6/22/2022

DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW (U.P.)

Materials, Testing & Construction Practices (KCE-401)

DOORS
Module 4, Lecture 1
by
Er. Avneesh Tiwari, Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Shri Ramswaroop Memorial College of Engineering & Management,
Lucknow
[email protected]

DOORS
 A door may be defined as a framework
generally, consisting of wood, steel,
aluminium, glass or a combination of these
materials, secured in an opening left in a wall
for the purpose of providing access to the
users of the structure.
 It basically consists of two parts, i.e. (i) a
frame and (ii) shutter (leaf).
 The frame is normally made of timber
because it is available everywhere and it can
Source: https://build.com.au/door-frame-types Source: https://gharpedia.com/blog/various-
components-of-door-shutters/

be worked into different shapes without

difficulty.
 Shutters are generally made up of timber
framework with panel insets of glass, timber,
plywood, block board or a combination of
such materials.

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 In case of steel doors, the shutters are made of framework of rolled steel sections with panel
inserts of glass or steel plates. Next to steel, aluminium is the metal largely used in the
manufacture of doors. Aluminium doors are considered to be the best as they are rust proof
and present an elegant appearance.
 For small opening, a door is provided with one leaf or shutter and such a door is known as a
single leaf door, In case of a wider opening, the door should have two leaves and such a
door is termed as a double leaf door.

LOCATION OF DOORS
The designer or planner of a building should observe the following rules while deciding the
location of doors:
 The number of doors should be kept minimum for each room, because larger number causes
obstruction and thus, decreases utility of the accommodation. The location and size of a door
should be based on its functional requirements.
 From point of view of utility of the accommodation and the primary need of the occupants,
doors should preferably be located near the comer of a room (nearly 20 cm from the comer).
 From point of view good ventilation and free air circulation inside the room, the doors should
be located in opposite walls facing each other.
 The location, number and size of doors are also decided considering the various factors,
namely, desired day light, desired vision of outside, privacy, natural ventilation, heat loss, etc.
 In addition to above listed factors, doors should preferably be located with a view to
improving the interior decoration of a room.

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SIZES OF DOORS
A door should be of such dimensions that it allows the movement of the largest object likely to be
passed through the door. While in case of residential buildings it should be aimed that two
persons walking shoulder to shoulder can freely move through the door; while in public
buildings, bigger sizes are used.
Normally, the sizes of doors (width * height) provided in different locations in the buildings are
as follows:
 Internal doors for residential buildings : 0.9 m x 2 m
 External doors for residential buildings : 1.0 m x 2.0 m
 Doors for bath rooms and water closets in residential buildings : 0.7 m x 2.0 m
 Doors in public buildings, viz. hospitals, libraries, cinemas, etc. : 1.2 m x 2.25 m
 Doors in garages : 2.5 m x 2.25 m

Note: Minimum height of a door should not be less than 1.80 m.

Common criterion for sizes of doors used in India is as follows :
Width = 0.4 to 0.6 x Height, or
Height = Width + 1.2 m.

SIZES OF DOORS
 This dimension of doors are measured inside to inside of openings and designated by letters
such as 8DS20, 12DT20 In this designation, the first number indicates the width of door
opening in modulus of 100 mm (10 cm). Thus 8 means 800 mm. The first letter D denotes
door. The second letter S denotes single and T double shutters. The last number denotes the
height of the opening in modulus of 100mm.
 The standard size of opening according to IS are given below:

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TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO DOORS

 Frame: It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical

members, forming an enclosure, to which the shutters are
fixed.
 Shutters: These are the openable parts of a door. It is an
assembly of styles, panels and rails.
 Head: This is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a
frame.
 Horn: These are the horizontal projections of the head of
a frame to facilitate the fixing of the frame on the wall
opening. The length of horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm.
 Style: Style is the vertical outside member of the shutter
of a door.

TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO DOORS

 Top rail: This the top most horizontal member of a

shutter.
 Lock rail: This is the middle horizontal member of a
door shutter, to which locking arrangement is fixed.
 Bottom rail: This is the lowermost horizontal member of
a shutter.
 Intermediate or cross-rails: These are additional
horizontal rails, fixed between the top and bottom rails of
a shutter. A rail fixed between the top rail and lock rail is
called frieze rail.
 Panel: This is the area of shutter enclosed between the
adjacent rails.
 Mullion: This is a vertical member of a frame, which is
employed to sub-divided a door vertically.

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TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO DOORS

 Hold fasts: These are mild steel flats (section 30 mm x 6

mm), generally bent into Z-shape, to fix or hold the frame
to the opening. The horizontal length of hold fast is kept
about 20 cm, and is embedded in the masonry.
 Jamb: This is the vertical wall face of an opening which
supports the frame.
 Reveal: It is the external jamb of a door opening at right
angles to the wall face.
 Rebate: It is depression or recess made inside the door
frame, to receive the door shutter.

DOOR FRAMES
 A door frame is an assembly of horizontal and vertical
members forming an enclosure, to which door shutters are
fixed.
 The vertical members (one to each side) are known as jambs
or posts, while the horizontal top member connecting the posts
is called the head which has horns to both the sides.
 The size of the frame is determined by allowing a clearance of
5 mm to both the sides and the top of the opening.
 The cross-sectional area of the posts and the head is generally
kept the same.
 The door frame is having a rebate cut all-round it to receive
door shutter.
 Door frames are made of following materials:
 Timber
 Steel sections
 Aluminium sections
 Concrete
 Stone

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DOOR FRAMES

 Out of timber, steel sections, Aluminium section, concrete & stone, timber frames are more
commonly used.
 In factories, workshops, etc., steel frames are widely used.
 Aluminium frames are costlier and are used only for residential buildings where more funds are
available.
 With the increasing cost of timber, and with the increasing menace of termites (white ants),
concrete frames are now becoming popular in urban areas. Concrete frames are found to cost less
than half the cost of a teakwood frame; it is also cheaper than iron frame.
 Stone frames are used mostly in villages, specially where good quality stone is available, in
required sizes. The jambs or posts, head and sill of the stone door frame are finely dressed. and are
jointed by forming proper holes and corresponding projections.

TIMBER DOOR FRAMES

 Timber door frames are preferred because they look much

better than other materials, and they can be polished, if
desired.
 The thickness of timber frame varies from 60 to 75 mm,
depending upon the size of the door opening and the type
of timber used. The same thickness is used for jambs as
well as head.
 The width of the door frame is taken as 100 mm if the
door has shutter to be on one side only, and 125 to 140
mm if shutters are provided to both the sides of the frame
(such as panelled shutter to one side and fly proof wire-
mesh shutter to the other side).

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Method of Fixing

 Before fixing the door frame, all the portions of the frame which are likely to come in contact with
masonry are painted with coal tar mixed with 'aldrex' (anti-termite solution), or with any approved
wood primer.
 The hold fasts, attached to the frame, are well-embedded in masonry, with concrete around the
hold fasts.
 In case the frame is to be fixed later, wooden pegs or plugs are embedded in the masonry, with
their ends flushing with the face of the opening. The door frame is later screwed to these pegs or
plugs through galvanised iron wood screws.

STEEL DOOR FRAMES

 Steel door frames are made of any of the followings

sections:
 Single angle iron
 Double angle iron
 T-section
 Channel sections formed from pressing steel plates
 Steel hold fasts or lugs are welded to the frame. Steel frames
are generally fixed in prepared door opening. Chases are cut
in brick masonry for accommodating hold fasts or lugs
which are then grouted with cement mortar. The vertical
jambs and the head of the frame are welded together. The
hinges of the shutters are also welded to the frame.
 In the case of stone masonry or R.C.C. where it is difficult
to cut chases, wooden plugs are embedded at appropriate
places in the jamb during the construction of wall. The steel
frame is fixed with plugs with the help of galvanised iron
wood screws of big size.

