andrew Morris
Published by Trentham Books, 2003
ISBN 1858562856, 9781858562858
194 pages

... Urban channels, Erodibility, Allen et al. (2002). Urban channels, Spatial management in relation to hazards, Chin and Gregory (2005). Plunge pools, Act as energy dissipators to increase flow resistance and enhance channel stability, Allan and Estes (2005). Channelization. ...

Ziel dieses Artikels ist es zum einen, mit dem Begriff der diskursiven Exklusion eine Konzeptualisierung von Exklusion zu unterbreiten, welche den theoretischen Anforderungen an einen soziologisch-analytischen Begriff gewachsen ist und zum anderen, methodische Hinweise zur Erforschung von Exklusionsprozessen zu bieten. Ich werde hierzu die drei emergenten Forschungsperspektiven der Diskursanalyse "nach dem Strukturalismus", der Dispositivanalyse, und der wissenssoziologischen Diskursanalyse vorstellen und jeweils danach fragen, welches Analysepotenzial von ihnen ausgeht, um soziale Exklusion soziologisch zu fassen. Dabei wird sich zeigen, dass jede dieser Perspektiven bestimmte Aspekte in den Vordergrund ruckt, dabei aber wiederum andere vernachlassigt. Am Ende des Artikels werden Moglichkeiten einer Kombination der Ansatze diskutiert. URN: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1302199

Der vorliegende Beitrag befasst sich mit der Minderheitenpolitik in Estland unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kultur. Dabei wird der Nationale Aktionsplan ausgewertet und der Einfluss der Kulturpolitik auf die Inklusion ethnischer Minderheiten untersucht. Die Studie legt einen Schwerpunkt auf die Bereiche Bildung, Medien und Partizipation. Die Studie kommt zu dem Ergebnis, dass ethnische Minderheiten in weiten Bereichen unterrepräsentiert sind, und gibt Handlungsoptionen zur Verbesserung der Situation. (ICD

In the view of escalating global threat in security, it is imperative to have an automated detection system that can pick up suspicious patterns of human movement in physical environments. It can give a forewarning before a planned attack happens or an ultimate security is breached. In the past, significant research on the Intrusion Detection was established, but limited to virtual environments like computer networks and operating systems. In this paper, we proposed a general security model for detecting suspicious patterns in physical environment. Suspicious patterns are subtle and we showed that they can be detected via an experiment.

Over the past eight years, Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) suspension rates were higher among African American and Hispanic students than among Asian American or White students. In response to that discrepancy, MCPS has established and is monitoring attainment of suspension rate targets for elementary, middle, and high school students. This brief provides data that describe changes in the suspension rates for elementary, middle, and high school students.

We introduce the study of homeplace communication as being relevant to the design of new communication technology for the home market. After reviewing current approaches to the field, we go on to describe the nature of remote homeplace communication over the telephone, based on a quantitative and qualitative analysis of 315 household telephone calls. The findings are contrasted with aspects of workplace communication and used to identify 7 user requirements for support. We conclude with recommendations for future basic and applied research in the area.

With the depletion of conventional crude oil reserves in the world, heavy oil and bitumen resources have great potential to meet the future demand for petroleum products. However, oil recovery from heavy oil and bitumen reservoirs is much more difficult than that from conventional oil reservoirs. This is mainly because heavy oil or bitumen is partially or completely immobile under reservoir conditions due to its extremely high viscosity, which creates special production challenges. In order to overcome these challenges significant efforts were devoted by Applied Research Center (ARC) at Florida International University and The Center for Energy Economics (CEE) at the University of Texas. A simplified model was developed to assess the density of the upgraded crude depending on the ratio of solvent mass to crude oil mass, temperature, pressure and the properties of the crude oil. The simplified model incorporated the interaction dynamics into a homogeneous, porous heavy oil reservoir ...

