Characteristics of Life

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. Organization: all parts of an organism interact to
Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body. perform specific functions
2. Metabolism: the chemical and physical changes
o Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by organ taking place in an organism
systems. 3. Responsiveness: adjustments that maintain their
o Regional anatomy is the study of the body by areas. internal environment
4. Growth: increase in size of all or part of the organism
o Surface anatomy uses superficial structures to locate
5. Development: changes an organism undergoes
deeper structures.
through time
6. Reproduction: formation of new cells or new
Physiology is the study of the processes and functions of the organisms
body.
Homeostasis - existence and maintenance of a relatively
Structural and Functional Organization constant internal environment.

Six Levels of Organization ❦ Set point is the ideal normal value (body
temperature)
1. Chemical Level - Atoms (colored balls) combine to
form molecules. ❦ Normal range is the fluctuation around set point

2. Cell Level - Molecules form organelles, such as the Homeostasis is maintained by negative and positive feedback
nucleus and mitochondria, which make up cells. mechanisms.

3. Tissue Level - Similar cells and surrounding o Negative feedback turns off the original stimulus
materials make up tissues. o Positive feedback enhances and up-regulates the
initial stimulus (is usually harmful to the body)
4. Organ Level - Different tissues combine to form
organs, such as the urinary bladder.
Terminology and Body Plane
5. Organ System Level - Organs such as the urinary
Body Positions
bladder and kidneys make up an organ system.
❦ Anatomical Position
6. Organism Level - Organ systems make up an
organism.
● The human standing erect with the face directed
forward, the arms hanging to the sides, and the palms
facing forward

❦ Supine – person laying face up

❦ Prone – person laying face down

Directional Terms - always refer to anatomical position.

Body Plane

Sagittal Plane: divides the body into left and right parts.

Transverse Plane: divides the body into superior and inferior

parts.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane: divides the body into anterior and

posterior parts

Organ Planes

Longitudinal Section: along its long axis

Cross (transverse) Section: right angle to the long axis

Oblique Section: across the long axis at an angle other than a

right angle

Body Cavities

Thoracic Cavity: bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm.

Abdominal Cavity: bounded by the diaphragm and the

abdominal muscles.

Pelvic Cavity: surrounded by the pelvic bones.

Serous Membranes

Parietal Membrane: lines the wall of the cavity

Visceral Membrane: is in contact with the internal organs.

Serous Fluid: secreted by the serous membrane and protects

organs against friction.

❦ Pericardial Cavity: surrounds the heart

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 ❦ Pleural Cavities: surround the lungs. o double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins
❦ Peritoneal Cavity: surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic
organs Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol
(20%)
● Mesenteries hold the abdominal organs in place and
provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves o Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails)
to organs. and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles
● Retroperitoneal Organs are located “behind” the o Cholesterol gives the membrane added strength
parietal peritoneum. and flexibility

Chapter 3: Cell Structures and Their Cell Organization

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life

Each cell is a highly organized unit

o Plasma membrane: forms the outer boundary of the

cell
o Cellular organelles: each performs specific functions
o Nucleus: contains the cell’s genetic material and
directs cell activities
o Cytoplasm: the material between the plasma
membrane and nucleus

Functions of Membrane Proteins

• Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid

molecules
• Functions

o marker molecules
o attachment proteins (cadherins and integrins)
o transport proteins
o receptor proteins
o enzymes

Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

Ions and molecules move across plasma membranes by

Cell Functions
o diffusion
o osmosis
1. Metabolize and release energy
o mediated transport
o vesicular transport
o chemical reactions that occur within cells
o release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain
Diffusion
body temperature.

2. Synthesize molecules The movement of a solute from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration within a
solvent
o cells differ from each other because they synthesize
different kinds of molecules
o at equilibrium, there is a uniform distribution of
molecules.
3. Provide a means of communication
Terminology
o achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
Solution: any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in which the
4. Reproduction and Inheritance substances are uniformly distributed with no clear boundary
between the substances
o mitosis A solute dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.
o meiosis Concentration gradient: the concentration difference between
two points divided by the distance between those two point
Plasma Membrane
1. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity the plasma membrane

o encloses cell– supports the cell contents 2. Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do
o a selective barrier that regulates what goes into and not diffuse through the plasma membrane
out of the cell
o plays a role in communication between cells 3. Some specific non-lipid soluble molecules and
ions pass through membrane channels or other
• Separates intracellular substances from extracellular transport proteins
substances
Osmosis
o intracellular: inside cells
o extracellular: (intercellular): between cells The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively
permeable membrane via diffusion.
Fluid Mosaic Model
o through a specific channel protein (aquaporin)
o or through the lipid bilayer
Lipid bilayer

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Terminology Sodium-Potassium Pump

o Osmotic pressure: the force required to prevent the 1) Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
movement of water across a selectively permeable triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+ -K+ pump, which
membrane is an ATP-powered pump.
o Isosmotic solutions: have the same concentration of 2) The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
solute particles as a reference solution (ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy. That
o Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater energy is used to power a shape change in the Na+
concentration of solute particles than a reference -K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to the Na+ -K+
solution -ATP binding site.
o Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser concentration 3) The Na+ -K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are
of solute particles than a reference solution transported across the membrane.
4) The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+ -K+ pump.
Osmotic Concentration of Solutions 5) Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+ -K+ pump.
6) The phosphate is released from the Na+ -K+ pump
binding site.
7) The Na+ -K+ pump resumes its original shape,
transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+
diffuses away from the pump. The Na+ -K+ pump can
again bind to Na+ and ATP.

Secondary Active Transport

Symport of Na+ and Glucose

1) A Na+ -K+ pump (ATP-powered pump) maintains a

concentration of Na+ that is higher outside the cell
than inside.
2) Sodium ions move back into the cell through a carrier
protein (symporter) that also moves glucose. The
concentration gradient for Na+ provides energy
required to move glucose against its concentration
gradient.
Mediated Transport

Process by which transport proteins mediate, or assist in,

the movement of ions and molecules across the plasma
membrane

Characteristics:

1) Specificity: selectiveness
2) Competition: similar molecules or ions compete for a
transport protein
3) Saturation: rate of transport cannot increase
because all transport proteins are in use Vesicular Transport

Types of Transport Proteins Transport of large particles and macromolecules across

plasma membranes.
1) Channel proteins: form membrane channels (ion
channels) o Endocytosis: the movement of materials into cells by
2) Carrier proteins: bind to ions or molecules and the formation of a vesicle
transport them ▪ Phagocytosis: the movement of solid
o Uniport (facilitated diffusion) moves an ion or
material into cells
molecule down its concentration gradient
o Symport moves two or more ions or molecules in ▪ Pinocytosis: the uptake of small
the same direction droplets of liquids and the materials in
o Antiport moves two or more ions or molecules in them
opposite directions
3) ATP-powered pumps: move ions or molecules ▪ Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
against their concentration gradient using the energy involves plasma membrane receptors
from ATP attaching to molecules that are then
o Secondary active transport uses the energy of taken into the cell
one substance moving down its concentration o Exocytosis: the secretion of materials from cells by
gradient to move another substance across the vesicle formation
plasma membrane
Phagocytosis

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

1) Receptors in the plasma membrane bind to molecules

to be taken into the cell
2) The receptors and the bond molecules are taken into
the cell as a vesicle begins to form
3) The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma
membrane