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TYPES DOORS
Doors are classified in to following types depending upon type of materials used, depending upon the arrangement of
different components of the door, depending of method of construction & depending on nature of working operation.
S.NO. Types of Door Basis of Classification

1 Battened & ledged doors

2 Battened, ledged & braced doors

Classification on the basis of arrangement of components
3 Battened, ledged & framed doors

4 Battened, ledged, braced & framed doors

5 Framed & panelled doors

6 Glazed or sash doors

7 Flush doors Classification on the basis of method or manner of construction

8 Louvered doors

9 Wire gauged doors

10 Revolving doors

11 Sliding doors

12 Swing doors Classification on the basis of working operation

13 Collapsible doors

14 Rolling steel shutter doors

15 Mild steel sheet doors

16 Corrugated steel sheet doors

Metal doors
17 Hollow metal doors

18 Metal covered plywood doors

Battened & Ledged Doors

 This is the simplest type of door,

specially suitable for narrow
openings.
 This door is formed of vertical
bonds, known as battens, which are
usually tongued and grooved, and
are fixed together by horizontal
supports known as ledges.
 Battens are 100 to 150 mm wide
and 20 to 30 mm thick.
 Ledges are 100 to 200 mm wide Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-doors

and 25 to 30 mm thick.
 Three ledges are generally
provided-top, middle and bottom.
 The door is hung to the frame by
means of T-hinges of iron.

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Battened, Ledged & Braced Doors

 These doors are improved versions of

battened and ledged doors.
 In this door additional inclined (or
diagonal) members, called braces are
provided to give more rigidity. Hence
these doors can be used for wider
openings.
 The braces are 100 to 150 mm wide
have the same thickness as the ledges
and are simply housed in the ledges.
 It is essential that the braces slope Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-doors

upwards from the handing side since

they have to work as struts, to take
compression.

Battened, Ledged & Framed Doors

 This door is also an improved form of

simple battened and ledged door, in
which frame work for the shutter is
provided in the form of two verticals,
known as styles.
 Styles are generally 100 mm wide and
40 mm thick.
 Usually three ledges are provided.
 The total thickness of style is adjusted
equal to the thickness of ledges plus the
thickness of battens. Source: https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-doors/11898/

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Battened, Ledged, Braced &

Framed Doors

 This door is the modification over

battened, ledged & framed Door with
the provision of additional braces,
provided diagonally between the
ledges, to increase its strength,
durability, and appearance.
 This door consists of battens, two
vertical members (styles), three
ledges, and two braces.
 The battens are generally tongued,
Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-doors

grooved and V-jointed. The braces are

housed into the ledges, at about 40
mm from the styles.

Framed & Panelled Doors

 These types of doors are widely used in almost all types

of building since they are strong and give better
appearance than batten doors.
 This door consists of a frame work of vertical members
(called styles) and horizontal members, called rails
which are grooved along the inner edges of the frame, to
receive the panels.
 The panels are made from timber, plywood, block board,
A.C. sheets or even of glasses.
 Panelled doors can have one panel, two panels, three
panels or multiple panels.
 Vertical pieces, known as mullions are provided for
vertical sub-division of panels.
 Panelled doors may contain two leafs for wider
openings. In double leafed door, each leaf has separate
frames, each hinged to the corresponding jamb-post of
the door.

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Glazed or Sash Doors

 Glazed or sash doors are provided where additional light is
required to be admitted to the room through the door, or where
the visibility of the interior of the room is required from the
adjacent room.
 Such doors are commonly used in residential as well as public
buildings like hospitals, schools, colleges etc.
 The doors may be either fully glazed, or they be partly glazed
and partly panelled. Source:

 In case of partly glazed and partly panelled, the ratio of glazed

https://constructionhike.com/
20-different-types-of-doors-

portion to panelled portion is kept 2:1, the bottom one-third

used-in-buildings-ultimate-
guide/
height is panelled and the top two-thirds height is glazed.
 The glass is received into rebates provided in the wooden sash
bars and secured by 'rails putty' or by wooden beads fixed to the
frame.
 Partly glazed doors are sometimes provided with stiles which
gradually diminish at lock rail, to improve the elevation and to
permit more area for the glazed panels. Such types, which
decrease in width at the lock-rail level are called 'diminishing
stiles' or 'gun stock stiles.
 It can be partly glazed, louvered and panelled door. The louvers
permit natural ventilation even when the door is closed.

Flush Doors
 Flush doors are becoming increasingly popular these days
because of their pleasing appearance, simplicity of construction,
less cost, better strength and greater durability.
 They are used both for residential as well as public and
commercial buildings.
 These doors consist of solid or semi-solid skeleton or core
covered on both sides with plywood, face veneers etc., presenting
flush and jointless surface which can be neatly polished.
 Flushed doors are of two types:
 Solid core flush door or laminated core flush door
 Hollow and cellular core flush door
Solid core flush door or laminated core flush door
 Such a door consists of the wooden frame consisting of styles,
and top and bottom rails is used for holding the core. The core
consists either of core-strips of timber glued together under great
pressure and faced on each side by plywood sheets, or of block
board, particle board or a combination of particle board and
block board, faced with plywood sheets.
 In the laminated core, the wooden strips are of maximum width
of 25 mm glued together, and the length of each strip is equal to
the length of the laminated core.

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Hollow core and cellular core flush door

 A hollow core flush door consists of frame

made up of styles, top rail, bottom rail and
minimum two intermediate rails, each of a
minimum of 75 mm width.
 The inner space of the frame is provided
with equally spaced battens each of
minimum 25 mm width, such that the area
of voids is limited to 500 sq. cm.
 A cellular core flush door consists of a
frame of styles, top rail and bottom rail,
each of a minimum of 75 mm width, with
the void space, filled with equidistant
battens of wood or plywood, each of a
minimum of 25 mm in width.
 The battens are so arranged that the void
space between adjacent vertical and
horizontal battens does not exceed 25 cm in
area, and that the total area of voids does
not exceed 40% of the area of the shutter.

Louvered doors
 This type of door permit free ventilation
through them, and at the same time maintain the
privacy of the room.
 These doors harbour dust which is very difficult
to be cleaned.
 These doors are generally used for latrines and
bath rooms of residential and public buildings.
 The door may either be louvered to its full
height, or it may be partly louvered and partly
paneled. Source: https://constructionhike.com/20-different-types-
 The louvers are arranged at such an inclination of-doors-used-in-buildings-ultimate-guide/

that vision is obstructed while they permit free

passage of air.
 This is achieved by fixing the upper back edge
of a louver higher. than the lower front edge of
the louver just above it. Louvers may be either
fixed or movable.
 In the case of movable louvers, a vertical piece
of timber is provided to which the louvers are
attached through hinges. The movement of
louvers is actuated by the vertical piece of
timber.

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Wire-Gauged Doors
 These types of doors are provided to
check the entry of flies, mosquitoes,
insects etc.
 Wire mesh is provided in the panels,
and therefore they permit free passage of
air.
 Such doors are commonly used for
refreshment rooms, hotels, cupboards
containing food and eatables, and sweet
shops etc.
 The door is formed of a wooden frame
work consisting of vertical styles and
horizontal rails, and the panel openings Source: https://constructionhike.com/20-different-types-
of-doors-used-in-buildings-ultimate-guide/
are fitted with fine mesh galvanized
wire-gauge.
 The wire-gauge is fixed by means of
nails and timber beading
 Generally, the door has two shutters the
inner shutter is fully panelled while the
outer shutter has wire-gauged panels.

Revolving Doors
 Such doors are provided only in public buildings, such as
libraries museums, banks etc. where there are constant visitors.
Such a door provide entrance to one and exit to the other
person simultaneously, and closes automatically when not in
use.
 This door is suitable for air-conditioned buildings or for
buildings situated at a place where strong breeze blow
throughout the year, since the door is so assembled that it
excludes the wind drought.
 The door consist of a centrally placed mullion to which four
radiating shutters are attached. The mullion or vertical member
is supported on ball bearing at the bottom, and has bush
bearing at the top, so that its rotation is without any jerk,
friction and noise.
 The shutters may be fully glazed, fully panelled or partly
glazed and partly panelled.
 The shutters and the mullion are enclosed in a vestibule.
Vertical rubber pieces are provided at the rubbing ends of
shutters to prevent drought of air. The radiating shutters can be
folded where traffic is more. The opening can also be closed.

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Sliding Doors
 In this type of doors shutter slides on the sides
with the help of runners and guide rails.
 The door may have one sliding shutter, two
shutters or even three shutters, depending upon
the size of the opening and the space available
on sides for sliding.