While technological developments have enabled global distribution of software development teams, and wage differentials have stimulated offshore software services export industries such as India’s, the overriding factor in the growth of globalization in this industry is the search for talented software people. The best software talent is in increasing demand as the software industry itself grows, and as software systems become a competitive tool in many other industries. Unfortunately, global supplies of the best talent are already tapped and there are no significant new sources readily available in the near future. The implications for US trade and public policy are far-reaching.

Stressful events that disrupt the assumptive world can force people to make cognitive changes to accommodate these highly stressful experiences. As fundamental assumptions are reestablished, many people report changes and experiences that reflect posttraumatic growth (PTG). The present research describes the development of the Core Beliefs Inventory (CBI), a brief measure of disruption of the assumptive world developed for use in applied research and clinical settings. Three studies, two using college samples (Study 1, n=181 and Study 2, n=297 time 1; 85 time 2) and the third using leukemia patients (Study 3, n=70 time 1; 43 time 2), assessed the utility of the CBI to predict PTG in both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Relationships between the CBI and measures of self-reported PTG and well-being indicate that the CBI has construct validity, acceptable test-retest reliability, and very good internal consistency. The CBI may be a useful tool in investigating predictions about the effects of stressful experiences on an individual's assumptive world, PTG, and successful adaptation.

Despite a lack of applied research, social partnerships are increasingly being adopted by both government and non-government agencies to meet localised needs in education and other fields. This paper discusses the findings of an investigation of how social partnerships can best be formed, developed and sustained over time. Earlier work identified partnerships arising from community concerns, governmental enactment and negotiation between community and government agencies. However, across these distinct kinds of social partnerships, the partnership work that was central to their operation was particularly relevant. In the study reported here, researchers engaged with 10 longstanding social partnerships to elicit, synthesise and verify the principles and practices underpinning their work. The principles and practices that are proposed as most likely to assist the effective formation, development and transformation of social partnerships over time comprise building and maintaining: (i) shared goals; (ii) relations with partners; (iii) capacity for partnership work; (iv) governance and leadership; and (v) trust and trustworthiness. These principles stand as ideals and goals to guide the development and continuity of social partnerships that can support important educational initiatives, and provide bases for evaluating partnership work. However, rather than being benign, this work and these practices are often underpinned by contested relations as much as collaborative work.

The scientific publication process has been so far only marginally affected by the possibilities of the Internet. This may be attributed to a lack of sound business models and pilots to demonstrate the ultimate benefits of free scientific publication. A team of universities, Internet publishers and applied research institutes proposes in the framework of the SciX-project (open, self-organizing repository for scientific information exchange) to demonstrate these benefits and reengineer parts of the scientific publication process. This contribution focuses on the findings from investigations into the identification and acquisition of content sources such as conference papers, theses and journal papers related to the field of CAAD. Special attention has been paid to the different types of available information, such as bibliographical data, summaries, full texts, etc. In this paper, an overall estimation concerning the expected scientific output in the field of CAAD (within a midterm p...

Participant observation is employed in any academic discipline or professional field requiring in-depth studies of everyday life. The article describes the key processes of undertaking participant observation involving joining members of a social group, learning how to participate, and undertake fieldwork. Methodological issues such as validity, generalisation and representations are discussed in relation to the collection and analysis of data. Participant observation whether open or covert is seen to involve a continuous reflection on ethical issues and contributes to the inclusion of the voices of those who are marginalised or rendered invisible in public debates.

Background: The Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) is a federally funded multi-center research network. To promote high quality research within the network, it is important to establish evaluation tools to measure performance of the research sites. Purpose: To describe the collaborative development of a site performance measure tool "report card" in an academic pediatric research network. To display report card template information and discuss the successes and challenges of the report cards. Development and implementation of the network performance measure tool: The PECARN Quality Assurance Subcommittee and the PECARN data center were responsible for the development and implementation of the report cards. Using a Balanced Scorecard format, four key metrics were identified to align with PECARN's research goals. Performance indicators were defined for each of these metrics. After two years of development, the final report cards have been implemented annually since 2005. Protocol submission time to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) improved between 2005 and 2007. Mean overall report card scores for site report cards increased during this period with less variance between highest and lowest performing sites indicating overall improvement. Conclusions: Report cards have helped PECARN sites and investigators focus on performance improvement and may have contributed to improved operations and efficiencies within the network.