Exocytosis

1) A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma

membrane
2) The membrane of the secretory vesicle fuses with the
plasma membrane
3) The secretory vesicle’s contents are released into the
extracellular fluid

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 Cytoplasm Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the
The material between the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm
nucleus
o Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER
o Half cytosol ▪ Rough ER (RER)
▪ Consists of a fluid part (the site of chemical ● Studded with ribosomes
reactions), the cytoskeleton, and cytoplasmic ● Major site of protein synthesis
inclusions ▪ Smooth ER (SER)
° The cytoskeleton supports the cell and ● Does not have ribosomes attached
enables cell movements. ● Major site of lipid and carbohydrate
synthesis
▪ Microtubules – provide support, aid in cell division,
⮚ Catalyzes the following reactions in
and are components of organelles
various organs of the body
▪ Actin filaments – support the plasma membrane and
❖ Liver: lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of
define the shape of the cell.
glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifiy drugs
▪ Intermediate filaments – provide mechanical support
❖ Testes: synthesis of steroid-based hormones
to the cell
❖ Intestinal cells: absorption, synthesis, and transport
o Half organelles
of fats
▪ Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of ❖ Skeletal and cardiac muscle: storage and release of
chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in calcium
by the cell (lipids, glycogen, hemoglobin,
melanin)
Golgi Apparatus
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Series of closely packed membranous sacs that collect,
package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by
Specialized subcellular structures with specific functions. the ER

Membranous o Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs that

transport material from the golgi apparatus to the
o Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic exterior of the cell
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
Functions of the Golgi Apparatus
Non-membranous
1) Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the
o Centrioles and ribosomes surface of the RER and are transferred into the
cisterna as they are produced
Nucleus 2) The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms
from the membrane of the ER
The nuclear envelope consists of two separate 3) This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi
membranes with nuclear pores. apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the
proteins into its cisterna
4) The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases,
o Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains
modifies the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins
essential solutes
5) The proteins are packaged into vesicles that form
from the membrane of the Golgi apparatus
DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus 6) Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes
that are used within the cell 7. Secretory vesicles
o DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls carry proteins to the plasma membrane, where the
the activities of the cell proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis
o Contains the genetic library with blueprints for nearly 7) Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of
all cellular proteins the plasma membrane
o Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be
synthesized Lysosomes
o Between cell divisions DNA is organized as chromatin
o During cell division chromatin condenses to form Spherical membranous bags containing digestive
chromosomes consisting of two chromatids enzymes
connected by a centromere
o Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Nucleoli and Ribosomes o Degrade nonfunctional organelles
o Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone
Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus o Breakdown non-useful tissue
o Breakdown bone to release Ca2+
o Consist of RNA and proteins o Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells,
o Produces ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) immune cells, and melanocytes
o Site of ribosomal subunit assembly
Action of Lysosomes
Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
1) A vesicle forms around material outside the cell
o Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles 2) The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane
- used inside the cell and becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell
o Attached ribosomes are part of a network of 3) A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus
membranes called the rough endoplasmic reticulum 4) The lysosome fuses with the vesicle
(RER) 5) The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material
- produce proteins that are secreted from in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material
the cell
Peroxisomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases

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 o Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen Transcription
peroxide
o Detoxify harmful or toxic substances Synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the
o Neutralize dangerous free radicals nucleotide sequence in DNA
▪ Free radicals: highly reactive chemicals with
o Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries the genetic
unpaired electrons (i.e., O2 –)
information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes
in the cytoplasm
Mitochondria o Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) – bound to amino
o acids base pair with the codons of mRNA at the
o The major sites of the production of ATP (the major ribosome to begin the process of protein synthesis
energy source for cells) via aerobic cellular respiration o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a structural component of
o Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner ribosomes
membrane that is infolded to produce cristae 1) The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each
o Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their other. One DNA strand serves as a template for
own proteins, and can replicate independently of the mRNA synthesis
cell 2) Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA
nucleotides according to the base-pair combinations
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers shown in the key at the top of the figure. Thus, the
sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA strand
Centrioles: cylindrical organelles located in the (purple) determines the sequence of nucleotides in
centrosome mRNA (grey). RNA polymerase (the enzyme is not
shown) joins the nucleotides of mRNA together
3) As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is
o Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules
formed
o Centrosome: a specialized zone of the cytoplasm
▪ the site of microtubule formation Transcription: RNA Polymerase
o Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in all
directions from the centrosome o An enzyme that oversees the synthesis of RNA
o Unwinds the DNA template
▪ Spindle fibers are involved in the separation of
o Adds complementary ribonucleoside triphosphates on
chromosomes during cell division the DNA template
o Form the bases of cilia and flagella o Joins these RNA nucleotides together
o Encodes a termination signal to stop transcription
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli
Transcription
Cilia move substances over the surface of cells Posttranscriptional processing - modifies mRNA before it
leaves the nucleus by removing introns (non-coding) and then
Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells splicing exons (coding) together with enzymes called
spliceosomes
Microvilli increase the surface area of cell and aid in ● Functional mRNA consists only of exons
absorption and secretion Alternative splicing - produces different combination of
exons, allowing one gene to produce more than one type of
Protein Synthesis protein

o DNA serves as master blueprint for protein synthesis

o DNA controls enzyme production and cell activity is Translation
regulated by enzymes (Proteins) Synthesis of proteins in response to the codons of mRNA
o Genes are segments of DNA carrying instructions for – Codon: a set of 3 nucleotides that codes for amino
a polypeptide chain acid during translation
o Triplets of nucleotide bases form the genetic library – Anticodon: part of tRNA and consists of three
o Each triplet specifies coding for an amino acid nucleotides and is complementary to a particular
codon of mRNA
Protein Synthesis • mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes
• tRNA which carries amino acids, interacts at the ribosome
Two Step Process with mRNA. The anticodons of tRNA bind to the codons of
mRNA, and the amino acids are joined to form a protein
o Transcription
Cell Division
▪ cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make
a particular protein: messenger RNA (mRNA) • Cell division that occurs by mitosis produces new cells for
growth and tissue repair
▪ mRNA then travels from the nucleus to the • Cell division that occurs by meiosis produces gametes (sex
ribosomes where the information is translated cells). 
into a protein – Sperm cells in males
o Translation – Oocytes (egg cells) in females
• Chromosomes
▪ requires both mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA)
– Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes
▪ tRNA brings the amino acids necessary to – Gametes have a haploid number 
– In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) and the
synthesize the protein to the ribosome
haploid number is 23
• Twenty-two pairs of autosomal chromosomes
Overview of Protein Synthesis • One pair of sex chromosomes
– Females XX
1) DNA contains the information necessary to produce – Males XY
proteins • DNA replicates during interphase, the time between cell
2) Transcription of one DNA strand results in mRNA, division
which is a complementary copy of the information in
the DNA strand needed to make a protein Mitosis and Cytokinesis
3) The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a
ribosome
1. Interphase - the time between cell divisions. DNA is found
4) Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are
as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus. DNA replication
carried to the ribosome by tRNAs
occurs during interphase. Organelles, other than the nucleus,
5) In the process of translation, the information
duplicate during interphase
contained in mRNA is used to determine the number,
kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain.