Source: https://constructionhike.com/20-different-types-
of-doors-used-in-buildings-ultimate-guide/

Swing Doors
 A Swing door has its leaf attached to
the door frame by means of special
double action spring hinge, so that the
shutter can move both inward or
outward as desired.
 Generally, such doors have single
leaf, but two leafs can also be
provided. Such doors are not rebated Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/swing+doors

at the meeting styles, the closing

edges of which should be segmental.
 When the door is to be used, a slight
push is made and then the action of
spring brings the shutter in closed
position. The return of the shutter is
with force, and hence in order to
avoid accident, either the door should
be fully glazed or a peep hole should
be provided at the eye level.

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Collapsible Steel Doors

 Such doors are used in godowns, workshops, sheds, public
buildings etc., for providing increased safety and protection to
property.
 The door neither requires hinges for opening and closing, nor
any frame for hanging them.
 It acts like a steel curtain which can be opened or closed by
horizontal push. Such a door is even provided in residential
buildings where opening is large but there is not enough space
to accommodate leafed shutters.
 The door is fabricated from vertical double channels
(20x10x2mm) joined together with the hollows on the inside, so
that a vertical gap is created. Such channel units are spaced at
100 to 120 mm apart and are braced flat iron diagonals 10 to 20
mm wide and 5 mm thick. These diagonals allow the shutter to
open out or get closed.
 The shutters operate between two iron rails of T-shape, one
fixed to the floor and other to the lintel.
 Rollers mounted on horizontal piece are provided both at the
top and the bottom ends of vertical pieces. The door is also
provided with handles, locking arrangements, stoppers etc.

Rolling Steel Shutter Doors

 These doors are commonly used for garrages,
godowns, shops fronts show windows etc. since
they are quite strong and offer proper safety to the
property.
 The door consists of a frame, a drum and a shutter
of thin steel plates (known as laths or slates), about
1 to 1.25 mm thick and inter locked together.
 The frame has steel guides on the sides in which
the shutter moves, and then coils in the drum.
 The diameter of, the drum varies from 200 to 300
mm. A horizontal shaft and springs are provided in
the drum, due to which the shutter is opened or
closed by small push or pull.
 Rolling shutters are of two types: (i) pull-push type
shutters, and (ii) mechanical gear type shutters.
 The pull-push type shutters is provided when the
area of door-opening does not exceed 10 Sq. m.
The mechanical gear type shutters is used when the
area of opening is large.
 Such doors are quite heavy, weighing about 25 to
30 kg/m²

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Mild Steel Sheet Doors

 These doors are provided for garrages, godowns, workshops etc., and are quite strong. The door consists
of a door frame made of angle or T-sections. The door has generally two shutters. Each shutter is made
up of frame of angle of iron, having two verticals and at least three horizontals. Mild steel plates of
required thickness are then welded to the shutter frame. The shutters are attached to the door frame by
means of steel hinges welded to them.

Corrugated Steel Sheet Doors

 These doors are exactly the same as above, except that corrugated steel sheets are welded to the shutter
frame in place of mild steel sheets. The corrugated sheets are made up of galvanised iron. These shutters
are stronger than the mild steel plate shutters, and at the same time lighter.

Hollow Metal Doors

 These doors have appearance like wooden doors, but are much stronger. These are made of furniture steel
sections, which are hollow from inside. The rails, styles. etc. are strengthened by welding small T or I
sections inside. In order to avoid noise while opening and closing, the styles of the doors are filled with
any insulating material.

Metal Covered Plywood Doors

 These doors are composite doors made of plywood and mild steel, and are reasonably fire-proof.
 The core of the door consists of two or three layers of planned, tongued and grooved seasoned teak or
yellow pine board of total thickness 20 to 25 mm.
 The core is encased in tight fitting sheet metal (such as furniture steel, galvanised steel, roller copper,
sheet bronze etc.), having tightly folded joints to exclude air so that the core does not ignite. Such a
composite construction does not only prevent the flames but also prevents the heat to pass from one side
to the other.

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WINDOW
 A windows may be defined as an opening made in
a wall for the purpose of providing day light,
vision and ventilation.
 The construction of window is identical to that of
door.
 Window consists of a window frame and shutters.
 The frame consists of two vertical members called
jambs, one flat, i.e. horizontal member
connecting the jambs at top, known as head and
another flat member connecting the jambs at their
feet, known as sill. Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/windows-shutters-open-window-glass-4206072/

 The shutter can be fully glazed, panelled and

glazed or only panelled type.
 Windows are normally provided with two shutter
leaves.

PARTS OF WINDOW
The various part of window are:
1. Head: The main horizontal member forming the top of the
window or door frame.
2. Jamb: The main vertical members forming the sides of a
window or door frame.
3. Frame: The combination of head, jambs and sill to form a
precise opening in which a window sash or door panel fits.
4. Glazing: The process of applying or installing glass into a
window sash or door panel. Also refers to the type of glass
used in the process.
5. Pane: A framed sheet of glass within a window or door frame.
6. Sash: A single assembly of stiles and rails made into a frame Source: https://www.skroofing.com/replacement-windows-

for holding glass.

maryland/parts-of-a-window/

7. Sill: The main horizontal member forming the bottom of the

frame of a window or door.
8. Muntin Bar/Mullion :Any small bar that divides window or
door glass. Also called a grille or windowpane divider.

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The selection of size, shape, location and the number of windows to be provided in a room depends upon the following
considerations :
 Size of room to be lighted
 Location of the room and its utility
 Architectural treatment to be given to the building
 Direction of wind and its speed
 Climatic factors prevailing at the site such as humidity & temperature variation
 Requirement of exterior view

Based on these considerations the following thumb rules have been framed to determine the area requirements for windows
in a room; and, the size and hence, the number of windows can thus be worked out once total area required for window
opening is known :

 Breadth of window = 1/8 (width of room + height of room)

 The total area of window openings should normally vary from 10 to 20% of the floor area of the room. In hot and
arid regions it could be 10 to 15% of the floor area. When the building is to be located in hot and humid regions, the
area of window openings should vary between 15 to 20% of the floor area.
 In case of public buildings like, schools, offices, factories hospitals etc., the minimum area of windows should be 20%
of the floor area.
 For adequate natural light the total area of glass panes in windows should be at least 8% of the floor area.

Design of Windows
The important points to be kept in mind while making provisions for windows in a room are listed as follows:
 The size and number of windows should be sufficient to provide adequate light and ventilation to the room.
 Windows should be located opposite to each other wherever possible. Windows provided on the northern side permit
maximum day light without glare.
 Window sills should be placed at 750 to 1000 mm above the floor level. This is considered as a reasonable height for the
inmates to have a convenient look outside. In case of bath and W.C. and other situations where privacy is required
window sill should be kept at 1750 mm above the floor level.
 The top of windows and doors should however be at the same height.
 Buildings in humid regions need special attention for adequate ventilation of the room. The area of window opening in
such regions should be maximum and a window should be so located as to permit maximum ventilation of the apartment.
 The shutters of a window in external walls should open outside. This checks the entry of rainwater inside the room.
 All external windows specially those on ground floor should be provided with mild steel, round or square, bars of steel
grills to safeguard against theft.
 Windows in external wall should be provided with chaija projections to prevent the entry of rainwater into the room, as
well as protect the window material from water.
 It is desirable to slope the window sill towards the external face of the wall.

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SIZES OF WINDOWS
 Indian Standard recommends that the size of window frame should be derived after allowing a margin of
5 mm all around an opening for convenience of fixing.
 The width and height of an opening is indicated by number of modules, where each module is of 100 mm.
 A designation 6 WS 12 denotes a window-opening with single shutter, having width equal to 6 modules
(i.e. 6 x 100=600 mm) and height equal to 12 modules (i.e. 12*100=1200 mm). The letter W denotes a
window-opening, and a letter S stands for single shutter.
 A designation of 10 WT 13 of a window-opening denotes width of opening 10 modules (10 * 100 =
1000mm) and a height of opening equal to 13 modules (i.e., 13 x 100 = 1300 mm); letter W stands for
window and T stands for double shutters.

SIZES OF WINDOWS
 The Standard recommendations for size of opening size of frame and size of window shutters:

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Types of Window Movement

The various window movements can be classified as follows :
 Hinged,
 Pivoted,
 Sliding, and
 Composite.

