DEBRE BIRHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCE SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Course Title:- General Microbiology

Course Code:- /NaRM 231/

Individual Assignment

NAME:-Natnael Siyoum Mengesha

ID:- DBUR 1313/12

By student Natnael Siyoum

 GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
1, Briefly discuss historical development of microbiology.
Microbiology, study of microorganisms, or microbes, a diverse group of generally minute simple
life-forms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. The field is concerned with
the structure, function, and classification of such organisms and with ways of both exploiting and
controlling their activities.

Historical background

Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may
have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was
lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his
observations. His descriptions and drawings included protozoans from the guts of animals and bacteria
from teeth scrapings. His records were excellent because he produced magnifying lenses of exceptional
quality. Leeuwenhoek conveyed his findings in a series of letters to the British Royal Society during the
mid-1670s. Although his observations stimulated much interest, no one made a serious attempt either
to repeat or to extend them. Leeuwenhoek’s “animalcules,” as he called them, thus remained mere
oddities of nature to the scientists of his day, and enthusiasm for the study of microbes grew slowly. It
was only later, during the 18th-century revival of a long-standing controversy about whether life could
develop out of nonliving material, that the significance of microorganisms in the scheme of nature and
in the health and welfare of humans became evident.

2, Discuss in detail about plant cell, animal cell, fungi and bacterial cell
their structure components and functions.

A, Plant cells
Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They are eukaryotic cells,
which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out different
functions. ... They also have a cell wall that provides structural support. “Plant cells are eukaryotic cells
with a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out certain specific
functions.”

By student Natnael Siyoum

 Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic
organisms. Both plant and animal cells contain nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the
distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.

Structures of plant cell

Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known
as cell organelles that perform different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include:

Cell Wall:-It is a rigid layer which is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin and
hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins, polysaccharides and
cellulose.

The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant
cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and to provide form and
structure to the cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of the cell.

The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary,
secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes.

Cell membrane:- It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed
of a thin layer of protein and fat.

The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within
the cell.

For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals
are transported across.

Nucleus:-The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital
function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism
and growth.

1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cell’s protein-producing structures and ribosomes.

2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that allows proteins
and nucleic acids to pass through.

Chloroplasts:-It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped

like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast
contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The
chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.

Chromoplasts:-They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for
storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red, orange and yellow coloured
pigments which provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers.

By student Natnael Siyoum

Central Vacuole:-It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane
that surrounds central vacuole. The vital function of central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgid
pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and
other substances.

Golgi Apparatus:-They are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.

Ribosomes:-They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are
the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.

Mitochondria:-They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to as
the “Powerhouse of the cell.”

Lysosome:-Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane.
They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and
foreign bodies in the cell.

Components of plant cell

The nine components of a typical plant cell are:

(1) Protoplasm (2) Protoplast (3) Cytoplasm (4) Nucleus (5) Plastids (6) Chondriosomes or Mitochondria
(7) Centrosomes (8) Golgi Bodies and (9) Lysosomes.

Functions of plant cell

Plant cells are the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant
cells.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process of preparing food by the
plants, by utilizing sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Energy is produced in the form of ATP in the
process. A few plant cells help in the transport of water and nutrients from the roots and leaves to
different parts of the plants.

B, Animal cells
Animal cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Animalia. They are eukaryotic
cells, meaning that they have a true nucleus and specialized structures called organelles that carry out
different functions.

Structures of animal cell

 Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules

and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't
essential to the process.

By student Natnael Siyoum

 Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion
of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past
an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures,

processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is
connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.

 Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a complex
family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of virtually
every animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what occurs during
exocytosis or cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding inward) of a cell's plasma
membrane to surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the extracellular
fluid.

 Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares
them for export to the outside of the cell.

 Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that
play an important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton. Ranging
in size from 8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing elements to
help maintain cell shape and rigidity.

 Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down
cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are
transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.

 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the
cytoskeleton.

 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging from
transport to structural support.

 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of
every eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen
and nutrients into energy.

 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing
and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it stores the cell's
hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth,
intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

By student Natnael Siyoum

  Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm,
roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but
peroxisomes are the most common.

 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Eukaryotic animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These
membranes also regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.

 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60
percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA.

In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

Components of animal cell

A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane. A thin semipermeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. ...
Nuclear Membrane. It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. ...
Nucleus. ...
Centrosome. ...
Lysosome (Cell Vesicles) ...
Cytoplasm. ...

By student Natnael Siyoum

Golgi Apparatus. ...
Mitochondrion.
Functions of animal cell

They are eukaryotic cells, meaning that they have a true nucleus and specialized structures called
organelles that carry out different functions. Animal cells do not have plant-specific organelles like cell
walls, which support the plant cell, or chloroplasts, the organelle that carries out photosynthesis.

C, Fungi Fungi
Are a group of living organisms which are classified in their own kingdom. This means they are not
animals, plants, or bacteria. Unlike bacteria, which have simple prokaryotic cells, fungi have complex
eukaryotic cells like animals and plants

Are a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make
their own food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling in an ecosystem. Fungi reproduce both
sexually and asexually, and they also have symbiotic associations with plants and bacteria.

Structures of fungi

Features. Many fungi look like plants, but fungi are heterotrophs, like animals. ...
Mycelium. A fungal mycelium is a network of threadlike filaments called hyphae. ...
Fruiting Body. The fruiting body of a fungus is a reproductive structure. ...
Spores. Spores are involved in fungal reproduction. ...
Considerations.
Components of fungi

Fungi are unique organisms with body structures and reproductive modes unlike those of any
other organism. Mushrooms, mold and certain parasites are all fungi. The key features of a fungal body
are the mycelium (made up of hyphae), the fruiting body and the spores

Functions of fungi

Like bacteria, fungi play an essential role in ecosystems because they are decomposers and
participate in the cycling of nutrients by breaking down organic and inorganic materials to simple
molecules. Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations.