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2. Prophase - the chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Selective permeability - property of the membrane to choice
The centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell, and the or select the materials or substances that can enter and leave
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope disappear. Microtubules the cell.
form near the centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle  
fibers, project toward an invisible line called the equator and ° Nucleus - unifies, controls, and integrates the
overlap with fibers from opposite centrioles. functions of the entire cell and is thought of as the
“command center” of the cell.
3. Metaphase - the chromosomes align in the center of the cell  
in association with the spindle fibers. Some spindle fibers are 3 Components
attached to kinetochores in the centromere of each
chromosome 1. Nucleoplasm - contains nutrients, gelatinous matrix or base
material of nucleus.
4. Anaphase - the chromatids separate, and each chromatid is
then  referred to as a chromosome. Thus, the chromosome 2. Chromosomes - embedded or suspended in the
number is double, and there are two identical sets of nucleoplasm, made up of thousands of “genes”.
chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by the spindle ● Genes - is the unit that codes for or determines a
fibers, move toward the  particular traits or characteristics of an individual
centrioles at each end of the cell. Separation of the chromatids organism. Different species have different numbers
signals the beginning of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase and sizes of chromosomes
has  ● Ex. Humans- 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) each
ended, the chromosomes have reached the poles consisting a thousands of genes. Human genome
30,000 genes
5. Telophase - migration of each set of chromosomes is 3. Nuclear membrane - skin around the nucleus.
complete. The chromosomes unravel to become less distinct
chromatin threads. The nuclear envelope forms from the Cytoplasm – (a type of protoplasm) is a semi-fluid, gelatinous
endoplasmic reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis nutrient matrix. Inside the cytoplasm is found insoluble storage
continues to form two cells granules and variety of cytoplasmic organelles.

6. Mitosis - is complete, and a new interphase begins. The Organelles found in the Cytoplasm
chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell
division has produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that 1. Endoplasmic Reticulum - membranes interconnected and
is identical to the DNA of the parent cell arranged to form a transport network of tubules and flattened
sacs within the cytoplasm, connecting the outside of the cell to
Differentiation the nucleus.
 
● Process by which cells develop specialized structures
● Transport nutrients to the nucleus and provides
and functions
some structural support to the cell.
● All the cells in an individual’s body contain the same
amount and type of DNA because they resulted from
 A. Rough ER (RER) – endoplasmic system where secretory
mitosis
proteins and membranes are manufactured because of the
● Differentiation results from the selective activation and
Ribosomes attached to it.
inactivation of segments of DNA in each different cell
type
Ribosomes - organelle for the “synthesis or the production
ofproteins”, the most numerous organelles in the cell.
 
CYTOLOGY
B. Smooth ER ( SER) – membranous tubules and sacs
important in lipids synthesis, detoxification and calcium
Robert Hooke first to use the term “cell”, observed the small
storage.
empty chambers in the structure of cork.
 
● cells are not empty but rather contain a sticky viscous
Golgi Complex/ Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi Body
fluid, “that this viscous fluid within the cell enables it to
live and reproduce.
● Connects and communicate with the ER.
● Flattened membranous sacs completes the synthesis
Cytology – is a science that deals with the study of the
of secretory proteins, packages them into small sacs
structures and functions of the cells.
called vesicles for storage or export outside the cell.
● Modifies, stores, repackage and transport product
Cell - “fundamental living unit of any living organism
of the ER.
- “basic unit of life”.
● Like the organism, cell exhibits the basic
Lysosomes - small vesicles originate from the Golgi complex,
characteristics of Life.
contain lysozymes and other digestive enzymes that break
down foreign material taken into the celI (phagocytosis),
Parts of the Cell
these enzymes aid in breaking down worn out parts of the cell
and may destroy the entire cell. (autolysis)
1. Protoplasm - “the Substance of Life”- made up of various
● Digestive body of the cell.
chemicals within the cell, which enable the cell to live and
reproduce “living materials of the cells”.
Peroxisomes - contains enzyme catalase, which catalyzes the
 
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
2. Organelles - “tiny particles” found inside the cell, they
Mostly found in eucaryotic cells
have specific functions for the metabolism of the cells.
 
Mitochondria
3. Cytoplasm - living substances or base materials outside the
● "powerhouse” “power plants” or “energy factories”
nucleus, area outside the nucleus of the cell.
of the cell.
 
● synthesis of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), necessary
4. Nucleoplasm - gelatinous matrix or base materials of the
for the cellular function
nucleus.
● converting sugars (glucose) to chemical energy in the
form of ATP
Eucaryotic Cell
Plastids
Eucaryotes - “Eu”- true “caryo”- refers to nut or nucleus.
● membranous-bound structures containing various
- True nucleus.
photosynthetic pigments: which are sites of
photosynthesis
° Cell membrane - enclose the cell, “plasma
 
membrane”, made of proteins and phospholipids
Chloroplasts – one type of plastids contain green pigment
(fats) Protects the cell, regulates the passage of
called chlorophyll these are present in plants and algae.
nutrients, waste products, secretions across the
Plants both contain mitochondria and plastids.
cellular membrane. Like a skin around the cell,
separating the contents of the cell from the outside
Centrioles - two cylindrical organelles near the nucleus
world.
responsible for the formation of spindle fibers for eucaryotic
cell division.
 

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Cytoskeleton - systems of fibers that serve to strengthen, 2. Acting as barriers
support, and stiffen the cell as well as give the cell its shape. – Example: outer layer of skin
3. Permitting the passage of substances
The three types are: – Example: epithelium in the lungs
● Microtubules 4. Secreting substances
● Microfilaments (actin filaments) – Example: mucous glands and sweat glands
● Intermediate filaments. 5. Absorbing substances
– Example: epithelial cells of the intestine
Cell Wall
● External structures that provide rigidity, shape and Epithelial Tissue Classification
protection for plants cells, algae and fungi. Epithelia are classified according to the number of cell layers
● Eucaryotic cell wall contains – cellulose, pectin, and the shape of the cells
lignin and chitin. – Cell layers
● Plants and Algae - cellulose ● Simple epithelium has one layer of cells
● Fungi - chitin (also found in the exoskeletons of ● Stratified epithelium has more than one celllayer
beetles and crabs) ● Pseudostratified epithelium has one layer, but
appears to have two or more layers
Flagella ● Transitional epithelium is stratified epithelium that
- flagellum (singular) - organelles of locomotion (cell can be greatly stretched
movement) relatively long, thin structures, enable the cell to – Cell shape
swim through liquids environments.
  ● Squamous are flat and thin
Ex. Spermatozoa/sperm cells, protozoa and bacteria. ● Cuboidal are cubelike
● Columnar are tall and thin
Cilia
cilium (singular)- organelles for locomotion, shorter (hair like
structures), more numerous than flagella. They tend to be in
coordinated, rhythmic movements.
 
Ex. Human body (respiratory tract, which is called ciliated
epithelial cells), bacteria and protozoans.

