Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with membrane bound nucleus. Generally,
plant cells are larger than animal cells and are mostly similar in size and are
rectangular or cube shaped. Plant cells are similar to animal cells in being
eukaryotic and they have similar cell organelles.

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells i.e., the DNA in a plant cell is enclosed within the
nucleus. The most important distinctive structure of plant cell is the presence of the
cell wall outside the cell membrane. It forms the outer lining of the cell. The cell wall
mostly constitutes of cellulose and its main function is providing support and rigidity.
Plants cells also contain many membrane bound cellular structures. These
organelles carry out specific functions necessary for survival and normal operation of
the cells. There are a wide range of operations like producing hormones, enzymes,
and all metabolic activities of the cell.
Diagram of Plant Cell

Plant cells contain cell structures like cell wall, plastids, and large vacuoles.

Cell wall provide plant cells rigidity and structural support and cell to cell
interaction.
Plastids help in storage of plant products.
Chloroplasts aid in carrying out the process of photosynthesis to produce
food for the plants.
Vacuoles are water-filled, membrane bound organelles which stores useful
materials.

Plants have specialized cells in order to perform certain functions for the survival of
plants. Some cells manufacture and store organic molecules, others transport
nutrients throughout the plant.

Some specialized plant cells include: parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells,

sclerenchyma cells, water conducting cells and food conducting cells.
Plants cell constitute of membrane bound nucleus and many cellular structures.
These organelles carry out functions that are necessary for the proper functioning
and survival of the cell. The cell organelles of the plant are enclosed by a cell wall
and cell membrane. The constituents of the cell are suspended in the cytoplasm or
cytosol.
The parts of the plant cell:

Cell wall is the outermost rigid covering of the plant cell. It is a salient feature
of plant cell.
Cell membrane or the plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell inside
the cell wall.
Cytosol or cytoplasm is the gel-like matrix inside the cell membrane which
constitutes all other cell organelles.
Nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is a membrane bound structure
which contains the hereditary material of the cell - the DNA
Chloroplast is a plastid with green pigment chlorophyll. It traps light energy
and converts it to chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.
Mitochondria carries out cellular respiration and provides energy to the cells.
Vacuoles are the temporary storage center of the cell.
Golgi body is the unit where proteins are sorted and packed.
Ribosomes are structures that assemble proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum are membrane covered organelles that transport
materials.

All parts of the plant play a significant role in the proper functioning of the cell. Unlike
animals, plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Structure of a Plant Cell

1. Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. It is made
up of cellulose. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to cells of plants. Plant cell
walls are primarily made up of cellulose. Plant cell wall consists of three
layers: the primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and the middle lamella. It is
located outside the cell membrane whose main function is to provide rigidity,
strength, protection against mechanical stress and infection. Cell wall is made
up of cellulose, pectins,glycoproteins, hemicellulose and lignin.

2. Cell membrane: It is the outer boundary of the cell, it encloses the cytoplasm
and the organelles of the cells. In plants cells it is inside the cell wall. The cell
membrane is semi permeable, allowing only specific substances to pass
through and blocking others.

3. Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing

chlorophyll. They have two membranes and have structures that look like
stack of coins. They are flattened structures which contain chemical
chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis occurs in this region of the plant
cell. The chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight to
make food for the plants by converting light energy into chemical energy.
4. Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubule and micro-
filament. They maintain the shape and gives support to the cell.

5. Microtubules: They are hollow cylinder like structures found in the cytoplasm
of the cells. Its function is transport and structural support.

6. Microfilaments: Microfilaments are solid rod like structures whose primary

function is structural support.

7. Plasmodesmata: They are microscopic channels which traverse the cell

walls of plant cells and enables transport and communication between them.

8. Vacuole: Vacuoles are known as cells storage center. Plant cells have large
membrane bound chamber called vacuole. Its main function is storage.
Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells. They are membrane
bound organelles, they perform functions of secretion, excretion and storage.

9. Tonoplast: A vacuole that is surrounded by a membrane is called tonoplast.

10. Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for
synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes.

11. Leucoplast: They are a type of plastid which are non-pigmented.

12. Chromoplast: They are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and
storage. They are found in photosynthetic eukaryotic species. They are found
in colored organs of plants like fruits and flowers.

13. Golgi complex: The Golgi bodies look like the endoplasmic reticulum and are
situated near the nucleus. They are found in almost all eukaryotic cells. Their
main function is to process and package macromolecules synthesized from
other parts of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is referred to as the cell's
packaging center.
 14. Ribosomes: Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelle. It
comprises of RNA and protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis.
They are found in all cells because protein are necessary for the survival of
the cell. The ribososomes are known as the protein factories of the cell.

