Debre birhan university

Building construction II
Chapter one
Doors and Windows
TESFA FENTAW
November,2014

contents

1.1 doors

Functional requirements of doors

Arrangements of doors

Sizes of doors

Types of doors

Elements of doors

Details of different types of doors

Ironmongery for doors

1.2 windows

Functional requirements of windows

Elements of windows

Types of window

Window material

Glazing

Window sill and window board

Details of different types of windows

Doors
A door is an openable barrier secured in a wall opening and provide
access, protection, safety and privacy to the inside room of a
building

functional requirements of a door

Security
privacy
Fire safety(limit the spread of smoke and fire and
provide safe exit in case of fire)
Weather Exclusion(must provide adequate
resistance to weathering)
Insulation(adequate thermal and sound insulation)

Arrangement of doors

the number of doors in a room

should be kept minimum

A door should preferably be

placed in the corner of the room
about 20 cm away from the
corner.

No riser should be within 30cm of

an exit door

If there are more than one door,

they should be located in opposite
wall of a room facing each other

Exit door of room occupied by

more than 15 person shall swing
in direction of exit

Size of doors
Typical size of doors for residential buildings
External door:

internal door:

Bath room and W.C

0.90-1.20 m width and 2-2.10 m height

0.80-0.90 m width and 2-2.10m height
0.70-0.80 m width and 2-2.10 m height

Types of Doors

Doors can be classified in many categories depending on their location,

martial/construction method, or operation.

Types of Doors by Location

Exterior Doors

designed /constructed for good appearance and expressing prestige.

They may be with or with out glass

constructed in a material and construction that can stand the

weathering i.e. the climate, the rain, wind, sun etc. as well as forced
entry.

Interior Doors

These types of doors are found in internal spaces relatively protected

from harsh weather and with less security requirements.

they tend to be light, less decorated and less sturdy.

Special Doors

Special doors are those that are required to serve special functions

Garage shutter doors, screen doors, Elevator doors etc.

Types of Doors by Operation

Single swinging doors
swinging on hinges or vertical pivots in one direction only

Double swinging doors

swinging on hinges or vertical pivots in both directions i.e. to the inside

as well as the outside

chosen in areas where doors are required to be easily opened by simply

pushing with part of the body to allow for frequent movement while
carrying other things with our hands

Sliding doors

sliding either horizontally or vertically along

grooved channels or rails

Sliding doors are generally used for conserving

space that is normally lost to a swing door(avoids
obstruction caused by hinged leaf)

suitable for closets in bedrooms, openings to

balconies etc.

Smart doors

self opening and dosing doors operated electronically. Mostly used in

highly public areas such as airports where there is a large flow of traffic
and people are mostly tending to their luggage with both their hands.

Revolving doors

doors that revolve around a central pivot (pole)

provided in public buildings such as museums,

Libraries, hotels, bank, etc. where there are
constant visitors. Such a door provide entrance to
one and exit to the other persons simultaneously
and closes automatically when not in use

preferred when it is required to reduce outdoor

noise, or heat/cold transfer to the internal space.
(suitable for air-conditioned buildings,
windy places)

Rolling shutter

is an improvement of sliding doors.

They are made of steel

Easy opening and closing

they do not require much space

specially useful for garages or shops

where large opening have to be
provided.

Folding doors

may be wood or metal and are used for large opening

Collapsible doors
Are made of light steel
sections, mostly
channels. They roll in
small channels fixed at
top and bottom wherein
small rollers have been
kept.
Used in public buildings
such as shops and banks
for providing increased
safety and protection to

Types of Doors by Material

A. Wood/Timber doors
Match boarded or battened

Made up vertical strip of boards held together with vertical and diagonal bracing

Panel doors
Consist of frames filled with wood or glass panels
Mostly used as external doors

flush doors
Are made of internal frames covered
with plywood, hard board
There are three types of flush doors
Solid core flush door(filled with
laminated wood)
Semi solid core flush door(semi
solid filler like flax board)
Hollow core flush door(no filler)

B. Metal doors

are made of angle iron usually 38 mm

thick and having the shape of 'L' T or 'Z

inside space is filled with metal sheet

(flat or corrugated for strength),
glass(when provision of light is required)

Metal doors need to be protected from

moisture (rust) by frequently painting with
anti rust paint and plastic paint over it.