Priority research needs determined by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) for the agencys top-ranked hazardous substances are being filled via regulatory mechanisms, private sector voluntarism, and university-based research. To date, 17 studies have been completed, 12 are ongoing, and 12 are currently planned. Under the direction of the Substance-Specific Applied Research Program (SSARP), ATSDR-supported research has filled research needs that significantly improved the information base available for making appropriate public health decisions. With the knowledge and understanding gained from this research, health professionals are better able to identify and interdict significant exposure and mitigate toxicity when exposure occurs. Thus, the SSARP has played, and continues to play, a vital role in contributing towards improving ATSDR's efforts to meet its mission and goals in environmental public health. In addition to addressing research needs of interest to ATSDR, findings from the program have contributed to the overall scientific knowledge about the effects of toxic substances in the environment.

Assessing the learning style preferences of adult workers (consumers) with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and accommodating the consumer's learning style preference during the job training process is a critical feature of quality supported employment services and an under-explored area of applied research. However, before evaluating the effects of learning style preferences on job training outcomes, consumers must first demonstrate the skills to express learning preferences. This research sought to demonstrate a method of assessing the learning style preference of consumers with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and to investigate which of two instructional interventions, when matched with the consumers preferred learning style, would have the greatest impact on consumer job performance. Three independent variables were included in this study: (1) the consumer's learning style preference, (2) auditory instructional cues, and (3) visual instructional cues. The dependent variable was the accuracy of job task performance for each consumer under the alternating instructional interventions. ^ Four participants participated in the exploratory phase (phase I) of the study and three participants participated in the empirical phase (phase II) of the study. Phase I involved a descriptive analysis. Consumer learning style was assessed utilizing the Learning Style Inventory-Primary (Perrin, 1991), which was modified for use with the participant group. Phase II involved single-subject research design principles. Specifically, an alternating treatment withdrawal design was utilized to determine which instructional strategy (auditory or visual cues) when matched with the consumer's preferred learning style, had the greatest impact on the dependent variable. An Independent t-Test and a Helmert Contrast were used to determine statistical significance between conditions. An alpha level of .05 was set for determining significance. ^ Results indicate that learning style preferences for consumers with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities can be reliably assessed. Analysis of the data indicated that there was a significant difference in the effect of the two instructional interventions on consumer job performance. When the instructional intervention was congruent with the consumer's learning style, the greater the improvement in job performance. When the intervention was incongruent to the consumer's preferred learning style, a lesser degree of improved job performance would result. ^

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has been intensively used as a genetic model system for basic and applied research on human neurological diseases because of advantages over mammalian model systems such as ease of laboratory maintenance and genetic manipulations. Disease-associated gene mutations, whether endogenous or transgenically-inserted, often cause phenotypes in vivo that are similar to the clinical features of the human disorder. The Drosophila genome is simpler than that of mammals, in terms of gene and chromosome number, but nonetheless demonstrates extraordinary phylogenetic conservation of gene structure and function, especially notable among the genes whose mutations cause neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, or neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, its well-established neuroanatomical, developmental, and molecular genetic research techniques allow many laboratories worldwide to study complex biological and genetic processes. Based on these merits of the Drosophila model system, it has been used for screening lifespan expansion and neuroprotective activities of plant extracts or their secondary metabolites to counteract pathological events such as mitochondrial damage by oxidative stress, which may cause sporadic neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we have summarized that the fruit fly can be used for early-stage drug discovery and development to identify novel plant-derived compounds to protect against neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, and other neurological disorders caused by oxidative stress. Thus, the Drosophila system can directly or indirectly contribute to translational research for new therapeutic strategies to prevent or ameliorate neurodegenerative diseases.