Tissues and Histology

● Tissues are collections of similar cells and 
the extracellular matrix surrounding them
● Histology is the study of tissues

The Four Primary Tissue Types:

– Epithelial tissue
– Connective tissue
– Muscle tissue
– Nervous tissue

Embryonic Tissue
Primary tissue types are derived from the embryonic germ
layers
● Endoderm - forms the lining of the digestive tract and
its derivatives
● Mesoderm - forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and
blood vessels
● Ectoderm - forms the outermost layer of skin and the
nervous system
Gives rise to all tissues of the body

Epithelial Tissue
● Covers surfaces
● Has little extracellular material
● Usually has a basement membrane
● Has no blood vessels
Epithelial Cells
● Have a free, or apical, surface (not attached to other
cells)
● A lateral surface (attached to other cells)
● A basal surface (attached to the basement
membrane)

Epithelial Tissue Functions

1. Protecting underlying structures
– Example: outer layer of skin and oral mucosa

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 ● Example: Lining of blood vessels
– Microvilliare cylindrical extensions of the cell membrane that
increase surface area (cells involved in absorption of secretion)
● Example: Lining of the small intestines
• Ciliapropel materials over the cell surface
● Example: Lining of the nasal cavity and trachea
Cell connections
● Tight junctions bind adjacent cells together and form
a permeability barrier
● Desmosomes mechanically bind cells together
● Hemidesmosomes mechanically bind cells to the
basement membrane
● Gap junctions allow intercellular communication

Epithelial Tissue Glands

Gland - a single cell or a multicellular structure that secretes
– Endocrine glands do not have ducts
● Secrete hormones directly into the blood
– Exocrine glands have ducts
● Secretions are released onto a surface or into a cavity
– Sweat glands and mammary glands
● Classified by
– Structure
– How products leave the cell

Structure of Exocrine Glands

Simple: have one duct
Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly
Tubules: ducts end in small tubes
Acini: ducts end in saclike structures
Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs
 
Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types
Merocrine – no loss of cellular material
(Ex. sweat glands)
Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off
(Ex. mammary glands)
Holocrine – entire cell is shed
(Ex. sebaceous glands)

Connective Tissue
Consist of cells seperated from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix

Functions
1) Enclosing and separating
2) Connecting tissues to one another
(Ex. Ligaments and Tendons)
3) Supporting and moving
(Ex. Bones and cartilage)
4) Storing
(Ex. Adipose tissue and Bones)
5) Cushioning and insulating
(Ex. Adipose tissue)
6) Transporting(Ex. Blood)
7) Protecting(Ex. Blood and Bones)

Connective Tissue Cells

Specialized cells of various connective 
tissues produce the extra cellular matrix
– End in suffixes that identify the cell functions
Blast (germ) cells form the matrix
Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
Clast (break) cells break it down

Connective Tissue
Extracellular matrix contains

– Protein fibers
● Collagen fibers are flexible but resist stretching
● Reticular fibers form a fiber network
● Elastic fibers recoil
Epithelial Tissue: Structural and Functional Relationships
– Ground substance
Cell Layers and Cell Shapes ● Proteoglycans in ground substance hold water,
– Simple epithelium is involved with  enabling connective tissues to return to their original
● Diffusion shape after being compressed
● Secretion
● Absorption – Fluid
– Stratified epithelium serves a protective role
– Squamous cells function in Connective Tissue Classification
● Diffusion
● Filtration Mesenchyme - embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to
– Cuboidal or columnar cells, which contain cellular six major categories of connective tissue 
organelles – Loose or areolar connective tissue is the “loose packing”
● Secrete material of the body
● Absorb ● Fills the spaces between organs
Free Cell Surfaces ● Holds organs in place
– A smooth, free surfacereduces friction

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– Adipose tissue (fat)
● Stores energy
● Pads and protects parts of the body
● Acts as a thermal insulator

– Dense connective tissue - consists of a matrix 

containing densely packed fibers
● Collagen fibers (Ex. tendons, ligaments, and dermis
of the skin)
● Elastic fibers (Ex. elastic ligaments and in the walls
of arteries)
 
– Cartilage provides support
● Hyaline cartilage (Ex. covers ends of bones and
forms costal cartilages)
● Fibrocartilage (Ex. disks between vertebrae)
● Elastic cartilage (Ex. external ear)

– Bone has a mineralized matrix

● Forms most of the skeleton of the body
● Compact bone has more matrix than spaces
● Cancellous bone has more spaces then matrix
– Blood has a liquid matrix
● Found in blood vessels
● Produced in hemopoietic tissue (red bone marrow)

9
 Muscle Tissue
 Specialized to contract, or shorten, making movement
possible
– Length of muscle cells is greater than the diameter
– Sometimes called muscle fibers because they often
resemble tiny threads

Three types of Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal
● Meat of animals
● Constitutes ~40% of a person’s body weight
● Attaches to the skeleton and allows for movement
● Voluntary, multinucleated, and striated (banded)

2. Cardiac
● Muscle of the heart
● Connected to one another by intercalated disks
(contain gap junctions)
● Involuntary, striated, and usually have one nucleus
per cell

3. Smooth
● Forms the walls of hollow organs (except the heart)
and also is found  in the skin and the eyes
● Involuntary, not striated, and have a single nucleus

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 Inflammation
● Function of the inflammatory response is to isolate
Nervous Tissue
and destroy harmful agents
● Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct action
potentials (electrical signals)
Five Symptoms 
● Neurons conduct action potentials
● Neuroglia support the neurons ● Heat
● Swelling
●  Pain
● Disturbance of function
Chronic inflammation results when the agent causing injury is
not removed or something else interferes with the healing
process
Tissue Repair
● Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead
cells
– Labile cells divide throughout life and can undergo
regeneration
– Stable cells do not ordinarily divide but can 
regenerate if necessary
– Permanent cells have little or no ability to divide
● If killed, repair is by replacement
● Tissue repair involves
Membranes – Clot formation
Mucous membranesline cavities that open to the outside of – Inflammation
the body – Formation of granulation tissue
– Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive – Regeneration or replacement of tissues
tracts ● In severe wounds, wound contracture can occur
– Contain glands
– Secrete mucus Tissues and Aging
Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do not open to the ● Cells divide more slowly as people age
outside of the body ● Injuries heal more slowly
– pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities ● Extracellular matrix containing collagen and elastic
– Do Not contain glands fibers becomes less flexible and less elastic
– Secrete serous fluid ● Consequently
Synovial membranes line freely movable joints – Skin wrinkles
– Elasticity in arteries is reduced
– Bones break more easily

Histology - the study of tissues

Four Types of Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissues - it covers or lines something

Absorb - lining of the small intestines

Transport – kidney tubules
Excrete – sweat and endocrine glands
Protect- the skin
Contain nerve cells for sensory reception - the taste buds in
the tongue

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

According to layers:
1. Simple epithelial – consist only one layer of cells
2. Stratified epithelial a consist of two or more layers of cells.
3. Pseudostratified - false layered cells

According to shape:
1. Squamous epithelium - flat, platelike cells
2. Cuboidal epithelium - shaped like a cube

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3. Columnar epithelium - columnlike cells Two major layers:

Transitional Epithelium - (also known as urothelium) is a 1. Dermis - is a layer of dense connective tissue
type of tissue consisting of multiple layers of epithelialcells 2. Epidermis - is a layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the
which can contract and expand. These cells, part of the dermis.
epithelium, are found in the urinary bladder, in the ureters,
and in the superior urethraand gland ducts of the prostate. ● The thickness of the dermis and epidermis varies
depending on the location, but on the average, the
Connective Tissues - connections and Support dermis is 10-20 times thicker than the epidermis and
is responsible for most of the structural strength of
skin.
 
Types of Fiber Arrangements

1. Loose Connective tissue - strong, flexible fibers of the

protein collagen are interwoven with fine, elastic, and reticular
fibers, giving loose connective tissue its elastic consistency
and making it an excellent binding tissue.