The sub-classifications within each type of window movement

is presented in Table:

Source: https://mccoymart.com/product/upvc-top-hung-
window-by-windoorz-inc/
Source: https://www.windowdrives.com/en/finder-
inclined-bottom-hung-windows

Types of Window Movement

Source: http://www.aws-
Source: https://glazingcentre.co.uk/aluminium-windows-opening- windows.com/products/aluminium-windows-doors-
types/ and-conservatories-/_product/5/horizontalvertical-
sliding-windows/

Source: https://www.alibaba.com/product-
detail/American-style-XBH-Lift-Up-
And_1700000539333.html

Source: https://www.glasscon.com/products/windows-
doors-minimal-frame-structural-system/motorized-
louver-windows-ventilation-smoke-vents

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 6/22/2022

Classification of Windows
Depending upon the type of material used, name of operational movements of the shutters, location and the manner
in which they are fixed, windows can be broadly classified shown below:
 Wooden windows
 Metal windows, and
 Miscellaneous windows
Sub-classification within each type are as follows:

Sub-classification within each type are as follows:

S.NO. Type of Windows Further classification in similar material

1 Wooden Windows Fixed Windows
Pivoted Windows
Double Hung Windows
Sliding Windows
Casement Windowa
Sash or Glazed Windows
Louvered or venetiated windows
2 Metal Windows Solid Section metal windows
Metal covered and hollow metal windown
3 Miscellaneous Windows Bay Windows
Clerestorey windows
Corner window
Dormer Window
Gable windows
Sky light
Fan light

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 6/22/2022

Classification of Window
Windows are classified as follows, based on the nature of operational movements of shutters, materials used for
construction, manner of fixing and their location.
 Fixed Windows
 Pivoted windows
 Double hung windows
 Sliding windows
 Casement windows
 Sash windows
 Louvered windows
 Metal windows
 Bay windows
 Clerestorey windows
 Corner windows
 Dormer windows
 Cable windows
 Lantern windows
 Skylights
 Ventilators
 Combined windows and ventilators

Fixed Windows
 These windows are provided for the sole purpose of admitting light and/or providing vision in the room.
 The window consists of a window frame to which shutters are fixed.
 No rebates are provided to the frame.
 The shutters are fully glazed Style.

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Pivoted Windows
 In these windows, the shutters are allowed to swing round pivots fixed to the window frame.
 The window frame has no rebates.
 The frame of the window shutter is similar to that of an encasement window.
 The shutter can swing or rotate either horizontally, or vertically

Double Hung Windows

 This type of window consists of a frame and a pair of
shutters, arranged one above the other, which can slide
vertically within the grooves provided in the window
frame.
 By the provision of such sliding, the windows can be
cleaned effectively and at the same time ventilation can
be controlled effectively
 Since the windows can be opened at the top and bottom
to any desired extent.
 Each sash is provided with a pair of metal weights
connected by cord or chain over pulleys. The chain or
cord is fixed to the style. The pulleys are fixed to the
frame.
 When the weights are pulled the shutters open to the
required level. The upper sash moves in the downward
direction, thus opening at the top, while the lower sash
move in the upward direction thus opening at the
bottom. Special frame, called boxed frame or cased
frame is provided.

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Sliding Windows
 These windows are similar to sliding doors.
 The shutters move either horizontally lows are or vertically on small roller bearings.
 Suitable openings or grooves are left in the frame or walls to accommodate the shutters when they are slided to
open the window.
 Such windows are provided in trains, buses and shops and bank counters.

Casement Windows
 These are the main or common types of
windows usually provided in buildings.
 The shutters of the window open like shutters
of the doors.
 The window has a frame which is rebated to
receive the shutters.
 The shutters consists of styles, top rails, bottom
rails, and intermediate rails, thus dividing it
into panels.
 The panels may either be glazed, or unglazed,
or partly glazed and partly unglazed.
 In case of windows with double shutters, the
outer shutters may have wire gauged panels for
fly proofing

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 6/22/2022

Sash or Glazed Windows

 A sash window is a type of casement window in which
the panels are fully glazed.
 The frame of each shutter consists of two vertical styles,
top rail and a bottom rail.
 The space between the top and bottom rails is divided
into small panels by means of small timber members
placed horizontally and vertically. These timber
members, known as sash bars or glazing bars are rebated
to receive glass panels.
 Glass-panes are fixed to these sash bars either by means
of putty or by timber beads commonly known as glazing
beads secured to the sash bars by means of nails.
 If the window opening is wide, the window frame may
have central vertical member known as mullion.
Similarly, if the height of window opening is more (or if
a ventilator is combined with the window) the window
frame may have horizontal member called transome.

Louvered Windows
 These are similar to louvered doors.
 Such windows are provided for the sole aim of
ventilation, and they do not permit any outside
vision.
 The shutter consists of top and bottom rails, and two
styles which are grooved to receive the louvers.
 The louvers are generally fixed.
 The economical angle of inclination of the louvers is
45°.
 The louvers slope downward to the outside to run-off
the rain water.
 Sometimes venetian shutters are provided in which
the louvers can open or close.
 The louvers are made of slats of wood or aluminium,
pivoted at both ends in the frame, and in addition
each blade is connected by a small hinge to a vertical
batten. When the batten is pulled up or down, the gap
be tween the blades are opened or closed.

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 6/22/2022

Bay Windows
 This windows project outside the external
wall of the room.
 This projection may be triangular, circular,
rectangular or polygonal in plan.
 Such a window is provided to get an
increased area of open for admitting greater
light and air.
 They also provide extra space in the room,
and improve the overall appearance of the
building.

Clere Srorey Windows

 These windows are provided in a room which has greater
ceiling height than the surrounding rooms, or when a
lean-to-roof of low height is there adjacent to the room.
 It is generally provided near the top of the main roof, and
they open above the lean-to-roof, or roof slab of
adjoining rooms.
 The window shutter is made to swing on two horizontal
shutters provided on side styles. It can be opened or
closed by means of two cords, one attached to the top rail
and other to the bottom rail of the shutter.
 The shutter swings in such a way that upper part opens
inside the room and the lower part opens outside, to
exclude rain water.
 These window increases the appearance of the building.
 It is essential to provided a rain-shed or chhajah over the
window.

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 6/22/2022

Corner Windows
 This is a special type of window which is provided in the
corner of a room.
 This window has two faces in two perpendicular
directions. Due to this, light and air is admitted from two
directions.
 Such a window very much improves the elevation of the
building.
 In this a special lintel has to be cast over the window-
opening.
 The jamb post of the window, at the corner, is made of
heavy section.

Dormer Windows
 A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof.
 This window provides ventilation and lighting to the enclosed space below the roof, and at the same time, very
much improve the appearance of the building.

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 6/22/2022

Gable Windows
 It is a vertical window provided in the gable end of a pitched roof.

Lantern Windows
 Such windows are provided over the flat roofs, to provide more light and air to the inner apartments/rooms of a
building.
 The windows project above the roof level. They may be of several shapes in plan. They admit light either through
vertical faces or inclined faces.
 The roof slab has an appropriate opening below the window.

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 6/22/2022

Sky Light
 A skylight light is provided on a sloping roof, to admit light.
 The window projects above the top sloping surface. They run parallel to the sloping surface.
 The common rafters are suitably trimmed and the sky light is erected on a curb frame. The opening so made is
properly treated by lead flashing to make the roof, surrounding the opening, water-proof.

Ventilators
 Ventilators are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the window, generally about 30 to 50 cm below roof
level.
 The ventilator has a frame and a shutter, generally glazed, which is horizontally pivoted.
 The shutter can be opened or closed by means of two cords, one attached to the top rail and other to the bottom
rail of the shutter.
 The top edge of the shutter opens inside and bottom edge opens outside, so that rain water is excluded.

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 6/22/2022

LINTELS
 A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed
across the opening.
 A lintel is thus a sort of beam, the width of which
is equal to the width of the wall, and the ends of
which are built into the wall. The bearing of lintel
should be the minimum of the following:
 10 cm
 Height of lintel
 1/10th to 1/12th of the span of the lintel
 Openings are invariably left in the wall for the
provision of doors, windows, cupboards, almirahs,
wardrobes, etc. These openings are bridged by the
Source: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/aac-lintel-blocks-22477786491.html

provision of a lintel.
 Thus, lintel is structural members designed to
support the loads of the portion of the wall situated
above the openings, and then transmit the load to
the adjacent wall portions (jambs) over which
these are supported.