15. Endoplasmic reticulum: Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane bound

compartment, which look like flattened sacs lined side by side. It is a large
network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is composed of both rough
endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Animal Cell
All animal cells are multicellular. They are eukaryotic cells. Animal cells are
surrounded by plasma membrane and it contains the nucleus and organelles that are
membrane bound.
Animal cells are of various sizes and have irregular shapes. Most of the cells size
range between 1 and 100 micrometers and are visible only with help of microscope.
Trillions of cells are found in the human body. There are many different types of cells,
approximately 210 distinct cell types in adult human body.
Animal cells are eukarytoic. Animal cells are have outer boundary known as the
plasma membrane. The nucleus and the organelles of the cell are bound by a
membrane. The genetic material (DNA) in animal cells is within the nucleus that is
bound by a double membrane. The cell organelles have a vast range of functions to
perform like hormone and enzyme production to providing energy for the cells.
The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules, mitochondria,
nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma membrane and ribosomes.

Parts of Animal Cell

Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane
bound cellular organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions that
are necessary for the normal functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a
large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of the cell wall, the shape and size of the
animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are structures like
centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-
permeable.
Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are
suspended inside the cell.
Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of
the cell.
Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of membranes composed of rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi complex - is responsible for storing, packaging of cellular products.
Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to
the cell.
Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy.
Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis.
Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of
nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell.
The Eukaryotic Cell

Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, the nucleus and other organelles of the cell are
bound by membrane.
Cell membrane
It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move across it.
Electron microscopic studies of cell membrane shows the lipid bi-layer model of the
plasma membrane, it also known as the fluid mosaic model.
The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has polar(hydrophillic) heads
and non-polar (hydrophobic) tails.

Cytoplasm
The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm.
The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm.
This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink or
burst.

Nucleus
Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA.
The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the nuclear membrane.
The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.
Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.
The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.
The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control center.
The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for ribosome
formation.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes
place.
As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in large
number in all cells.
Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum
ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need certain
changes and also molecules to their destination.
ER is of two types, rough and smooth.
ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic reticulum; while the
smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.

Lysosomes
It is the digestive system of the cell.
They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules and also help in
detoxification of the cell.
If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have used the destructive
enzymes.

Centrosomes
It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the 'microtubule organizing center'
of the cell.
Microtubules are made in the centrosome.
During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving of the chromosome to
the opposite sides of the cell.

Vacuoles
They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.
In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.
Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.

Golgi bodies
Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.
The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing them into smaller units
with membrane known as vesicles.
They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.
They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is created here.
Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.
It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative enzymes that are
digestive in function.
They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in synthesis of
cholesterol.

Cytoskeleton
It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.
They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.
They are different based on the function they perform and their length.
Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and are fewer in
number.
They are organelles of movement.
The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary movement is power
stroke and recovery stroke.

Function of Animal Cell

All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant cells and
animal cells. Structurally there are a few differences in plant and animal cells though
their functionality is almost the same.
All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane
however plant cells have an extra addition the cell wall. The cells have certain
organelles that are membrane bound within them, these structures are called cellular
organelles. These organelles are specified to perform certain activities that are
important for the survival of the cell. All the cells function together in coordination
with each other and help the organism to survive. The functions of animal cell is
carried out by the different cell organelles. The organelles of the cell function as a
unit and regulate the activities of the cell. The different cell organelles and their
functions are as follows:

Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell. The
genetic material of the organism is present in the cell. The replication of DNA,
and synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the cell. It also regulates the
activities of the other cellular organelles.
Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the
cell. Its main function if to produce energy for cell by the process of cellular
respiration. The energy produced is ATP.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain
substances in and out of the nucleus.
Golgi Apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the
molecules that are synthesized by the cells. The crude proteins that are
passed on by the ER to the apparatus are developed by the golgi apparatus
into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins.
Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.
Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have
digestive enzymes and are involved in clearing the in wanted waste materials
from the cell. They also engulf damaged materials like the damaged cells,and
invading microorganisms and digest food particles.
Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or water.

The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular organelles.
These cells function as a unit and the cells together form tissues. A group go tissues
with similar function form an organ and a group of organ of specific function to
perform becomes and organ system. Thus, the microscopic cells form the basic unit
for the activities and coordination and help survival of the organism.

The Cell Cycle

Living cells go through a series of stages known as the cell cycle. The cells grow, copy their
chromosomes, and then divide to form new cells.

G1 phase. The cell grows.

S phase. The cell makes copies of its chromosomes. Each chromosome now consists of
two sister chromatids.

G2 phase. The cell checks the duplicated chromosomes and gets ready to divide.
M phase. The cell separates the copied chromosomes to form two full sets (mitosis) and
the cell divides into two new cells (cytokinesis).

The period between cell divisions is known as 'interphase'.

Cells that are not dividing leave the cell cycle and stay in G0.