2. Fibrous connective Tissue - collagen fibers are densely

packed and may lie parallel to one another, creating very
strong cords, such as tendons and ligaments

Areolar Connective Tissue - found beneath the skin

● Hyaline Cartilage - (nose, trachea, larynx and ends
of long bones)
● Elastic Cartilage - (external ear, epiglottis,)
● Fibrocartilage - (intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis,
knee joint)

Fibrous Connective Tissue - (Tendons)

Dermis
  connects muscles to bone.
● Ligaments (connects bone to bone)
● Dense collagenous connective tissue makes up the
dermis.
Bone Tissue (support protect, provide leverage for muscles to
•Contains fibroblasts, fat cells and macrophages
act on, stores calcium and fat and forms blood cells)
Nerves, hair follicle, smooth muscles, glands and
lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis.
Skeletal Muscles - (Voluntary movements, attached to the
bones, Straited muscles)
If the skin is overstretched, the dermis can be damaged,
leaving lines that are visible through the epidermis.
Cardiac Muscles - (involuntary control, straited, found wall of
the heart)
Striae or Stretch marks - are the lines due to overstretching
of the skin. Can develop on the abdomen and breast of woman
Smooth Involuntary Muscles (moves substances or objects,
during pregnancy.
like foodstuff and urine along internal passageways;
involuntary control, non straited)
Dermal Papillae- are projections on the upper part of the
dermis which extend toward the epidermis.
Nervous Tissue - ( Brain, spinal cord, and nerves), transmit
● The dermal papillaein the palms of the hands, the
electrical signals.
soles of the feet, and the tips of the digits are parallel,
curvaturing ridges that shape the overlying epidermis
Sensory cell - found in sense organs
into fingerprints and footprints.
● Ridges increase friction and improve the grip of the
Sensory Nerves - carries information from the sense organ to
hands and feet.
the Brain and Spinal cord.
Epidermis
Motor neuron - nerves that carries information from the brain
● Is stratified squamous epithelium ; in its deepest
and spinal cord to the body (muscles and glands)
layers, cells are produced by mitosis.
● A new cells are formed, they push older cells to the
Functions of Integumentary System
surface, where they slough or flake off.
● Keratinization- cells become filled with the protein
1. Protection- provides protection against abrasion and keratin, which makes the cells hard.
ultraviolet light. It prevent entry of microorganisms and ● Keratinocytes- cells that produce keratin.
dehydration by reducing water loss from the body.

2. Sensation- has sensory receptors that can detect heat,

cold, touch , pressure and pain.

3. Vit. D Production- when exposed to UV light, the skin

produces a molecules that can be transformed into vitamin D.

4. Temperature regulation- body temperature is regulated by

controlling blood flow through the skin and the activity of sweat
glands.

5. Excretion- small amounts of waste products are lost

through the skin and in gland secretions.

Hypodermis
● The skin rest on the hypodermis ( under the dermis),
which attaches it to underlying bone and muscle and Cells in Epidermis
supplies it with blood vessels and nerves. ● MerkelsCells- are found in the stratum germinativum
● The hypodermis is not part of the skin, is sometimes are often associated with intraepithelial nerve endings
called Subcutaneous tissue. and function as mechanoreceptors. Ex. Stretching,
● The hypodermis is loose connection tissue that applying pressure.
contains the body stored. ● Langerhans- cells have immunological function, and
are responsible for contact dermatitis
Skin

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 ● Contact dermatitis is a term for a skin reaction,
becomes red, sore, or inflamed (dermatitis) resulting
from exposure to allergens (allergic contact
dermatitis) or irritants (irritant contact dermatitis).
● Irritant dermatitis is the most common type. It's
caused by contact with acids, alkaline materials such
as soaps and detergents, fabric softeners, solvents,
or other chemicals. The reaction usually looks like a
burn.

Allergens

● Adhesives, including those used for false eyelashes

● Antibiotics such as neomycin rubbed on the
surface of the skin
● Fabrics and clothing ( diapers)
● Fragrances in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and
moisturizers 2. Muscles- Arrectores pilorum/ arrector pili muscles-
● Nail polish, hair dyes, and permanent wave solutions contraction causes hair to stand.
● Nickel or other metals (found in jewelry, watch ● (goose flesh- raised area of the skin)
straps, metal zips, bra hooks, buttons, pocketknives,
lipstick holders, and powder compacts) 3. Glands 
1. Sebaceous glands – oils glands, produced sebum.
Melanin transfer from melanocytes to Epithelial Cells Clogged up sebum, debris and bacteria resulting in blackheads
1. Melanin are produced by the golgi complex of the and acne. Active in puberty.
melanocytes. 2. Sweat glands – two kinds
2. Melanosomes (packages of melanin in vesicle) move into ● 1. Merocrine sweat glands – coiled tubular glands
melanocytes cell processes. located almost every part of the skin, numerous in
3. Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte cell palms, forehead and soles. Stimulated by heat, direct
processes. control of hypothalamic thermostat.
4. The melanosomes - which were produced inside the ● 2. Apocrine / odoriferous sweat glands- produce a
melanocytes, have been transferred to epithelial cells and now thick secretion rich in organic substances, they open
inside them. into hair follicles, but only in axillae , mammary areola,
  and genitalia. Active at puberty due to influence of sex
hormones.

Accessory Skin Structure

1. Hair
● Hair follicle – is an invagination of the epidermis
which is the only living part of the hair because it is
where hair begins to grow.
● Hair Shaft- the exposed part of the hair, extended to
the epidermis.

4. Nails
Matrix- is the tissue upon which the nail rest. It contains
nerves, lymp and blood vessels. It is for the production of the
cells that eventually become the nail plate. 

Nail parts
1. Nail body/ nail plate- visible part of the nail. Actual
nail composed of translucent keratin protein which
forms a strong flexible material composed of several
layers of dead, flattened cells.
2. Nail root- part of the nail covered with by skin
3. Nail bed- under the nail body.
4. Lunula- can be seen through the nail body as a
whitish, crescent –shaped area at the base of the nail.

5.Cuticle (eponychium) – stratum corneum extends unto the

nail body. Is the small band of epithelium found in the posterior
nail wall to the base of the nail.

6.Free margin- refers to the anterior margin of the nail plate. It

is the cutting edge of the nail.

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7. Hyponychium- is located at the junction between the free ● Composed of keratinized stratified  squamous
edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects epithelium, consisting of four  distinct cell types and
the nail bed. four or five layers
● Cell types include keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel
8. Nail wall – is the cutaneous fold overlapping  cells, and Langerhans’ cells
the sides and proximal end of the nail. ●  Outer portion of the skin is exposed to the external
environment and functions in protection
9. Paronychium- is the border tissue around the nail.
Cells of the Epidermis
 Keratinocytes
● Most abundant cell type
● Produce the fibrous protein keratin
● Gives skin its protective properties
Melanocytes
● Produce the brown pigment melanin
● Found in the deepest layers of the epidermis
Langerhans’ cells
● Epidermal macrophages
● Help activate the immune system
Merkel cells
● Touch receptors in association with sensory nerve
endings

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
● Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis
- Structural strength is provided by desmosomes
● Nail grow at an average rate of 3 mm (0.12 in) per and hemidesmosomes
month. Fingernails require 3 to 6 months to grow ● Consists of a single row of the youngest keratinocytes
completely, while toenail require 12 to 18 months. ● Cells undergo mitotic divisions ~every 19 days
● 10-25% are melanocytes