Classification of Lintels
 Lintels are classified into the following types, according to the materials of their construction:
 Timber lintels
 Stone lintels
 Brick lintels
 Steel lintels
 Reinforced concrete lintels

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 6/22/2022

TIMBER LINTELS

 Timber lintels are oldest types of lintels.

 Timber lintels are relatively costlier,
structurally weak and vulnerable to fire.
 They are also liable to decay if not
properly ventilated.
 Timber lintels are strengthened by the
provision of mild steel plates at their
top and bottom, such lintels are called
flitched lintels.

Source: Source: https://dailycivil.com/what-is-lintel-types-of-lintels-

https://in.pinterest.com/pin/AcaTe5M and-uses-in-building /
LQ7qcQC_pZmV75n6Re8WXZRUf
Hc2C6m-1ezmyJI40I27scA4/

STONE LINTELS
 Stone lintels are the most common type of lintel specially at
that place where stone is abundantly available.
 A stone lintel consists of a simple stone slab of greater
thickness.
 Stone lintels can also be provided over openings in brick
walls.
 Dressed stone lintels give good architectural appearance.
 Stone lintels may be used in the form of either one piece or
more than one piece along the width of the wall.
 The depth of stone lintel is kept equal to 10 cm per metre of
span, with a minimum of 15 cm.
 They are used upto spans of 2 m.
 For wider spans, stone slabs are kept on edge Stone is very
weak in tension.
 It cracks if subjected to vibratory loads. Hence stone lintels
should be used with caution where shock waves are quite
common.
Source: https://civilquery.com/what-is-lintel/

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 6/22/2022

BRICK LINTELS
 Brick lintels are not structurally strong, and they are
used only when the opening is small (less than 1 m)
and loads are light.
 A brick lintel consists of bricks placed on end or edge.
 The depth of brick lintel varies from 10 to 20 cm,
depending upon the span.
 It is constructed over temporary wooden centering.
 The bricks with frogs are more suitable for the
construction of lintel since the frogs, when filled with
mortar, form joggles which increase the shear
resistance of end joints. Such lintel is known as
joggled brick lintel.

Source: https://dailycivil.com/what-is-lintel-types-of-lintels-
and-uses-in-building /

REINFORCED BRICK LINTELS

 Where loads are heavy, or span is more, lintels
may be made of reinforced brick work.
 The depth of such lintel is kept equal to 10 cm, or
in multiple of 10 cm. Sometimes, a 15 cm thick
brick lintel may be obtained by using 5 cm thick
tiles in conjunction with 10 cm thick bricks.
Alternatively, bricks can be placed on edge.
 The bricks are so arranged that 2 to 3 cm wide
space is left length wise between adjacent bricks
for the insertion of reinforcement (mild steel
bars). The gap or joint is filled with 1:3 cement
mortar. Vertical shear stirrups of 6 mm dia. wire
are provided in every third vertical joint.
 Main reinforcement, provided at the bottom of
the lintel, consists of 8 to 10 mm dia. bars, which
are cranked up at the ends.
Source: https://www.nachi.org/gallery/general-2/reinforced-brick-lintels

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 6/22/2022

STEEL LINTELS
 Steel lintels are provided where the
opening is large and where the super-
imposed loads are also heavy.
 It consists of rolled steel joists or
channel sections either used singly or in
combination of two or three units.
 When used singly, the steel joist is either
embedded in concrete, or cladded with
stone facing, so as to increase its width
to match with the width of the wall.
 When more than one units are placed
side by side, they are kept in position by
tube separators.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/lintel

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE LINTELS

 Reinforced cement concrete lintels have replaced
practically all other types of lintels because of their
strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and
ease in construction.
 These can be used on any span.
 Its width is kept equal to the width of the wall.
 The depth of R.C.C. lintel and the reinforcement
depends upon the span and the magnitude of
loading.
 Longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of mild
steel bars, are provided near the bottom of lintel to
take up tensile stresses. Half these bars are
however cranked up near the ends.
 Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse
shear.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/lintel

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 6/22/2022

CHAJJAS
 Chajjas are provided on external wall opening to get
protection from rain, snow and heat.
 They are weather sheds.
 Their thickness tapers from 100 to 75 mm and projection is 30,
45, 60, 75, 90 cm

Source: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/frp-chajja-19851930112.html

ROOFS
 A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of the building, provided as a structural covering, to protect the
building from weather (ie.. from rain, sun, wind, etc.).
 Structurally, a roof is constructed in the same way as an upper floor, though the shape of its upper surface may
be different.
 Basically, a roof consists of structural elements which support roof coverings.
 The structural element may be. trusses, portals, beams, slabs (with or without beams), shells or domes.
 The roof coverings may be A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets, wooden shingles, tiles, slates or slab itself.
 Roof and roof coverings receive rain and snow more directly and in much greater quantity than do the walls. It
must, therefore, provide a positive barrier to the entry of rain, and vigorous weather proofing is most important.
 The roof structure, which support the roof coverings must have adequate strength and stability.
 A roof must have thermal insulation, fire resistance and sound insulation.

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Requirements of a roof
The requirements of a good roof are summarized below:
 It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the super-imposed dead and live loads.
 It should effectively protect the building against rain, sun, wind, etc., and it should be durable against
the adverse effects of these agencies.
 It should be water-proof, and should have efficient drainage arrangements.
 It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
 It should be fire resistant.
 It should provide adequate insulation against sound.

TYPES OF ROOFS
Roofs may be divided into three categories :
 Pitched or sloping roofs
 Flat roofs or terraced roofs
 Curved roofs
The selection of the type of roof depends upon the shape or plan of the building, climatic conditions of the area and
type of constructional materials available.
 Pitched roofs have sloping top surface. These are suitable in those areas where rainfall/snowfall is very
heavy. Buildings with limited width and simple shape can generally be covered satisfactorily by pitched
roofs.
 Flat roofs are considered suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions, where rainfall is moderate, and
where snowfall is not there. Flat roofs are equally applicable to buildings of any shape and size.
 Curved roofs have their top surface curved. Such roofs are provided to give architectural effects. Such
roofs include cylindrical and parabolic shells and shell domes, doubly curved shells such as hyperbolic
paraboloids and hyperboloids of revolution, and folded slabs and prismatic shells. Such roofs are more
suitable for public buildings like libraries, theatres, recreation centres etc.

35
 6/22/2022

PITCHED ROOFS: BASIC ELEMENTS

A roof with sloping surface is known as a pitched roof. Pitched roofs are basically of the following forms
 Lean-to-roof
 Gable roof
 Hip roof
 Gambrel roof
 Mansard or curb roof
 Deck roof

Lean-to-roof
 This is the simplest type of sloping roof, provided either for a room of small span, or for the verandah.
 It has slope only one side.

Gable roof
 This is the common type of sloping roof which slopes in two directions.
 The two slopes meet at the ridge. At the end face, a vertical triangle if formed.
Hip roof
 This roof is formed by four sloping surfaces in four directions.
 At the end faces, sloped triangles are formed.

36
 6/22/2022

Gambrel roof
 This roof, like gable roof, slopes in two directions, but there is a break in each slope. At each end, vertical face
is formed.
Mansard roof
 Mansard roof is like a hip roof, slopes in the four directions, but each slope has a break. Thus, sloping ends are
obtained.
Deck roof
 A deck roof has slopes in all the four directions, like a hip roof, but a deck or plane surface is formed at the top.

TYPES OF PITCHED ROOFS

Pitched roofs may be broadly classified into the following:
 Single roofs
 Lean-to-roof (verandah roof)
 Couple roof
 Couple-close roof
 Collar beam roof or collar tie roof
 Double or purlin roofs
 Triple-membered or framed or trussed roofs
 King-post roof truss
 Queen-post roof truss
 Combination of king-post and queen-post trusses
 Mansard roof truss
 Truncated roof truss
 Bel-fast roof truss or latticed roof truss
 Composite roof trusses
 Steel sloping roof trusses

37
 6/22/2022

SINGLE ROOFS
 Single roofs consist of only common rafters which are secured at
the ridge (to ridge beam) and wall plate. These are used when span
is less so that no intermediate support is required for the rafters.