D, Bacterial cell
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These
organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut.

Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as
by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion. In other cases, bacteria are destructive,
causing diseases like pneumonia and methicillin

By student Natnael Siyoum

 Structures of bacterial cell

 Capsule - Some species of bacteria have a third protective covering, a capsule made up of
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Capsules play a number of roles, but the most
important are to keep the bacterium from drying out and to protect it from phagocytosis
(engulfing) by larger microorganisms. The capsule is a major virulence factor in the major
disease-causing bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Nonencapsulated mutants of these organisms are avirulent, i.e. they don't cause disease.
 Cell Envelope - The cell envelope is made up of two to three layers: the interior cytoplasmic
membrane, the cell wall, and -- in some species of bacteria -- an outer capsule.

 Cell Wall - Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a protein-
sugar (polysaccharide) molecule. The wall gives the cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic
membrane, protecting it from the environment. It also helps to anchor appendages like the pili
and flagella.

 Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the functions for cell
growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed of water,
enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as ribosomes, a
chromosome, and plasmids. The cell envelope encases the cytoplasm and all its components.
Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a membrane enclosed nucleus. The
chromosome, a single, continuous strand of DNA, is localized, but not contained, in a region of
the cell called the nucleoid. All the other cellular components are scattered throughout the
cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasmic Membrane - A layer of phospholipids and proteins, called the cytoplasmic
membrane, encloses the interior of the bacterium, regulating the flow of materials in and out of
the cell. This is a structural trait bacteria share with all other living cells; a barrier that allows
them to selectively interact with their environment. Membranes are highly organized and
asymmetric having two sides, each side with a different surface and different functions.
Membranes are also dynamic, constantly adapting to different conditions.

 Flagella - Flagella (singular, flagellum) are hairlike structures that provide a means of locomotion
for those bacteria that have them. They can be found at either or both ends of a bacterium or all
over its surface. The flagella beat in a propeller-like motion to help the bacterium move toward
nutrients; away from toxic chemicals; or, in the case of the photosynthetic cyanobacteria;
toward the light.

 Nucleoid - The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located. It is
not a membrane bound nucleus, but simply an area of the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA
are found. Most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome that is responsible for replication,
although a few species do have two or more. Smaller circular auxiliary DNA strands, called
plasmids, are also found in the cytoplasm.

By student Natnael Siyoum

  Pili - Many species of bacteria have pili (singular, pilus), small hairlike projections emerging from
the outside cell surface. These outgrowths assist the bacteria in attaching to other cells and
surfaces, such as teeth, intestines, and rocks. Without pili, many disease-causing bacteria lose
their ability to infect because they're unable to attach to host tissue. Specialized pili are used for
conjugation, during which two bacteria exchange fragments of plasmid DNA.

 Ribosomes - Ribosomes are microscopic "factories" found in all cells, including bacteria. They
translate the genetic code from the molecular language of nucleic acid to that of amino acids—
the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are the molecules that perform all the functions of cells
and living organisms. Bacterial ribosomes are similar to those of eukaryotes, but are smaller and
have a slightly different composition and molecular structure. Bacterial ribosomes are never
bound to other organelles as they sometimes are (bound to the endoplasmic reticulum) in
eukaryotes.

 Components of bacterial cell

It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell
structures such as ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids. The cell envelope encases the cytoplasm
and all its components. Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a membrane enclosed
nucleus.

Functions of bacterial cell

Bacteria can have one or more flagella (singular: flagellum). These can rotate or move in a whip-like
motion to move the bacterium. Plant and bacterial cell walls provide structure and protection

3,Discuss in detail the importance of microbiology and microbes in

agriculture.
Microbiology helps us to identify the microorganisms that exist in food. With a better understanding of
these microorganisms, help the biologists to find out the ways for preventing the food from spoilage and
make food safe. Scientists use good bacteria against pathogenic bacteria to prevent food contamination.

Microbial solutions enable farmers to drive yield and productivity in a sustainable way. Deriving from
various naturally-occurring microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, these solutions can protect crops
from pests and diseases and enhance plant productivity and fertility.

Microbes permeate the entire food and agricultural process. While the most visible role of
agriculture is probably that of producing and delivering food, microbiology is critical to other agricultural
sectors as well, e.g., for production of energy and for bioremediation of agricultural wastes.

Microbes permeate the entire food and agricultural process. While the most visible role of agriculture
is probably that of producing and delivering food, microbiology is critical to other agricultural sectors as
well, e.g., for production of energy and for bioremediation of agricultural wastes.

By student Natnael Siyoum

 Agricultural microbiology is the branch of microbiology so it dealing with plant associated microbes
and plant animals diease it also deals with the microbiology of soil fertility such as microbes to
increasing facing the vagaries of climate change. Sustainable agriculture provide resilience because it on
focus on growing avataity of crops while soil are healthy to provide the required of mineral required
from good plant and to get good production .

Microbes important like bacteria and fungi are essential for decomposing organic matter and
recycling old plant material some soil bacterial and fungi from relationship with plant root that provide
important nutrient like nitrogen and phosphorous.

Reference
Plant Anatomy

Dairy Microbiology

Microbiology Application

Manual of Microbiology

Ecology

Internet

By student Natnael Siyoum