The species Linum usitatissimum (flax/linseed) has been the focus of a great deal of both basic and applied research effort in plant cell and biotechnology studies in recent years. In this review we consider applications of the techniques of plant biotechnology in this species under several distinct headings. Plant cell and tissue regeneration strategies and applications are discussed, and the applications of the techniques of somatic embryogenesis, protoplast isolation, culture and fusion and cell suspension cultures in this species are described. A major area of study is the use of anther and microspore culture where clear advantages to breeding programmes could be applied. In addition, embryo and ovary culture studies have resulted in significant findings. The more recent technologies of gene transfer and expression by genetic transformation are reviewed, and a section on strategies for improvements in technological quality is also included. Finally we propose conclusions and future prospects for this ancient, but still highly relevant crop.

Social competence is of great interest to developmental psychopathologists and is assessed frequently in both basic and applied research. A review of the literature reveals not only significant heterogeneity in definitions of this construct but an apparent disconnect between theoretical, measurement, and intervention models of competence in youth. This paper attempts to integrate these disparate enterprises by identifying four types of predictors theorists have associated with competencechild, behavior, situation, and judgeand critiquing common models in light of these dimensions. In general, assessment and intervention approaches appear less complex than theoretical conceptualizations of competence. When considering whether to incorporate additional predictors, notably situation-and judge-level factors, into these models, researchers must weigh parsimony versus the model misspecification that results from omitting important variables. Basic research that may assist in making these decisions is identified.

This paper presents an application of high resolution satellite remote sensing data for mapping water quality in the Goldon Horn, Istanbul. It is an applied research emphasizing the present water quality conditions in this region for water quality parameters; secchi disc depth (SDD), chlorophyl-a (chl-a) and total suspended sediment (TSS) concentration. The study also examines the retrievals of these parameters through high resolution IKONOS multispectral data supported by in situ measurements. Image processing procedure involving radiometric correction is carried out for conversion from digital numbers (DNs) to spectral radiance to correlate water quality parameters and satellite data by using multiple regression technique. The retrieved and verified results show that the measured and estimated values of water quality parameters in good agreement (R 2 > 0.97). The spatial distribution maps are developed by using multiple regression algorithm belonging to water quality parameters. These maps present apparent spatial variations of selected parameters and inform the decision makers of water quality variations in a large water region in the Istanbul metropolitan area.

There is a growing trend to involve young people in a range of advisory roles. As a research institution focused on healthy adolescent development, the Johns Hopkins Center for Adolescent Health recognizes its need for youth input on applied research activities as well as its ability to contribute to the positive development of the young people who serve in this capacity. Due to the lack of a tested theoretical model for establishing and maintaining a youth advisory committee, the Center’s Youth Advisory Committee is examined through the lens of a youth development framework that includes opportunities and supports for adult-youth relationships, youth participation, youth as resources, and program flexibility. Challenges and facilitating factors in the development and maintenance of a youth advisory committee are also discussed.

Relations between external researchers and indigenous communities have been increasingly strained by differences in understanding and in expectation about the relevance of research. In the field of resource management, the potential for conflict over research is increased by the politics surrounding control over the resource management decision making processes. In this article, we propose the creation of dialogic networks that engage researchers and indigenous people as collaborators in a process of knowledge production. Such an applied research process can produce context-specific knowledge networks that support management and planning decisions by indigenous people; these networks we refer to as place-based learning communities. We present a researcher's perspective on this approach through our experience with the Shoal Lake Resource Institute of Iskatewizaagegan No. 39 Independent First Nation located in northwestern Ontario.

* 2. If the corresponding P-value is less than a pre-determinedα , the X variable is added. 3. Assume X7 is the variable added in step 1, the stepwise regression routine now fits next regression model with two X variables, where X7 is one of the pair.

