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12. Bark: Part of woody stem composed by secondary phloem and periderm (Phellem(cork) + Phellogen
(cork cambium) + Phelloderm (secondary cortex))
13. Lenticels: There the chief aerating structures occurs as a raised corky spot in the periderm of stem.
The cork cambium is more active and cuts a mass of loosely arranged cells called complementary
cells possess numerous intercellular spaces.
14. Annual rings: The two bands of secondary xylem, i.e., autumn wood and spring wood, produced
in one year, is called and annual ring.
15. The annual rings of woody angiosperms are much distinct and one can easily determine the age of
plant by counting the annual ring, the study discussed is called dendrochronology.
XIV. Secondary growth in roots
1. In Dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely secondary in origin.
2. Originates from the tissues located just located below the Phloem bundles, a portion of pericycle
tissues, above the protoxylem forming a comlpete and continuous wavy ring, later becomes circular.
3. Secondary growth also occurs in stems and roots of Gymnosperms.
4. Secondary growth does not occur in Monocot.

UNIT-III : CHAPTER-8 : CELL THE UNIT OF LIFE

I. Cytology
The branch of biology which comprises the study of cell structure and function is called Cytology.
II. What is cell
1. Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living beings:
2. In unicellular organism (amoeba, paramecium, yeast, bacteria) single cell performs all the essential
functions of life.
3. They are capable of (i) independent existence and (ii) performing the essential functions of life
4. In multicellular organism, different kinds of tissues perform different function and have division
of labour.
5. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first observed and described a living cell.
6. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.
7. Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann( 1938) proposed the cell theory which was later
modified by Rudolf Virchow(1855).
III. Cell theory
1. It is proposed by M.Schleiden and T.Schwann.
2. This theory states that living beings are composed of cells.
3. All cells are basically alike in structure and metabolic activities, functions of an organism depends
on the activities and interactions of the cell.

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4. The cells are considered as structural and functional units of organisms.
5. Omnis cellula -e-cellulae: This statement is given by Rudolph Virchow, which means all cells
are formed from pre-existing cells.
IV. An Overview of Cell
1. The onion cell has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary and just within its is the cell membrane.
2. The human check cell have an outer membrane as the delimitting structure of the cell.
3. The cell that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane
bound nucleus called prokaryotic.
4. Protoplasm: (Nucleoplasm and cytoplasm) Protoplasm is a complex, granular, elastic, viscous and
colourless substance. It is selectively or differentially permeable.
5. Cytoplasm: The substance occurs around the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane containing
various organelles and inclusions is called cytoplasm.
6. Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities.
7. Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells-0.3  m in length; Bacteria- 3 to 5  m ; The largest isolated single
celss; the egg of an ostrich;human RBC-7.0  m in diameter; the longest cells-Nerve cells.
8. The shapes differ : RBC-round and biconcave; WBC-amoeboid;Columnar epithelial cells-long
and narrow; Nerve cell-Branched and long; Tracheid-elongated; Mesophyl cells-round and oval.
V. Prokaryotic cells
1. Bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms) represents
prokaryotes.
2. These cells are small in size and multiply at a faster rate.
3. Prokaryotes have outermost covering known as Cell Wall, except in mycoplasma.
4. PPLO‘s: (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms) These are smallest cells of all living organisms.
5. Mycoplasma. They lack cell wall and live without oxygen (anaerobic condition)
6. The special membrane structure formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into cytoplasm of
prokaryotic cells is called Mesosome.
7. Mesosome help in cell wall formation, DNA replication, respiration and secretion processes and
increase the surface area of plasma membrane.
8. Bacterial cells can be motile as well as non-motile.
9. Bacterium flagella are composed of three parts such as basal body, hook and filament.
10. There are structures which are non-motile and are known as Pili and Fimbriae.
11. Pili are made up of special protein and are elongated tubular structures whereas Fimbriae are
bristle-like structures sprouting out of the cell.
12. Plasmids: Small, circular double stranded DNA found outside genomic DNA in bacteria is called
Plasmids.

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VI. Cell envelope and modifications
1. Glycocalyx: A layer outside bacterial cell wall usually made up of polysaccharides, a loose sheath
layer called slime layer; thick and tough layer called capsule.
2. According to cell envelope or staining procedure, bacteria is classified as gram negative and gram
positive.
3. Bacteria that can be stained using gram stain are known as Gram Positive bacteria whereas those
which are not stained are considered Gram Negative bacteria.
VII. Ribosomes
1. Polysome or polyribosomes: Serveral ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain
which is used to translate mRNA into protein.
2. They are about 15nm by 20 nm in size.
3. Inclusion bodies: Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of
inclusion bodies. Membrane less and free in the cytoplasm. e.g. Phosphate granules, cyanophycean
granules and glycogen granules.
VIII. Eukaryotic cells
1. It includes protists, plants, fungi and animals.
2. They have cell organelles separated by a membrane.
3. They have well developed nucleus separated by a nuclear membrane.
4. All eukaryotic cell are not identical. Plant and animal cells different as the former possess cell wall,
plastids and a large central Vacuole.
IX. Cell membrane (or) plasma membrane
1. In eukaryotes (higher organisms), cell is surrounded by a membrane known as Plasma Membrane
(or) Cell Membrane.
2. Plasma membrane is made up of lipids and protein.
3. Ratio of Protein and Lipids varies from cell to cell.
4. Human erythrocyte plasma membrane contains 52% protein and 40% lipids.
5. Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral.
6. Peripheral protein lie on the surface and integral protein are partially or totally buried in the
membrane.
7. This membrane is selective or semi-permeable in nature, that is, it allows only certain molecules to
enter the cell while remaining left outside the cell.
8. Fluid mosaic model: This is proposed by Singer & Nicolson in 1972.
9. This model explains the selectively permeable nature of plasma membrane, protein molecules float as
icebergs in a ocean of fluid lipid matrix.
10. The fluid nature of membrane is important for cell growth, formation of inter cellular junctions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division.