TYPES OF SINGLE ROOFS

Lean to roof

 This is the simplest type of sloping roof, in which rafters slope to

one side only. It is also known as Pent roof or Aisle roof.
 The wall to one side of the room (or verandah) is taken higher than
the wall (or pillars) to the other side.
 A wooden wall plate is supported either on a steel corbel or a
stone corbel, which are provided at 1 m centre to centre. The
wall plate (or post plate) is embedded on the other side, to the
wall or pillars. The difference in elevation between the two wall
plates is so kept that the desired slope is obtained.
 Usual slope is 30°.
 The common rafters are nailed to wooden wall plate at their upper
end, and notched and nailed to the wooden post plate at their lower
end.
 This type of roof is suitable for maximum span of 2.5 m. These are
provided for sheds, out-houses attached to main building,
verandahs, etc.

Couple Roof

 This type of roof is formed by couple or

pair of rafters which slope to both the sides
of the ridge of the roof.
 The upper ends of each pair of rafter is
nailed to a common ridge piece and their
lower ends are notched and nailed to the
wooden wall plates embedded in the
masonry on the top of the outer walls.
 Such a roof is not very much favoured
because it has the tendency to spread out at
the feet (Wall plate level) and thrust out
the walls supporting the wall plates. Due
to this, the couple roof is used when the
span is limited to 3.6 me-tres.

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 6/22/2022

Close Couple Roof

 A couple close roof is similar to the couple roof, except

that the ends of the couple of common rafters is connected
by horizontal member, called tie beam, to prevent the
rafters from spreading and thrusting out of the wall.
 The tie beam may be a wooden member or a steel rod.
 For inferior work, the ties may just be spiked to the rafters.
 There is one tie beam for each pair of rafters.
 These tie beams can also be used as ceiling joists when
required.
 A couple close roof is economically suitable for spans upto
4.20 m.
 For increased span or for greater loads, the rafters may
have tendency to sag in the middle. This can be checked.
by providing a central vertical rod, called king rod or
king bolt which connects the ridge piece and the tie beam.

Collar Beam Roof

 When the span increases, or when the load is more,

the rafters of the couple close roof have the tendency
to bend.
 This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it
at one-third to one-half of the vertical height from
wall plate to the ridge. This raised beam is known as
the collar beam (or collar tie).
 Thus, a collar beam roof is similar to a couple close
roof, except that in the latter case a tie beam is
provided at the level of wall plates while in this case
a collar beam is provided at the raised level.
 This roof is suitable for spans upto 5 metres.
 A lower collar position gives stronger roof.
 A collar beam provides roof greater height of the
room

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 6/22/2022

Collar and Scissors Roof

 It is similar to the collar roof, except that two

collar beams, crossing each other to have an
appearance of scissors

DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOFS

 These roofs have two basic elements (i) rafters, and

(ii) purlins. The purlins give intermediate support to
the rafters, and are supported on end walls.
 The intermediate supports so provided in the form
of purlins, reduce the size of the rafters to the
economical range. Such a roof is also known as
rafter and purlin roof.
 The rafters are provided fairly close (40 to 60 cm
c/c). Each rafter is thus supported at three points:
 at the bottom; on the wall through wall plate,
 at the top, by the ridge bam, and
 at the centre by a purlin.
 Such roofs are used when the span exceeds 5
metres.

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 6/22/2022

Roof Covering

 Roof covering is an essential component of pitched roof, to be placed over the roof frame work, to protect it
from rain, snow, sun, wind and other atmospheric agencies.
 Various types of roofing materials are available, and their selection depends upon:
 Type of building
 Type of roof framework
 Initial cost
 Maintenance requirements
 Fabrication facilities
 Appearance and special features of the locality
 Durability
 Availability of the material itself and
 Climate of the locality

Roof Covering Materials

 The following are the roof-covering materials commonly used for pitched roofs:
 Thatch covering
 Wood shingles
 Tiles
 Asbestos cement sheets sheets
 Eternit slates
 Galvanised corrugated iron
 Light weight roofing

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 6/22/2022

Thatch covering

 This is the cheapest roof-covering, commonly used in villages.

 It is very light, but is highly combustible.
 It is unstable against high winds.
 It absorbs moisture and is liable to decay.
 It harbours rats and other burrowing animals, and gives bad smell in rainy
season.
 Thatch roof-covering consists of bundles of reeds or straw.
 The frame work to support thatch consists of round bamboo rafters spaced Source: https://www.homepreservationmanual.com/thatch-
20 to 30 cm apart and tied with split bamboos laid at right angles to the roofing/

rafters.
 The reed or straw must be well-soaked in water or fire-resisting solution to
facilitate packing, and the bundles are laid with their butt ends pointing
towards the caves.
 The thatch is tightly secured to the frame work with the help of ropes
twines dipped in tar.
 In order to drain the roof effectively, a minimum slope of 45° is kept.
Source: https://www.amazuluinc.com/2021/03/01/the-
ultimate-guide-to-artificial-thatch-roofing/

 The thickness of thatch covering should at least be 15 cm; normal thickness

varies from 20 to 30 cm according to its quality and pitch of roof.
 It is claimed that reed thatch can last about 60 years and straw thatch can
last for 20 years.

Wood shingle roofing

 Shingles are thin slabs of wood used to cover

roofs.
Source: https://www.demelloroofing.com/wood-shingle-
roof-myths-and-the-facts-you-should-know-as-a-

 The use of shingles is restricted to hilly areas homeowner

where local timber is easily available at low

cost.
 Though shingle roofing is light weight, it is
not fire and termite resistant.
 Wood shingles are obtained from well
seasoned timber, by either sawing or splitting. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_shingle
 Sawn shingles are used chiefly. They are
obtained in lengths varying from 30 to 40 cm
and widths varying from 6 cm to 25 cm. They
are approximately 10 mm thick at the tail or
butt end and taper to 3 mm or less at the head.
 They are laid in a similar fashion as tiles and
slates.

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Tile roofing

 Use of tiles for roofing is one of the oldest, and is still

preferred for residential buildings and country
houses. This is because country tiles are
manufactured from locally available earth.
 Tiles are named according to their shape and pattern,
and they are manufactured by a process similar to the
one used for the manufacture of bricks.
 The various types of tiles generally used are: Source: https://www.urdesignmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/interlocking-mechanical-roof-tile-

 Plain or flat tiles

advantages-disadvantages-and-prices-1-1200x520.jpg

 Curved or pan-tiles
 Pot tiles or half-round country tiles Source: https://modernize.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/clay-
 Spanish tiles tiles-roofing-on-house.jpg

 Italian or Allahabad tiles

 Inter-locking tiles

Asbestos cement sheets (A.C. sheets)

 Asbestos cement sheets are now increasingly becoming

popular for industrial buildings, factories, sheds, cinema
houses, auditorium and even residential buildings, since
they are cheap, light weight, tough, durable, water tight, Source: https://4.imimg.com/data4/BX/GL/MY-9237390/asbestos-roofing-sheet-
fire-resisting and vermin resistant. 500x500.jpg

 The biggest advantage is that they are available in bigger

units unlike tiles, and hence supporting frame work
(ground work) is also cheaper, easier and lighter.
 These sheets do not require any protective paint, and no
elaborate maintenance is required.
 The construction with A.C. sheets is very fast.
 A.C. sheets are manufactured from asbestos fibre (about
15%) and Portland cement. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Corrugated-fibro-
 In India, asbestos cement roof coverings are available in roofing.jpg/440px-Corrugated-fibro-roofing.jpg

the following three forms:

 Everest big-six corrugated A.C. sheets.
 Everest standard corrugated A.C. sheets
 Everest trafford A.C. tiles (or sheets)

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Galvanised Iron corrugated sheets (G.I. sheets)

 G.I. sheets are stronger than A.C. sheets.