Premium Q and Supreme Q are the grades of high quality commercially available cultured quartz from Sawyer Applied Research Products, OH and Toyo Communication Equipment Company, Kawasaki, Japan. These grades of materials are generally used as resonators in high precision frequency control applications. These crystals are essentially identical in terms of their quality factor Q, except for the type of charge compensators at Al 3+ sites. While Premium Q quartz has Li + as charge compensators at Al 3+ sites, in the Supreme Q material the aluminium is compensated with Na + . Our thermoluminescence (TL) investigations suggest that both the types of crystals, in addition to Al and its charge compensators also have Ge and Ti as impurities present in these materials. The TL peak of Ti-related center seems larger in intensity than that of Ge associated centers. However, the relative strengths of these peaks are not directly related with their concentrations. Complimentary investigations on radiation effects using cathodoluminescence and ESR spectroscopy have also been done. Results are discussed in terms of fundamental defect structures in quartz.

Applied behavior analysts have developed many effective interventions for common childhood problems and have repeatedly demonstrated that childhood behavior responds to properly managed contingencies. The success of these interventions is dependent upon their basic effectiveness, as demonstrated in the literature, their precise delivery by the clinician to the parent, and adherence to or consistent implementation of the intervention. Unfortunately, arranging the consistent implementation of effective parenting strategies is a significant challenge for behavior analysts who work in homes, schools, and outpatient or primary care clinics. Much has been done to address issues of adherence or implementation in the clinic, but relatively little has been done to increase our understanding of the contingencies that affect parental adherence beyond the supervised clinic environment. An analysis of the contingencies that strengthen or weaken adherence might suggest strategies to improve implementation outside the clinic setting. What follows is an analysis of the variables associated with adherence by parents to recommendations designed to solve common childhood problems.

A review of clustering methodology is presented, with emphasis on algorithm performance and the resulting implications for applied research. After an overview of the clustering literature, the clustering process is discussed within a seven-step framework. The four major types of clustering methods can be characterized as hierarchical, partitioning, overlapping, and ordination algorithms. The validation of such algorithms refers to the problem of determining the ability of the methods to recover cluster configurations which are known to exist in the data. Validation approaches include mathematical derivations, analyses of empirical datasets, and monte carlo simulation methods. Next, interpretation and inference procedures in cluster analysis are discussed. inference procedures involve testing for significant cluster structure and the problem of determining the number of clusters in the data. The paper concludes with two sets of recommendations.

Based on a review of research, the linkages between distributed hydrological modelling (DHM) remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) techniques, coupled with geomorphological knowledge are discussed. While presenting characteristics of the models, techniques, and supporting analytical tools of geographical hydrology, the emphasis is on the estimation of hydrological variables. The first is limited to the spatialization and integration of low resolution meteorological data with hydrological models in a GIS environment. The second includes research in the calculation of precipitation, evapotranspiration, radiation, etc., from the digital analyses of remote sensing data, to feed either lumped or spatially distributed models. The third links the tools of GIS and RS with hydrological modelling; usually it makes intensive use of the tools of GIS for several scales of spatial modelling. The last group integrates GIS, RS and hydrological modelling supported by the delimitation and characterization of environmental units, generally to detailed and semidetailed scales.

The paper introduces and explores the Plans to Pedagogy research programme, a three-year project focused on teacher capacity-building within schools. Plans to Pedagogy engages practitioner-researchers in the development of their and their colleagues’ spatial learning skills as they move into and attempt to take advantage of innovative learning environments. The programme involves teachers from eight schools across Australia and New Zealand. Still in progress, each three-year project addresses the individual school’s needs, while being supported by a more extensive university-situated “umbrella” research programme. This paper presents emerging findings from Plans to Pedagogy and discusses what is being learned about applied research in schools and how a research-focused approach to professional learning can enhance teacher learning and practice.

Literature on Unified Modeling Language (UML) and aspect-orientation often focus on improving the software development process [2]. This paper presents a systems engineering perspective that motivates an aspect-oriented software architectural analysis approach using ...