Mitosis and Meiosis

Cells divide into two different ways to make new cells.

Mitosis
Mitosis is used to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cells. The cell copies - or 'replicates' - its chromosomes, and then splits the copied
chromosomes equally to make sure that each daughter cell has a full set.

Meiosis
Meiosis is used to make special cells - sperm cells and egg cells - that have half the
normal number of chromosomes. It reduces the number from 23 pairs of
chromosomes to 23 single chromosomes. The cell copies its chromosomes, but then
separates the 23 pairs to ensure that each daughter cell has only one copy of each
chromosome. A second division that divides each daughter cell again to produce four
daughter cells.
Mitosis

Your body contains trillions of cells (thousands of millions). But you started life as a
single cell - a fertilized egg cell. This cell then divided and divided to make more cells
through a process called mitosis.
Mitosis is a way of making more cells that are genetically the same as the parent
cell. It plays an important part in the development of embryos, and it is important for
the growth and development of our bodies as well. Mitosis produces new cells, and
replaces cells that are old, lost or damaged.
In mitosis a cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. It is important that the
daughter cells have a copy of every chromosome, so the process involves copying
the chromosomes first and then carefully separating the copies to give each new cell
a full set.
Before mitosis, the chromosomes are copied. They then coil up, and each
chromosome looks like a letter X in the nucleus of the cell. The chromosomes now
consist of two sister chromatids. Mitosis separates these chromatids, so that each
new cell has a copy of every chromosome.

The
Meiosis

Some simple organisms - such as bacteria - can reproduce by simply dividing

into two new individuals. Other organisms, including human beings, reproduce
through sexual reproduction. New individuals are formed by the joining
together of two special cells: a sperm cell and an egg cell.

The cells in our bodies contain 23 pairs of chromosomes - giving us 46

chromosomes in total. Sperm cells and egg cells contain 23 single
chromosomes, half the normal number, and are made by a special form of cell
division called meiosis.

Meiosis separates the pairs of matching (or 'homologous') chromosomes, so

that sperm cells and egg cells have only one copy of each. That way, when an
egg cell fuses with a sperm cell, the fertilised egg has a full set: that is, two
copies of every chromosome.

Meiosis involves two cell divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

Meiosis I separates the matching - or 'homologous' - pairs of chromosomes.

Meiosis II divides each chromosome into two copies (much like mitosis).

In Meiosis I, each daughter cell receives a mix of chromosomes from the two
sets in the parent cell. In addition, the chromosomes in each matching pair
swap some genetic material before they are parted in a process called
crossing over. These processes produce new combinations of genes in the
sperm cells and egg cells.
BULK-VESICULAR TRANSPORT

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

The movement of macromolecules such as proteins or polysaccharides into or out of
the cell is called bulk transport. There are two types of bulk transport, exocytosis and
endocytosis, and both require the expenditure of energy (ATP).

In exocytosis, materials are exported out of the cell via secretory vesicles. In this
process, the Golgi complex packages macromolecules into transport vesicles that
travel to and fuse with the plasma membrane. This fusion causes the vesicle to spill
its contents out of the cell. Exocytosis is important in expulsion of waste materials
out of the cell and in the secretion of cellular products such as digestive enzymes or
hormones.
Endocytosis, on the other hand, is the process by which materials move into the cell.
There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-
mediated endocytosis. In phagocytosis or cellular eating, the cells plasma
membrane surrounds a macromolecule or even an entire cell from the extracellular
environment and buds off to form a food vacuole or phagosome. The newly-formed
phagosome then fuses with a lysosome whose hydrolytic enzymes digest the food
inside.

In pinocytosis or cellular drinking, the cell engulfs drops of fluid by pinching in and
forming vesicles that are smaller than the phagosomes formed in phagocytosis. Like
phagocytosis, pinocytosis is a non-specific process in which the cell takes in
whatever solutes that are dissolved in the liquid it envelops.