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11. Active transport: Transmembrane transport requiring energy mostly as ATP, against concentration
gradient is called Active transport. eg. Na  / K  pump.
12. Passive transport: Transmembrane transport not requiring energy (ie) movement down the
concentration gradient is called passive transport.
X. Cell wall
1. It is the outer most protective layer of plant cell.
2. Algal cel wall is made up of Galactans, cellulose, mannans and minerals like Calcium carbonate.
3. Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, protein and pectin
4. Middle lamella is a layer mainly on Calcium pectate which hold on glues the different neighbouring
cells together.
5. Cell wall and Middle lamella may be transversed by Plasmadesmata.
XI. Endomembrane system
A group of cell organelles with co-ordinated functions. (ER, Golgi; lysosomes and vacuoles).
Endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm, extending from nuclear
membrane to periphery is called Endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Inside of the ER is known as Lumen whereas outside the lumen is known as Extra Luminal.
3. There are two types of ER- Rough ER and Smooth ER.
4. Rough ER is covered by ribosomes. involves in protein synthesis.
5. Whereas smooth ER do not contain ribosomes, involves in lipid synthesis.
6. It was named by Porter in 1953.
Golgi Complex:
1. It is made up of cisternae, vescicles and tubules.
2. They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of 0.5µm to 1.0µm diameter.
3. They are arranged near the nucleus.
4. The side facing the nucleus is known as Cis Face whereas side away from the nucleus is known
as Trans Face.
5. It is primarily involved in secretion process.
6. It involves in the cell wall material synthesis and production of lysosomes.
7. It packages the materials in vesicles and helps in transportation to different cell organelles as well as
outside the cell organelle.
8. Important site of formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids.
9. Camillo Golgi first observed this structure.

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Lysosomes
1. Lysosomes are called suicidal bags of the cell.
2. These are spherical, single membrane bounded cell organelles filled with hydrolytic enzymes such
as lipases, proteases which works at acidic environment.
3. They help in digestion of lipids, Proteins and Carbohydrates
4. Lysosomes are formed from Golgi complex and involves in autophagy, heterophagy, autolysis
of the cell.
Vacuoles:
1. The vacuole is the membrane- bound space found in the cytoplasm that contains water, sap, excretory
product and other materials.
2. Tonoplast: Vacuole bound by a single membrane called Tonoplast. In plant cells the vacuole can
occupy up to 90% of the volume of the cell.
3. Facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other materials against concentratin gradients into the
vacuole.
4. Contractile vacuole: Seen in Amoeba for Osmoregulation and excretion.
5. Food vacuole: seen in many cells as in protists.
6. Gas vacuole: in blue green and purple green photosynthetic bacteria
XII. Mitochondria
1. (Gk – mito = thread ; chondrion = granule) Mitochondria are semi autonomous having hollow sac like
structures present in all eukaryotes except mature RBCs of mammals and sieve tubes ofphloem.
2. It has a double membrane structure – The Outer membrane and Inner membrane.
3. The inner membrane is folded to form a structure known as Cristae.
4. The outer membrane and inner membrane is separated by intermembrane space.
5. The inner compartment is known as Matrix.
6. DNA and ribosomes are present in the matrix of the mitochondria
7. These are absent in all prokaryotes like bacteria and cyanobacteria.
8. Mitochondria are called power houses of the cell, is because they covert potential energy in
to kinetic energy and stores in the form of ATP.
9. Benda coined the term Mitochondrion.
10. Mitochondria Helps in oxidative phosphorylation and generates single stranded circular DNA &
ribosomes.
XIII. Plastids
1. Plastids are semiautonomous organelles having DNA, RNA, Ribosomes and double
membrane envelope which store or synthesize various types of organic compounds as ATP and
NADPH + H+ etc.

