Scheme of work

The cell and cell theory

Cell and it's environment

Mechanism of respiration in plants and animals

Cellular respiration

Cell division

Growth and differentiation

Irritability

Revision

The cell

The cell is the simplest unit of living things capable of independent existence and able to carry
out all life functions. All living things belong to two groups based on the number of cells. They
can either be unicellular or multicellular. The cell have cellular components which are
responsible for the various life functions performed by the cell and ultimately by all living
organisms.

The cell theory

Many scientists contributed to the history and discovery of the cell. Below are few of them and
their contributions

1. Robert Hooke: Discovery of the honeycomb structure of the cell

2. Matthias Schleiden: Discovered that the bodies of plants are made of cells
3. Theodore Schwann: Discovered that the bodies of animals are composed of cells
4. Felix Dujardin: Discovery of the protoplasm
5. Rudolf Von Virchow: Discovered that all cells come from previously existing ones
The contributions of these scientists led to the development of the cell theory. The proponents
of the cell theory are as follows

1. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life

2. All living organisms are made up of cells
3. All cells come from previously existing cells
4. There is no life apart from the life of cells
5. All living things are either single cells or group of cells
6. A cell contains information for it's structural and functional development in the nucleic
acid found in the nucleus.

Forms in which cells exist

Cells exist in various forms, adapted to their functions in living organisms. They can be
categorized into two primary types based on structure:

1.Prokaryotic Cells

Simplest form of cells Found in organisms like bacteria and archaea.

Key Features are:

Lack of a true nucleus: Their genetic material (DNA) is not enclosed within a nuclear
membrane.

No membrane-bound organelles: Structures like mitochondria or the endoplasmic reticulum

are absent.

Cell wall: Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall, which provides structural support and
protection.

Unicellular: Prokaryotes are typically single-celled organisms.

2.Eukaryotic Cells:

More complex structure: Found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

 Key Features are:

True nucleus: Genetic material is enclosed within a nuclear membrane.

Membrane-bound organelles: These cells contain specialized structures such as

mitochondria, chloroplasts (in plants), endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.

3. Unicellular or multicellular: Eukaryotes include single-celled organisms like yeast and

multicellular organisms like humans.

Examples are:

Plant Cells: Characterized by the presence of a cell wall, chloroplasts (for photosynthesis),
and large central vacuoles.

Animal Cells: Lack a cell wall and chloroplasts but have other organelles like lysosomes and
centrosomes.

Fungal Cells: Have a cell wall made of chitin, and they lack chloroplasts.

Protists: Single-celled eukaryotes that can have characteristics of both plant and animal cells.

Each form of cell exists to support life through specific structural adaptations and functions.

Cell components, structures and their functions

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life. Whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic,
they are made up of various components that perform specific roles essential for the survival
and functioning of the organism. Below is an extensive overview of the components of
eukaryotic cells, which include both animal and plant cells

1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

Structure: A phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol (in
animal cells).
 Function: It serves as a semi-permeable barrier, controlling the movement of substances in
and out of the cell. The proteins in the membrane help in transport, signaling, and cell
recognition.

2. Cytoplasm

Structure: A jelly-like substance that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.

Function: It provides a medium for biochemical reactions and holds the organelles in place.
The cytoplasm also facilitates the transport of materials within the cell.

3. Nucleus

Structure: The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelope,
containing nuclear pores for transport. Inside is the nucleoplasm, chromatin (DNA), and the
nucleolus.

Function: The nucleus is the control center of the cell, housing the cell’s genetic material
(DNA). It regulates gene expression, cell division, and protein synthesis.

Nucleolus: Located within the nucleus, it is involved in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
and the assembly of ribosomes.

4. Mitochondria

Structure: Double-membraned organelles with an inner membrane folded into cristae, which
increases surface area for biochemical reactions.

Function: Known as the "powerhouse" of the cell, mitochondria are responsible for cellular
respiration. They convert glucose and oxygen into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell's
energy currency.

5. Ribosomes

Structure: Small, non-membrane-bound structures made of rRNA and proteins. They can be
found free-floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Function: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis. They translate genetic information
from messenger RNA (mRNA) into polypeptide chains, which will form proteins.

6. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure: A network of membranous tubules and sacs (cisternae). There are two types:

Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes.

Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes.

Function:

Rough ER: Involved in protein synthesis and modification. Newly synthesized proteins are
folded and processed here before being transported to other parts of the cell.

Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification of harmful substances, and calcium ion
storage.

7. Golgi Apparatus

Structure: A series of flattened membrane-bound sacs (cisternae).

Function: The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids received from
the ER for secretion or delivery to other parts of the cell. It is also involved in the formation of
lysosomes.

8. Lysosomes (Mainly in Animal Cells)

Structure: Membrane-bound organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes.

Function: Lysosomes are responsible for digesting cellular waste, damaged organelles, and
foreign materials like bacteria. They play a key role in autophagy (self-digestion) and apoptosis
(programmed cell death).

9. Vacuoles

Structure: Membrane-bound sacs, larger in plant cells.

 Function:

In plant cells, the central vacuole stores water, nutrients, and waste products, and helps
maintain turgor pressure, which is essential for maintaining the plant's structure.

In animal cells, vacuoles are smaller and more involved in storage and transport of materials.

10. Chloroplasts (Only in Plant Cells)

Structure: Double-membraned organelles containing chlorophyll and arranged in structures

called thylakoids, which stack into grana. The stroma is the fluid surrounding these structures.

Function: Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis, converting light energy into
chemical energy (glucose) using carbon dioxide and water. Chlorophyll is the pigment that
captures light energy.

11. Cytoskeleton

Structure: A network of protein filaments and tubules, including microfilaments (actin),

intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

Function: The cytoskeleton provides structural support, maintains the shape of the cell, and
enables cellular movement. It also plays a role in intracellular transport and cell division.

12. Centrosomes and Centrioles (Mainly in Animal Cells)

Structure: The centrosome is a region near the nucleus containing a pair of centrioles, which
are cylindrical structures made of microtubules.

Function: Centrosomes play a crucial role in organizing microtubules during cell division,
helping to form the mitotic spindle that separates chromosomes.

13. Peroxisomes

Structure: Small membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes like catalase and oxidase.
 Function: Peroxisomes detoxify harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide, and play a
role in the metabolism of fatty acids and the synthesis of lipids.

14. Cell Wall (Only in Plant Cells, Fungi, and Some Protists)

Structure: A rigid, external layer made of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and other
polysaccharides in protists.

Function: The cell wall provides structural support, protection, and helps maintain the shape
of the cell. It also prevents excessive water intake through osmosis.

15. Cilia and Flagella (Mainly in Animal Cells and Protists)

Structure: Hair-like structures (cilia) or long whip-like structures (flagella) made of

microtubules.

Function: Cilia and flagella are involved in cell movement. Cilia can also move substances
along the surface of the cell, such as mucus in the respiratory tract. Flagella, like those in sperm
cells, are used for propulsion.

Assignment (Drawing and writing)

1.Make a well labelled diagram 8cm by 10cm of

I. A typical plant cell

II. A typical animal cell
III. A typical bacterial cell

2. Make a well labelled diagram 8cm by 10cm of the following cells

I. Chlamydomonas
II. Amoeba
III. Paramecium
IV. Euglena
V. Volvox
 VI. Spirogyra
VII. Hydra

3. Give at least 5 differences between plant cell and animal cell

4. Give at least 5 differences between bacterial call and plant cell

Assignment 2( ( Reading)

The cell's environment