 They are not used for slopes flatter than 1 in 4.
 G.I. sheets are manufactured with corrugations
running from one end to the other. The
corrugations impart additional strength to the
sheets.
 G.I. sheets are made of iron sheets which are
galvanised with zinc to protect them from
rusting action of water and wet weather.
 These sheets are fixed in a manner similar to
the A.C. sheets.
 End lap should not be less than 15 cm and the
side lap varies from 1.5 to 2 corrugations. Source: https://sdlcxz.en.made-in-china.com/product/aKzxPknMmurQ/China-Zinc-
 The holes are either drilled or punched in the Coated-Corrugated-Sheet-Gi-Roofing-Panel-Galvanized-Steel-Roofing-Sheet.html

sheet crowns.
 The sheets are secured to purlins by means of
G.I. hook bolts, screws and nails etc., with
curved washers.
 The sheets should be fixed to eaves by means
of flat iron wind ties.

Slate roofing

 Slate is a hard, fine-grained sedimentary argillaceous(clayey) stone.

 It is obtained from either open quarries or mines, in the form of
blocks.
 A diamond or circular saw is used to divide each block into
sections which are 450 to 600 mm wide and upto 360 mm thick.
 The saw blocks are then reduced to slabs which are about 15 to 30
mm thick. Each slab is then divided into thin laminae or slates, by
Source: https://arc-anglerfish-washpost-prod-
washpost.s3.amazonaws.com/public/PRPJU4BPBII6TB

hand labour, using a splitter. 4BOY3BT4JMWQ.jpg

 The thickness of slate, used for roofing may vary from 4 to 8 mm.
 The sizes of slates vary from 600 mm x 300 mm to 400 mm x 200
mm.
 In hilly areas, where slate roofing has been used, the roofing
consists of bituminous slates known as Eternit. They are generally
available in three colours-grey, black and red.
 Slates are laid so that each slate overlaps a slate in the next course
but below it, the amount is known as lap. The amount of lap Source: https://r3h2k5x5.stackpathcdn.com/wp-
depends upon the pitch and the exposure. content/uploads/2021/05/IMG_2912-768x576.jpg?v=1628708746

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Light Weight roofing

 For wide-span industrial structures, it is desirable to reduce the weight of roof, so that structural framing can be
economized.
 Conventional roofing materials (such as tiles, slates etc.) are heavy and require heavy framing to support them.
 The light weight roofing materials are of two types:
 Sheeting
 Aluminium sheets
 Asbestos cement sheets
 Decking
 Wood wool
 Straw board
 Aluminium alloy and steel decking
 All these require a water proof layer of asphalt or roofing felt.
 Sheeting is used for sloping roofs while decking is used both for sloping as well as flat roofs.
 Aluminium roof sheeting consists of aluminium alloyed with a small percentage of manganese for strength. It is
the lightest of all roofing.
 Wood wool is made from wood fibre interwoven together and cement bonded under pressure in a mould. They
are available in the form of slabs, varying in thickness from 12 mm to 100 mm, and in size of 0.6 m width and
upto 3.9 m length. Wood wool has good sound absorbing and thermal insulation properties. For roofing, the slabs
are generally of 50 to 75 mm thickness.

 Straw board decking is made of compressed straw with thick water proof paper covering. The thickness is 50
mm, width 1.2 m and length from 1.8 to 3.6 m. For roof decking, the board is supported at 600 mm centres, all
along all edges.
 Aluminium alloy and steel can be pressed to form troughed roof decking with thicknesses varying from 0.7 mm
to 1.2 mm, depth of corrugations varying from 25 to 85 mm, widths varying from 450 to 900 mm, and lengths
upto 10 m

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TRUSSED ROOFS

 When the span of the roof exceeds 5 m and where there are no inside walls to support the purlins, framed
structures, known as trusses are provided at suitable interval along the length of the room.
 In this system, the roof consists of three elements:
 Rafters to support the roofing material
 Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters, and
 Trusses to provide support to the ends of purlins.
 The trusses span in the same direction in which the couple of rafters run. The trusses also support the ridge piece
or ridge beam

TYPES OF TRUSSED ROOFS

King-post truss
 A king-post truss consists of the following components: (i)
lower tie beam, (ii) two inclined principal rafters. (iii) two
struts, and (iv) a king post.
 The principal rafters support the purlins.
 The purlins support the closely-spaced common rafters
which have the same slope as the principal rafters.
 The common rafters support the roof covering.
 The spacing of the king post truss is limited to 3 m centre to
centre. The truss is suitable for spans varying from 5 to 8
metres.
 The lower, horizontal, tie beam receives the ends of the
principal rafters, and prevents the wall from spreading out
due to thrust.
 The king-post prevents the tie-beam from sagging at its
centre of span.
 The struts connected to the tie beams and the principal
rafters in inclined direction, prevent the sagging of principal
rafters.
 Ridge beam is provided at the apex of the roof to provide
end support to the common rafters.
 The trusses are supported on the bed blocks of stone or
concrete, embedded in the supporting walls so that load is
distributed to a greater area.

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Queen post truss

 A queen-post truss differs from a king-post truss in

having two vertical posts, rather than one.
 The vertical posts are known as queen-posts, the tops
of which are connected by a horizontal piece, known
as straining beam.
 Two struts are provided to join the feet of each queen-
post to the principal rafter.
 The queen-posts are the tension members.
 The straining beams receives the thrust from the
principal rafters, and keeps the junction in stable
position.
 A straining sill is introduced on the tie beam between
the queen-posts to counteract the thrust from inclined
struts which are in compression.
 In absence of the straining sill, the thrust from the strut
would tend to force the foot of the queen-post inwards.
 These trusses are suitable for spans between 8 to 12
metres.

Combination of king post and queen post

truss

 Queen-post trusses are suitable for spans

upto 12 metres.
 For greater spans, the queen-post truss can
strengthened by one more upright member,
called princess-post to each side.
 The resulting combination of king-post
and queen-post trusses, which are suitable
upto 18 m span.

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Mansard roof truss

 This roof truss is designed by designer Francois

Mansard, a French architect.
 This roof truss is a combination of king-post and
queen-post trusses.
 It is a two-storey truss, with upper portion consisting
of king-post truss and the lower portion of queen-post
truss.
 The entire truss has two pitches.
 The upper pitch (king-post truss) varies from 30
degrees to 40 degrees while two lower pitch (queen-
truss) varies from 60° to 70°.
 The use of this truss results in economy in space, since
a room may be provided between the two queen-posts.
 It has become obsolete because of odd shape.

Truncated truss

 A truncated truss is similar to Mansard truss, except

that its top is formed flat, with a gentle slope to one
side.
 This type of truss is used when it is required to
provide a room in the roof, between the two queen-
posts of the truss

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Bel-fast roof truss (Bow string truss)

 This truss, in the form of a bow, consists of thin

sections of timber, with its top chord curved.
 If the roof covering is light, this roof truss can be used
upto 30 m span.
 The roof truss is also known as latticed roof truss.

Composite roof trusses

 Roof trusses made of two materials, such as timber

and steel, are known as composite roof trusses.
 In a composite truss, the tension members are
made of steel, while compression members are
made of timber.
 If tension members are made of timber, their
section becomes very heavy because of reduction
of section at the joints.
 Special fittings are required at the junction of steel
and timber members.
 The joints in composite trusses should be such that
cast or forged fittings can be easily used.

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Steel roof trusses

 When the span exceeds 10 m, timber trusses become heavy and uneconomical.
 Steel trusses are more economical for larger spans.
 However, steel trusses are more commonly used these days, for all spans - small or large, since they are:
 More economical
 Easy to construct or fabricate
 Fire-proof
 More rigid, and
 Permanent.
 Steel trusses are fabricated from rolled steel structural members such as channels, angles, T-sections and plates.
 Most of the roof trusses are fabricated from angle-sections because they can resist effectively both tension as
well as compression, and their jointing is easy.
 In India, where timber has become very costly (except in hilly regions), steel trusses have practically superseded
timber trusses.