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2. These are largest cell organelles in plant cell.
3. Found in all plant cells and euglenoids, has specific pigments, as chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
4. Chromoplast provides color to flower and fruits.
5. The pigment present in chromoplast are carotene which provides red colour and xanthophyll
which provides yellow-orange colour.
Chloroplast
1. Chloroplast is double membrane structure-inner membrane and outer membrane.
2. The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
3. Stroma contain flattened sac-like structure known as Thylakoids.
4. It is site of photosynthesis.
5. Thylakoids are stacked upon each other to form grana. Each granum is connected with another
granum by a lamella.
6. It has double stranded circular DNA and ribosomes.
7. Thylakoids: Flattened membrane sacs present inside chloroplasts is called Thylakoid.
8. Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids, which are concerned with the storage of organic food
material, further classified in to three types;
9. Amyloplasts: Starch storing leucoplasts are called amyloplasts. e.g: Potato tubers, Wheat, rice
grains.
10. Elaioplasts: Fats/oil storing leucoplasts are called elaioplasts. e.g: Endosperm of castor seeds.
12. Aleuroplasts: Protein storing leucoplasts are called Aleuroplasts. e.g: Seeds of pulses
XIV. Ribosomes
1. Ribosomes are called protein factories, because these are the sites of protein synthesis.
2. These are of two types 70S and 80S.
3. The former one are found in cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
4. While the latter ones found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic living cells.
5. First observed by George Palade.
XV. Cytoskeleton
1. Elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structure found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells is called Cytoskeleton.
2. This helps in mechanical support, motility & maintenance of shape of cell.
XVI: CILIA AND FLAGELLA
1. Cilia and flagella are hair-like a outgrowth of the cell membrane.
2. Cilia are the small structures which work like oars.

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3. Flagella are comparatively longer and reasponsible for cell movement.
4. The Prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally different that of the Eukaryotic
flagella.
5. The core part of a cilium or flagellum that consists of microtubules in a typical 9+2 array is called
Axoneme.
6. Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centroile like a structure is called the basal bodies.
XVII: Centrosome and centriole
1. Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
2. Centrosome and centriole form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion.
3. Both centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
4. Each centriole has an organisation like the cartwheel.
5. They are made of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
6. The adjacent triplets are also linked to each others.
7. The central part of the centriole is called hub which is connected to peripheral triplets by radial
spokes.
8. Centriole forms the basal body the for cilia, flagella and form spindle fibre during cell division.
XVIII. Nucleus
1. Nucleus is also called Cell brain or dynamic centre of the cell or Master control of the cell.
2. It coordinates and regulates the metabolic activities of the cell, found only in eukaryotic living cells.
3. Discovered by Robert Brown.
4. It is a double membrane structure.
5. The outer membrane is continuous with the ER and contain ribosomes on it.
6. The space between the two membrane is known as Perinuclear Space.
7. The two nuclear membrane are interrupted by minute pores known as Nuclear Pores, which
allow only certain molecules of particular size to enter the nucleus.
8. The nuclear matrix is known as Nucleoplasm, composed of chromatin and nucleolus.
9. Nucleoli are called ribosomal factories because these are the sites of ribosomal synthesis.
10. Chromatin: Thread like coloured material of the eukaryotic nucleus is called Chromatin. It is
discovered by Flemming.
11. Basic proteins associated with DNA is called Histones.
12. Disc shaped structure located in the centromeric part of the chromosome is called Kinetochores.
13. Satellite: A round terminal part of the chromosome present beyond the secondary constriction in
some chromosomes is called Satellite.
14. Based on the position of the centromere chromosomes are classified into four types.

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15. The metacentric choromosome has middle centromere forming at the middle with two equal
arms.
16. The Sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere slightly away from the middle of the chromosome
resulting into one short arm and one long arm.
17. The Acrocentric chromosome the centromere is situated close to its end forming one extremely
short arm and a very long arm.
18. The Telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.
XIX. Microbodies
Membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain various enzymes, seen in both
plant and animal cells .

UNIT-III : CHAPTER-9 : BIOMOLECULES

I. Biomolecules
All the carbon compounds which are present in living organisms are called as Biomolecules.
II. How to analyse chemical composition

1. Chemical components are analysed by using trichloroacetic acid [ Cl3CCOOH ].

III. Types of biomolecules:
1. Based on chemical composition the biomolecules are organic and inorganic.
2. Organic biomolecules are acid soluble chemical compounds.
3. Inorganic biomolecules are acid insoluble chemical compounds. eg. calcium, megnesium.
IV. Based on molecular weight biomolecules are two types:
1. Micro biomolecules: These are acids soluble compounds. Measured in less than 1000 daltons in
weight. eg. amino acids, lipids, sugars, nitrogen bases.
2. Macro biomolecules: These are acids insoluble compounds. Measured in more than 1000 daltons
in weight. eg. proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids.
3. Amino acids: The organic compound which contain amino group and carboxylic acid group are
called as amino acids.
4. Types of amino acids: Based on carboxyle group and R functional group the amino acids are
classified into three types.
i. Acidic amino acids. eg. Glutamic acid
ii. Basic amino acids. eg. Lysine.
iii. Neutral amino acids. eg. Tryosine, Phenylaline, Tryptophan.
5. Lipids are composed with glycerol and fatty acids. eg. Archidonic acid, 20 carbons, Palmitic
acid, 16 carbons.
6. Nitrogen bases: -Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thyamine, Uracil.

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