Stratum Spinosum
● Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells are abundant
in this layer
- Melanin is taken up by the keratinocytes and
accumulates on  the “sunny side” to protect the
nucleus from UV damage
Stratum Granulosum
● Drastic changes in keratinocyte appearance occurs
● Keratohyaline and lamellated bodies (waterproofing)
accumulate in the cells of this layer
● Above this layer the epithelial cells die because they
are too far from the dermis
Stratum Lucidum
● Thin, transparent band superficial to the Stratum
Granulosum
● Consists of a few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
● Present only in thick skin
Stratum Corneum
Skin Cancer ● Outermost layer of keratinized cells
Malignant melanoma is the aggressive one that tends to ● Accounts for three quarters of the epidermal thickness
spread to other parts of the body. This type can be fatal if not ● 20-30 cell layers thick, all dead.
recognized early in the course of the dissease. ● Millions rub off everyday. Totally new every 25-45
days.
Functions of the Integumentary System ● Functions include:
● Consists of the skin, hair, glands, and nails - Waterproofing
● Functions - Protection from abrasion and penetration
1. Protection - Rendering the body relatively insensitive to
– Against abrasion and UV light biological, chemical, and physical assaults
– Prevents entry of microorganisms
– Prevents dehydration Thick and Thin Skin
2. Sensation Thick skin has all five epithelial strata
– Sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, Thin skin contains fewer cell layers per stratum
pressure, and pain ● Stratum lucidum is usually absent
3. Temperature regulation by controlling ● Hair is found only in thin skin
– Blood flow through the skin
– Sweat gland activity Skin Color
4. Vitamin D production Melanocytes produce melanin inside melanosomes and then
5. Excretion of small amounts of waste products transfer the melanin to keratinocytes
● The size and distribution of melanosomes determine
Skin skin color
● SA – 1.2-2.2 m2 and weighs 4-5 kg (9-11 lbs) ● Melanin production is determined genetically but can 
● Consists of three major regions be influenced by UV light (tanning) and hormones
Increased blood flow produces a red skin color (Erythema),
Epidermis: outermost region (superficial) whereas a decreased flow causes pale skin
● Resists abrasion ● Decreased oxygen content in the blood results in a 
● Reduces water loss bluish color called cyanosis
Carotene, an ingested plant pigment, can cause the skin to
Dermis: middle region (bulk of skin) appear yellowish
● Responsible for most of the structural strength of the
skin Dermis
● Leather is produced from the dermis of animals ● Second major skin region containing strong, flexible
Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): deepest region connective tissue
● Not really part of the skin ● Cell types include fibroblasts, a few  adipose cells and
● Connects the skin to underlying muscle or bone macrophages
Epidermis ● Composed of two layers: papillary and reticular

Layers of the Dermis

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Papillary layer Protection
● Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic
fibers ● Skin
● Its superior surface contains peg-like projections – Protects against abrasion and UV light
called dermal papillae – Prevents the entry of microorganisms
- Genetically determined – Helps regulate body temperature
- Responsible for fingerprints and footprints (films – Prevents water loss
of sweat) ● Hair
● Contains blood vessels that supply the overlying – Protects against abrasion and UV light
epidermis  – Acts as a heat insulator.
- With nutrients ● Nails protect the ends of the digits
- Remove waste products
- Aid in regulating body temperature Sensation
Reticular layer
● Skin contains sensory receptors for
● Dense irregular connective tissue
– heat
● Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of
- cold
the skin
- touch
● Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and
- pressure
resiliency to the skin
- pain
● Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
● Striae (stretch marks) are caused when skin is
overstretched, the dermis ruptures and leaves visible Temperature Regulation
lines
● Skin
Reticular layer - Controls heat loss from the body by dilation and
● Elastin and collagen fibers are oriented  more in one constriction of blood vessels
direction than in others and  produce cleavage, or ● Sweat glands
tension, lines - Produce sweat, which evaporates and lowers
Subcutaneous Tissue body temperature
● Deep to the skin
● Composed of adipose and areolar  connective tissue Vitamin D Production
● Not really part of the skin
● Mostly adipose tissue ● UV light stimulates the production of a precursor
● Stores fat and connects the skin to the  underlying molecule in the skin that is modified by the liver and
structures (mainly muscles) kidneys into vitamin D
● Shock absorber and insulator ● Vitamin D increases calcium uptake in the intestines
● Increases greatly as you gain weight
Hair Excretion
Lanugo (fetal hair) is replaced near the time of birth by 
terminal hairs (scalp, eyelids, and eyebrows) and vellus hairs
● Skin glands remove small amounts of waste products
● At puberty, vellus hairs can be replaced with terminal
but are not important in excretion
hairs
● Hairs are columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
– Each hair consist of Basal Cell Carcinoma
i. A shaft above the skin
ii. A root below the skin ● Least malignant and most common skin cancer
iii. A hair bulb the site of hair formation ● Stratum Basale cells proliferate and invade the dermis
iv. Hairs have a growth stage and a resting and hypodermis
stage ● Slow growing and do not often metastasize
● Contraction of the arrector pili, which are smooth ● Can be cured by surgical excision in 99% of the cases
muscles, causes hair to “stand on end” and produces
“goose flesh” Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Sebaceous Glands ● Arises from keratinocytes of Stratum Spinosum

● Simple or compound alveolar glands found all over ● Arise most often on scalp, ears, and lower lip
the body except on the palms and  soles ● Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not removed
● Soften skin when stimulated by hormones ● Prognosis is good if treated by radiation therapy
● Secrete an oily secretion called sebum or removed surgically
● Acne is an active inflammation of the sebaceous
glands. Melanoma

Cancer of melanocytes is the most dangerous type of skin

Sweat Glands cancer because it is:
● Different types prevent overheating of the body
● Secrete cerumen and milk
● Likely to metastasize.
● Up to 3 million/person
● Resistant to chemotherapy
– Merocrine sweat glands produce sweat, which
cools the body: most numerous in the palms and
soles of the feet Melanomas have the following characteristics(ABCD rule)
– Apocrine sweat glands: Found in axillary and
genital areas. Ducts empty into hair follicles. Produce A. Asymmetry: the two sides of the pigmented area do
an organic secretion that can be broken down by not match.
bacteria to cause body odor B. Border is irregular and exhibits indentations.
– Ceruminous glands: modified merocrine glands in C. Color (pigmented area) is black, brown, tan, and
external ear canal that secrete cerumen (ear wax) sometimes red or blue.
– Mammary glands:specialized sweat glands that D. Diameter is larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil eraser)
secrete milk
Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by
Nails immunotherapy.
● The nail is Stratum Corneum containing hardkeratin.
● The nail root is covered by skin. Chance of survival is poor if the lesion is over 4 mm thick
● The nail body is the visible part of the nail.
● Nearly all of the nail is formed by the nail matrix, but Burns
the nail bed contributes
● The lunula is the part of the nail matrix visible through
First-degree: only the epidermis is damaged
the nail body.
● Symptoms include localized redness, swelling, and
Integumentary System Functions
pain

15
Second-degree: epidermis and upper regionsof dermis are
damaged

● Symptoms mimic first degree burns, but blisters also

appear

Third-degree: entire thickness of the skin isdamaged

● Burned area appears gray-white, cherry red, or black;

there is no initial edema or pain (since nerve endings
are destroyed)