A cell diagram labeled with the steps of pinocytosis

Unlike phagocytosis and pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis is an extremely
selective process of importing materials into the cell. This specificity is mediated by
receptor proteins located on depressed areas of the cell membrane called coated
pits. The cytosolic surface of coated pits is covered by coat proteins. In receptor-
mediated endocytosis, the cell will only take in an extracellular molecule if it binds to
its specific receptor protein on the cells surface. Once bound, the coated pit on
which the bound receptor protein is located then invaginates, or pinches in, to form a
coated vesicle. Similar to the digestive process in non-specific phagocytosis, this
coated vesicle then fuses with a lysosome to digest the engulfed material and
release it into the cytosol. Mammalian cells use receptor-mediated endocytosis to
take cholesterol into cells. Cholesterol in the blood is usually found in lipid-protein
complexes called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). LDLs bind to specific receptor
proteins on the cell surface, thereby triggering their uptake by receptor-mediated
endocytosis.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport occurs when a solute must pass through the cell
membrane against its concentration gradient. A good analogy is that this is like
pushing the water that fell over a waterfall, back up the river to the falls above. It
takes a lot of energy for the cell to do this. Weve learned in the study of osmosis that
solutes move from the higher concentration to the lower concentration. But how do
you get a solute to move to a higher concentration? This requires energy to push
the substance across the membrane. This allows the cell to have substances within
it that differ chemically rom the interior environment of the cell. For example if you
put salt water on one side of a permeable membrane (a barrier that allows certain
molecules to pass through it) and fresh water on the other side, the salt water will
move into the fresh water (higher sodium concentration to lower sodium
concentration) and the result will be that all water will have exactly the same sodium
concentration.

When the concentration of a substance is different inside a cell than outside the cell
there is a concentration gradient, meaning there is a varying amount (i.e. gradient) of
a substance in and out of the cell.

A common example of active transport, or moving a substance against its gradient, is

the maintaining of a balance of sodium and potassium inside and outside a cell.
Obviously too much sodium inside the cell would cause cell death. So, the cell must
actively regulate how much sodium is allowed in through the membrane. The cell
pumps sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell which causes a lower level of sodium inside
the cell than in the surrounding environment. To constantly remove sodium from
inside, the cell requires energy to push it out. The cell simultaneously provides an
internal environment with a higher level of potassium than the external environment;
again anytime a substance operates against the laws of diffusion it takes energy to
maintain that unnatural balance.
Facilitated Diffusion

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, of eukaryotic cells is
composed of a phospholipid bilayer. These phospholipids are composed of a polar
head, made up of a phosphate group, and two non-polar fatty acid tails. This
amphipathic nature of phospholipids creates a semi-permeable membrane, fluid
enough to allow for the growth and movement of the cell, but solid enough to hold
the shape of the cell.

The phospholipids of the membrane are arranged tail to tail, creating a protective,
hydrophobic region in-between the bilayer. This hydrophobic area prevents many
types of molecules from entering the cell; including large, polar or charged
molecules. This is an important feature for the regulation of substances and
concentrations within and without of the cell; however, it poses a problem because
most vital molecules are unable to pass through the membrane via simple diffusion.
Water, for example, is vital to a cells survival. Water is also a polar molecule. How,
then, does the cell allow water and similar molecules to pass in and out? By using a
process termed facilitated diffusion.

There are many ways for a cell to transport molecules across its membrane.
Diffusion is an example of passive transport. Passive means that no energy is
required. Facilitated diffusion is a specific type of passive transport specific to large
molecules, such as glucose, polar molecules, such as water, or ions, such as Na+.

Facilitated diffusion is performed by various types of proteins that are embedded

within the cell membrane. While there are hundreds of different proteins throughout
the cell, only two types are found associated with facilitated diffusion: channel
proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel proteins typically are used to transport ions in and out of the cell. Channel
proteins come in two forms, open channels and gated channels. Open channels are
simply trans-membrane proteins that form a hydrophilic pore in the membrane
allowing the charged (and therefore hydrophilic) ions to flow in and out of the cell
along their respective concentration gradients. Gated channels are slightly more
specific. Found commonly in the nervous system, gated channels open and close in
response to a specific stimulus. This stimulus can be either electrical, i.e. a buildup
of charge from accumulated ions, or molecular, meaning that a second substance
binds to the protein, opening the channel thus allowing the original substance to flow
through the channel.
Carrier proteins transport molecule by changing their shape, or conformation, to
move a specific molecule across the membrane. A buildup of some substance on
one side of the carrier protein causes a conformational change in the protein
allowing the substance to be moved across the plasma membrane.

TRANSPORT MECHANISM
Simple Diffusion
The term simple diffusion refers to a process whereby a substance passes through a
membrane without the aid of an intermediary such as a integral membrane protein.

The force that drives the substance from one side of the membrane to the other is
the force of diffusion.

In order for substances to pass through a cell membrane by simple diffusion it must
penetrate the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer.

The types of molecules that can do this are themselves substantially hydrophobic in
nature such as carbon dioxide, oxygen or ethanol.

In the figure below the green triangle indicates a concentration gradient of carbon
dioxide. The blue arrow indicates the direction of net flow of carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide penetrates the phospholipid bilayer without the aid of an intermediary
molecule. You should be aware that the relative sizes of the molecules in this figure
are not correct. The carbon dioxide molecules are much smaller than the
phospholipids.
GENERAL
BIOLOGY

Submitted by: Allyssa Krystyne T. Onong Gr. 11- STEM 1

Submitted to: Mrs. Sandra Carnicer-Flores, RN, MN