ROOF TREATMENT

This is a mandatory job in waterproofing to protect roof from leakage, seepage and heat. There are various methods
and unique techniques approved by many consultants, developers and others are:
Lime Surkhi Roof Waterproofing: An Old method, which is now obsolete
Some of its advantages are:
 Very good waterproofing property
 Very good heat insulation property
 Durable
Soil Pot System: This system is very effective to replace the above system.
Some of its advantages are:
 Very good waterproofing property
 Very good heat insulation property
 Durable
 Soil pots are immersed in AQUACRETE for 2-3 hours. Then those are placed on AQUACRETE admixed
R.C.C. roof as conical shape will be upward. The gaps of pots are covered during screed concreting; screed
concrete must be prepared with SYLOCON and should be laid in panels. Panel joints are filled up with
AQUACRETE FLEXEEL, a highly elastomeric waterproof and weather proof sealant.
Some of its limitations are:
 Collecting soil pots is important; soil pots are fragile items
 Care should be taken to handle soil pots to avoid damage

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Cement And Fillers with Polymer Coating

Cementitious slurry is prepared, which is applied on R.C.C. roof slab and is covered by a layer of screed concrete.
Some of its advantages are:
 Ease of working
 Economical
Some of its limitations are:
 When screed concrete is cracked, underneath treatment is also slowly damaged and holds water in concrete
pockets.
 During hot season entrapped water is evaporated, which causes further development of cracks in screed
concrete and underneath treatment is damaged due to this random crack development in screed concrete.
 This system is not found durable and repairing job is the only solution of this problem which is a just
temporary solution.
Scratch Resistant White Acrylic Coating on Top of Screed Concrete
Some of its advantages are:
 Reflects heat
 Good waterproofing membrane
 Durable
Some of its limitations are:
 Reflects heat till white colour is not affected by dirt or dust
 Skilled workmanship is required

Any Type of Membrane Waterproofing: Some are covered by screed concrete and some are exposed to weather.
Some of its advantages are:
 Very good waterproofing
Some of its limitations are:
 If proper workmanship and care is not taken, joint failure problem is found, which cause water leakage
 Costly

Mosaic Finish Roof: Waterproof by nature

Some of its advantages are:
 Ease of laying and finishing a good aesthetic top
Some of its limitations are:
 Cracks are developed on top surface through which water percolation takes place. Based on this experience
concrete is laid in segments and joints between segments are separated by glass strip / PVC strip. But both
the strips could not show any satisfactory result. Glass strips are broken due to thermal expansion and
contraction. Also, there is no bonding between glass, PVC and concrete. Water percolation takes place
through the gap, this is a result of de-bonding between concrete and glass / PVC.

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Bricks laid on Mother R.C.C. Slab for Insulation

Here bricks are laid as an insulting component on mother R.C.C. slab. In most cases mother R.C.C. slab is coated
with waterproof coating. Bricks are covered with screed concrete or tiles are laid on top of screed concrete.
Some of its advantages are:
 Good thermal insulation property
 Due to application of waterproof coating on mother slab, waterproofing property lasts till the top surface
does not allow water infiltration
Some of its limitations are:
 Increases maximum dead load on roof slab.
 Once top surface allows water infiltration, water is entrapped inside pockets and bricks are wet. As a result,
dead load is further increased.
 Water percolation starts from bricks to underneath waterproof coating. Waterproof cementitious coating
starts swelling and slowly damage is found causes leakage.
 Further, entrapped water evaporates forming gas, which generates upward pressure and liberates creating
new cracks or gaps on top.

Building Planning

 Building planning is the arrangement of various component or unit of a building in a systematic manner so as to
form a meaningful and homogeneous structure to meet its functional purpose.

Factors Affect Planning of Building

 Function of building (residential, public, commercial, industrial etc.)
 Shape and size of the plot
 Topography
 Climatic condition
 Building bye-law’s, etc.

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Orientation

 Orientation of building is defined as a method of fixing in direction of the plan in such a way that it receives
maximum benefit from the elements of nature such as sun, wind, and rain.
 Orientation means placing so as to face East.
 Orientation in the case of the non-square building is indicated by the direction of the normal to the long axis. For
example, if the length of the building is east-west, its orientation will be the north-south direction. It should be
remembered that the poor orientation of the building results in discomfort conditions inside the building.

Factor affecting orientation are:

 Temperature
 Wind
 Humidity

C.B.R.I Suggestion For Orientation

 The building should receive maximum solar radiation in winter and minimum in summer.
 In hot climates living rooms on the south and west sides should be protected by verandah, bathroom, store etc.
 For hot and humid zones the orientation is governed by the direction of the breeze.
 Exposure to sun can be reduced by shady trees on sunny side and also be keeping the shorter walls on east and
west
 All the rooms which are occupied in the day time should preferably be placed on north and east side.
 The bed rooms should be placed in the direction of prevailing wind and at the same time protected by verandah
from the heat of afternoon sun.

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Orientation

Principal Of Planning

 Aspect
 Elegance
 Prospect
 Sanitation
 Privacy
 Flexibility
 Grouping
 Circulation
 Economy
 Roominess
 Practical consideration

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Aspect

 Placement of different rooms of house in accordance with our activities at different hours of day.
 Rooms should get enough sunlight and air, which gives great environment & comfort.
 A room which receives light & air from particular direction is said to have 'aspect' of that direction.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/principles-of-building-planning

Prospect

 Prospect is the view from outside of a house.

 The house should have a proper prospect so that it can give a feeling of cheerfulness to the people living in it.
 It should create a good impression on a person who views it from outside.
 It must also possess good qualities like comfort, cheerfulness, security, labour saving and modern outlook.
 For e.g. Small Projections or bay window can have a good out-look as well as helps in providing breeze, light and
sunlight to the room.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/principles-of-building-planning

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Privacy

 It is an important principle while planning a residential building.

 Privacy can be maintained in following ways:
 External
 Internal
 External Privacy: The privacy from sides can be secured by providing planned entrance and pathways. This can
achieved by screening the front and rear entrance.
 Internal Privacy: Privacy in internal rooms can be easily obtain by proper planning of different areas and
location of doors and windows. The shutter when opened should give the minimum view of room for an entering
persons.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/principles-of-building-planning

Circulation

 Circulation is movement within the premises and includes both horizontal and vertical circulation.
 Horizontal circulation ( room to room)
 Passage
 Corridors
 Lobbies
 Vertical circulation (floor to floor)
 Stairs

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/principles-of-building-planning

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Roominess

 Roominess means getting maximum advantage from the minimum dimension of the room.
 The effect of roominess depend on the relative dimension of length, width and height of room.
 The shape and size of the room are also very important for roominess.
 A rectangular room has more roominess than square room in same area.

Source: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/principles-of-building-planning

Grouping

 Grouping means the arrangement of various rooms in the building for the convenience of user.
 It minimizes the circulation and at the same time improves the comfort.
 A dinning room should be close to kitchen, while sanitary be away from kitchen, but convenient to bed rooms.

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Elegance

 Elegance is grand appearance of a building attained mainly owing to the elevation which in turn depends on the
plan.
 It depends upon proper positioning/selection of doors, windows, balcony, roofs, staircase etc.
 For better elegance
 Selecting superior building material for facing as polished stone- granite, marble or mosaic.
 Providing projection like sunshades, balconies, porch with or without pergola opening.
 Providing bay window, corner window, etc.

Sanitation

 It includes providing light ,ventilation, cleanliness, water supply and sanitary amenities.
 For residential building window area should not less than 1/10th of floor area.
 In school not less than 1/5th of the floor area.

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Flexibility

 Flexibility means that a room which is planned for one function be used for other, if required.
 Like study room may be planned for using as a guest room.

Economy

 The building should have minimum floor area with maximum utility, it will reduce cost of the building .Hence, it
will be economical.
 Economy can achieved by:
 Providing simple elevation
 Reducing the storey height
 Dispensing of porches, lobbies and balconies

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Practical Consideration

After the all fundamental some practical points should be additionally considered:
 Provision for future extensions without dismantling should be made while planning.
 Strength, stability, convenience and comfort of occupants, should be the first consideration while planning.
 As far as possible sizes of rooms should be kept large. Large room can be shortened by providing movable
partition but smaller room cannot been large easily.
 The number of door and window should be minimum provisions for built in furniture at proper places are useful
from point of view of utility.

References

 B.C. Punmia; Ashok Kumar Jain; Arun Kumar Jain: Building Construction
 Jha & Sinha : Building Construction
 Sahu: Building Materials and Construction
 Shushil Kumar: Building Construction

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THANK YOU

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