Rule of Nines
Bone Histology
● Estimates the severity of burns • Bone Matrix
● Divides body into areas that are ~ 9%, or multiples of
– Approximately 35% organic and 65% inorganic material
9%, of the total body area
● Younger patients are different • Organic
● Burns considered critical if: – Collagen provides flexible strength
- Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns – Proteoglycans
- Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns • Inorganic
- There are third-degree burns on face, hands, or – Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystal)
feet provides weight-bearing strength
• Bone Cells
Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
– Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and become osteocytes
• Osteoblasts connect to one another through cell
● Epidermal replacement of cells slows and skin
becomes thinner processes and surround themselves with bone matrix to
● Decreased elasticity and loss of subcutaneous tissue become osteocytes
leads to wrinkles. • Osteocytes are located in lacunae and are
● Subcutaneous fat layer diminishes, leading to connected to one another through canaliculi
intolerance of cold. – Osteoclasts break down bone
● Skin becomes dry and itchy. – Osteoblasts originate from osteochondral progenitor cells
● Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active, and the
– Osteoclasts originate from stem cells in red bone marrow
number of melanocytes decreases.
• Ossification (Osteogenesis)
Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Osteoblasts on a preexisting surface, such as cartilage or
• Skeletal system has four components bone. The cell processes of different osteoblasts join together
– Bones 2. Osteoblasts have produced bone matrix. The osteoblasts
– Cartilage are now osteocytes
– Tendons • Bone tissue is classified as either woven or lamellar bone,
– Ligaments according to the organization of collagen fibers
• Bones are organs composed of – Woven bone
– Nerve tissue • Has collagen fibers oriented in many different directions
– Vascular tissue • It is remodeled to form lamellar bone
– Lamellar bone
Functions of Bones • Mature bone
• Support: form the framework that supports the body and • Arranged in thin layers called lamellae
cradles soft organs • Has collagen fibers oriented parallel to one another
• Protection: provide a protective case for the brain, spinal • Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone
cord, and vital organs matrix relative to the amount of space present within the
• Movement: provide levers for muscles bone
• Storage: reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and – Cancellous bone has many spaces
phosphorus • Internal layer which is a honeycomb of trabeculae filled
• Blood cell production: hematopoiesis occurs within the with red or yellow bone marrow
marrow cavities of bones – Compact bone is dense with few spaces
• External layer
Cartilage • Cancellous
• Chondroblasts produce cartilage and become chondrocytes – Lamellae combine to form trabeculae
• Chondrocytes are located in lacunae surrounded by matrix • Beams of bone that interconnect to form a lattice-like
• The matrix of cartilage contains collagen fibers (for strength) structure with spaces filled with bone marrow and blood
and proteoglycans (trap water) vessels
• The perichondrium surrounds cartilage – Trabeculae are oriented along lines of stress and provide
– The outer layer contains fibroblasts structural strength
– The inner layer contains chondroblasts • Compact Bone
• Cartilage grows by appositional and interstitial growth – Consists of organized lamellae
• Circumferential lamellae form the outer surface of
compact bones
• Concentric lamellae surround central canals, forming
osteons
• Interstitial lamellae are remnants of lamellae left after
bone remodeling
– Canals within compact bone provide a means for the
exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products
• From the periosteum (endosteum) perforating canals
carry blood vessels to central canals
• Canaliculi connect central canals to osteocytes

Bone Anatomy
Effects of Changing the Bone Matrix • Individual bones are classified according to their shape

16
 – Long bones – Some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the
• Longer than they are wide diaphyses of the clavicles
• Most bones of the upper and lower limbs • Endochondral ossification: bone forms by replacing
– Short bones hyaline cartilage
• About as wide as they are long – Bones of the base of the skull, part of the mandible,
• Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the remaining
skeletal system
– Flat bones • Intramembranous Ossification
• Relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually – Within the membrane at centers of ossification, osteoblasts
curved produce bone along the membrane fibers to form cancellous
• Certain bones of the skull, all the ribs, the bone
breastbone (sternum), and the shoulder blades (scapulae) – Beneath the periosteum, osteoblasts lay down compact bone
– Irregular bones to form the outer surface of the bone
• Do not fit into the other three categories – Fontanels are areas of membrane that are not ossified at
• Vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones birth
• Structure of Long Bone
– Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis
– Diaphysis
• Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones
• Composed of compact bone that surrounds the
medullary cavity
• Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the
medullary cavity
• Not to the same extent, but certain bones also contain red
marrow
– Epiphyses
• Expanded ends of long bones
• Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone
• Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage
• Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the
epiphyses
• Epiphyseal plate is the site of bone growth in length
– Epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line when
all of its cartilage is replaced with bone

• Bone Membranes
– Periosteum: double layer of protective membrane covering • Endochondral Ossification
the outer surface of bone – Uses hyaline cartilage “bones” as models for bone
• Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective construction
tissue, which contains blood vessels and nerves – Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
• Inner osteogenic layer contains osteoblasts, – The perichondrium covering the hyaline cartilage “bone” is
osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells infiltrated with blood vessels, converting it to a vascularized
– Endosteum: delicate membrane covering internal surfaces periosteum
of bone – The change in nutrition transforms the underlying
• Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells into osteoblasts
osteochondral progenitor cells – Formation of bone collar around the diaphysis of the hyaline
• Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones cartilage model
– Flat bones contain an interior framework of cancellous bone – Blood vessels grow into the calcified cartilage, bringing
sandwiched between two layers of compact bone osteoblasts and osteoclasts from the periosteum
– Short and Irregular bones have a composition similar to the – A primary ossification center forms as osteoblasts lay down
ends of long bones bone matrix
– Medullary cavity forms
Bone Development – Appearance of secondary ossification centers in the
• Begins at week 8 of embryo development epiphyses
• Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from a – Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage
fibrous membrane remaining only in the epiphyseal plates

17
 – The calcified cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is
replaced by bone

• Growth at Articular Cartilage

– Involves the interstitial growth of cartilage followed by
appositional bone growth on the cartilage
– Results in larger epiphyses and an increase in the size of
bones that do not have epiphyseal plates
Bone Growth • Growth in Bone Width
• Bones increase in size only by appositional growth – Appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum increases
– Adding of new bone on the surface of older bone or the diameter of long bones and the size of other bones
cartilage – Osteoblasts from the periosteum form ridges with grooves
• Trabeculae grow by appositional growth between them
• Growth in Bone Length – The ridges grow together, converting the grooves into tunnels
– Bone length increases because of growth at the filled with concentric lamellae to form osteons
epiphyseal plate – Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down circumferential
– Epiphyseal plate growth involves lamellae, which can be remodelled
• Interstitial growth of cartilage • Factors Affecting Bone Growth
• Followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage – Genetic factors determine bone shape and size
– Epiphyseal plate growth results in an increase in the length • The expression of genetic factors can be modified
of the diaphysis and bony processes – Factors that alter the mineralization process or the
– Bone growth in length ceases when the epiphyseal plate production of organic matrix
becomes ossified and forms the epiphyseal line • Deficiencies in vitamin D
– Hormones
Postnatal Bone Growth • Growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone
• Growth in Long Bones stimulate bone growth
– The epiphyseal plate is organized into four zones • Estrogen and testosterone cause closure of the
1. Zone of resting cartilage epiphyseal plate
• Cartilage attaches to the epiphysis
2. Zone of proliferation Bone Remodeling
• New cartilage is produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate • Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and
as the chondrocytes divide and form stacks of cells allows bone to
3. Zone of hypertrophy – Change shape
• Chondrocytes mature and enlarge – Adjust to stress
4. Zone of calcification – Repair itself
• Matrix is calcified, and chondrocytes die – Regulate body calcium levels
• Ossified bone • Basic multicellular units (BMUs) make tunnels in bone, which
are filled with concentric lamellae to form osteons
– BMUs are temporary assemblies of osteoclasts and
osteoblasts
– BMU activity renews the entire skeleton every 10
years
• Interstitial lamellae are remnants of bone not removed by
BMUs