... Darrell Norman Burrell* Virginia International University, USA and Marylhurst University, USA E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author Gigi Smith ... 4, No. 2, pp.132–145. Biographical notes: Darrell Norman Burrell is a doctoral student at AT Still University, USA. ...

Objectives: To examine the effects of self-selected asynchronous (background) music on flow and netball shooting performance in three netball players. Based on the research of it was hypothesized that music would promote flow and would therefore have a positive impact on netball shooting performance.

In recent years, choice making has been evaluated as an intervention for people with disabilities. This review examines applied research during the past two decades using choice as a distinct intervention or as part of an intervention package. Fourteen studies published between 1975 and 1996 were identified that implemented choice as an intervention to increase or decrease a target behavior. These studies applied choice-making in the following three broad areas: (a) vocational or domestic activities; (b) academic activities; and (c) leisure, recreational, or social activities. All of the studies indicated that choice-making procedures resulted in behavioral improvements with some, if not all of the participants.

In recent years design and design research shifted from isolated tasks to tackling complex problems such as sustainable development and integrated innovation. These challenges cross the borders of established academic disciplines and exceed the expertise of specialists; rather, they require knowledge, methods, and approaches from several academic fields as well as from scholars and from practitioners. Proceeding from the definition of the terms 1.) multi-disciplinarity, 2.) pluridisciplinarity 3.) cross-disciplinarity, 4.) interdisciplinarity, and 5.) transdisciplinarity, including Michael Gibbons' concept of "Mode 1" and "Mode 2"-science, the paper continues with scrutinizing the controversially discussed question of whether design is a discipline or an 'undisciplinable' profession. On that basis the paper presents the program and measures taken at the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Switzerland, to encourage researchers to engage in inter-and transdisciplinary research projects. Furthermore, it presents two case examples of inter-and a transdisciplinary research projects, conducted by researchers from the School of Art & Design/Competence Centre Design & Management, in collaboration with colleagues from the School of Social Work and School of Business. Finally, the paper concludes by pointing out the specific requirements of conducting inter-and transdisciplinary research projects.

Permission marketing suggests an evolution of direct marketing, particularly used with e-mail. It combines databases of customers who agree to receive marketing messages with low-cost, customized e-mails that attempt to slice through advertising clutter, attract increased customer support, and change behavior.This applied research examined implementing permission marketing, relevant literature, and permission marketing's effectiveness influencing consumer interest and behavior. A case study tested the propositions resulting from the literature review and evaluated responses to a permission marketing campaign that used traditional and new media. This study found that relevance—personalization, brand equity, and previous relationships—influenced response rates. This article adds to the growing body of research on permission marketing's role in marketing theory, as well as its applied effectiveness in the marketplace.

This paper investigates theoretical and empirical links between jobtenure and short-term mobility wage gains. Standard theoretical approaches examining this subject (search theory, job-matching and on-the-job training models) predict a negative correlation between these variables. Furthermore, this result has been confirmed in different applied researches for US. However, European labour market institutions appear to be quite different from US ones, especially for employment protection and turnover costs. Taking this feature into account we develop a theoretical model, evaluated through analytical and simulation procedures, where optimal switching conditions determine a positive correlation between jobtenure and short-term mobility wage gains. The main proposition derived from our model is confirmed for the Italian case. Using a panel database and different econometric specifications -in order to control for individual observable and non-observable effects, firm attributes and endog...

The current applied research on African-American women is characterized by a limited focus on primarily poor and single mothers and comparative studies with white women. The resulting research ignores the diversity within African-American women generalizing from noncomparative or restrictive samples to all African-American women and provides narrowly focused and/or inappropriate research models in which to study the development of these women across the life span. This review focuses on some of this research as it relates to social context factors in African-American women's lives: social supports and parenting, work and self-esteem, gender role attitudes and marital life, and mental health. An examination of methodological problems and suggestions for future research is discussed.