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 Remodeling of a Long Bone

Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is the major storage site for calcium (Ca2+)
• Two hormones regulate Ca2+ levels in the blood: parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
– PTH is the major regulator of blood Ca2+
Bone Fractures (Breaks)
• Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid
• Bone fractures are classified by:
glands to release PTH
– The position of the bone ends after fracture
• PTH signals
– The completeness of the break
– Osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and
– The orientation of the bone to the long axis
release Ca2+ into the blood
– Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin
– Ca2+ absorption from the small intestines
– Reabsorption of Ca2+ from the urine
– Calcitonin
• Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to
release calcitonin
• Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposition in bone
by decreasing osteoclast activity

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System

• With aging, bone matrix is lost and the matrix becomes more
brittle
• Cancellous bone loss results from a thinning and loss of
trabeculae
• Compact bone loss mainly occurs from the inner surface of
bones and involves less osteon formation
• Loss of bone
Bone Repair – Increases the risk for fractures
1. Hematoma formation – Causes deformity
–Torn blood vessels hemorrhage – Loss of height
–A mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at the fracture site – Pain
–Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed – Stiffness
2. Callus formation – Loss of teeth
– Granulation tissue (soft callus) forms a few days after the
fracture Osteoporosis
– Capillaries grow into the tissue and phagocytic cells begin
cleaning debris
– The external callus forms when:
• Osteoblasts and fibroblasts migrate to the fracture
and begin reconstructing the bone
• Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that connect
broken bone ends
• Osteoblasts begin forming woven bone
• Osteoblasts furthest from capillaries secrete an
externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that later calcifies
3. Callus ossification
– The fibers and cartilage of the internal and external calluses
are ossified to produce woven, cancellous bone
– Cancellous bone formation in the callus is usually complete
4-6 weeks after the injury

4. Bone remodeling
–Excess material on the bone shaft exterior and in the
medullary canal is removed
–Compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls
–The remodeling process may take more than a year to
complete

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 – Muscles attach to the anterior iliac spines and the
ischial tuberosities; ligaments attach to the posterior iliac
spines, ischial spines, and ischial tuberosities
– The female pelvis has a larger pelvic inlet and
outlet than the male pelvis

Appendicular Skeleton

• Upper Limb
– Eight carpal, or wrist, bones are arranged in two rows
– The hand consists of five metacarpal bones
– The phalanges are digital bones. Each finger has three
phalanges, and the thumb has two phalanges

• Pelvic Girdle
– The lower limb is attached solidly to the coxal bone and
functions in support and movement
– Consists of
• Sacrum
• Right and left coxal bones formed from the fusion of
» ilium » ischium » pubis
– The coxal bones articulate with each other
(symphysis pubis) and with the sacrum (sacroiliac joint) and
the femur (acetabulum)

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• Lower Limb
– The thighbone is the femur
• The femur articulates with the coxal bone (head), the
tibia (medial and lateral condyles), and the patella (patellar
groove)
• Sites of muscle attachment are the greater and
lesser trochanters, as well as the adductor tubercle
• Sites of ligament attachment are the lateral and
medial
epicondyles
– The leg consists of the tibia and the fibula
• The tibia articulates with the femur, the fibula, and
the talus
• The fibula articulates with the tibia and the talus
• Tendons from the thigh muscles attach to the tibial
tuberosity

– Seven tarsal bones form the proximal portion of the foot and
five metatarsal bones form the distal portion
– The toes have three phalanges each, except for the big toe,
which has two
– The bony arches transfer weight from the heels to the toes
and allow the foot to conform to many different positions

Articulations

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• An articulation, or joint, is a place where two bones come • Ex. Epiphyseal plates
together – Symphyses are slightly movable joints made of fibrocartilage
• Joints have varying degrees of movement • Synovial Joints
• Joints are named according to the bones or parts of bones – Are capable of considerable movement
involved – They consist of the following
• Articular cartilage on the ends of bones
Classes of Joints – Provides a smooth surface for articulation
– Articular disks and menisci can provide
• Joints are classified according to additional support
– Function • A joint cavity is surrounded by a joint capsule of
– Type of connective tissue that binds bones together fibrous connective tissue, which holds the bones together while
– Presence or absence of fluid between the bones permitting flexibility
• Types
– Fibrous joints
– Cartilaginous joints
– Synovial joints
• Fibrous Joints
– Fibrous joints are those in which bones are connected by
fibrous tissue with no joint cavity (capable of little or no
movement)
• Sutures involve interdigitating bones held together
by dense fibrous connective tissue (occur between most skull
bones)
• Syndesmoses are joints with fibrous ligaments
• Gomphoses are joints in which pegs fit into sockets
and are held in place by periodontal ligaments (teeth in the
jaws)
• Synostoses possible ossification of some sutures
and other joints • A synovial membrane produces synovial fluid that
lubricates the joint
– Bursae are extensions of synovial joints that protect skin,
tendons, or bone from structures that could rub against them
– Synovial joints are classified according to the shape of the
adjoining articular surfaces
• Plane: two flat surfaces
• Pivot: cylindrical projection inside a ring
• Hinge: concave and convex surfaces
• Ball-and-socket: rounded surface into a socket
• Ellipsoid: ellipsoid concave and convex surfaces
• Saddle: two saddle-shaped surfaces

Types of Movement

• Gliding Movements
– Occur when two flat surfaces glide over one another
• Angular Movement
– Flexion and extension, plantar flexion and dorsiflexion, and
abduction and adduction
• Circular Movements
– Rotation, pronation and supination, and circumduction
• Special Movements
– Elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, excursion,
opposition, reposition, inversion and eversion
• Combination Movements
– Two or more other movements

• Cartilaginous Joints
– Synchondroses are joints in which bones are joined by
hyaline cartilage

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 Temporomandibular Joint

• Complex gliding and hinge joint between the temporal and

mandibular bones
• Capable of elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, and
lateral and medial excursion movements

Shoulder Joint

• Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the humerus and

the glenoid cavity of the scapula
– Strengthened by ligaments and the muscles of the
rotator cuff
– Tendon of the biceps brachii passes through the
joint capsule
• Capable of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,
and circumduction

Elbow Joint

– Compound hinge joint between the humerus, ulna, and

radius
– Movement at this joint is limited to flexion and extension

Hip Joint

– Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the femur and the

acetabulum of the coxal bone
– Capable of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,
and circumduction

Knee Joint

• Complex ellipsoid joint between the femur and the tibia that is
supported by many ligaments
• Allows flexion, extension, and slight rotation of the leg

Ankle Joint and Arches of the Foot

• The ankle joint is a special hinge joint of the tibia, fibula, and
talus that allows dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion and
eversion of the foot
• Ligaments of the foot arches hold the bones in an arch and
transfer weight in the foot

Effects of Aging on the Joints

• Connective tissue of the joints becomes less flexible and less

elastic
– Results in joint rigidity
– Increases the rate of wear on the articulating surfaces
– Reduces the range of motion

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