C. Aluminum doors

are made of aluminum sheet cut and shaped

in to rectangular hollow sections in the shape
of L, T and Z. the thickness of the sections
may vary depending on the size of the
opening.

Aluminum doors are advantageous over plain

metals in that they do not rust easily and thus
do not require rust protection.

aluminum is significantly expensive.

D. Plastic doors

Plastic frames are recent developments. Plastics that are

firm enough to be used as frames are designed as an
substitute to metals and wood (Because metal and wood
are increasingly becoming scarce natural resources).

Plastics have the advantages of being light weight and

practically rust free, requiring no maintenance.

Elements of Doors

1.2 Windows
A window is an opening on the wall of a building. The main purpose of a
window is to provide all or part of the following:

Admit natural light in to the building

Provide natural ventilation

Provide view (one way or both ways)

In serving these purposes windows must also provide:

Security (protection against entry

Protection against harsh weather

Insulation against unwanted noise

Elements of Windows

The widow is divided into the (1) Frames, and (2) sashes (casements).

Frame is a group of members assembled and placed along the top,

bottom and sides of an opening so as to form an enclosure and support
for a door or a window shutter

Mullion: is a vertical member of a frame which is employed to subdivide a window or a door vertically

Transom: : is a horizontal member of a frame which is employed to

sub-divide a window or a door horizontally

Sill: It is the lower most or bottom horizontal part of a window frame.

sills are Normally provided In doors

Head: It is the top or uppermost horizontal part of a frame

Window operation
There are four different possibilities for opening the sashes:

Hinged opening

Pivoted opening

Sliding

composite

Window materials

Materials used for construction windows include wood, glass, plywood

and metals. Aluminum and metal framing are mostly used for window
making. Bronze, stainless steel, galvanized steel are also used for
specific type of buildings.

Window materials

Materials most commonly used for window frames and sashes are wood
and metal. In Ethiopia, with no cold winter, the metal is used very
considerably.

One of the chief advantages claimed for the use of metal is its ability to
support larger gazed area using relatively thin frame sections, there by
permitting the maximum amount of light to enter the room. "so, it is
stronger and remains in good shape at all seasons.

There are many kinds of metal used for window frames: The most common
metal for window frames is 38 mm thick iron. These frames are usually
delivered galvanized with zinc in factories during production to protect
them from rust. Nevertheless, the frames should be repainted frequently at
least every three to five years and, in coastal regions, because of the salty
air, even more often.

wood

The wooden sashes have better appearance, but have poor resistance to
moisture and weathering thus requiring frequent protective
maintenance.

Wood frame sections also tend to be thick and expensive, especially

when the gazed surface is fairly large.

Wood frames are effective thermal insulators

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is also used as window frame. It is made of from alloy of

steel and chromium, nickel and molybdenum. It has the quality of high
corrosion resistance, however it is prohibitively expensive.

Aluminum

Aluminum is another expensive window material. It is

made of aluminum alloy that is highly resistant to
corrosion, extruded in channel and box sections with
flanges and grooves for rebates and weather
proofing. It is maintenance free and has good
appearance. These qualities have made it a popular
choice in most multi-storey buildings as well as high
end villas in Ethiopia

UPVC

Plastic is the most recent material to be used

as window frame. It is made of Unplastisized
(rigid) Poly-vinyl-chloride i.e. UPVC. Its
particular advantage is that it is maintenance
free (as it does not rust) it is light weight.

'L' T Z' Section

The basic shape of all window frame and sashes is in the shape of L, T
and Z. depending on the material used additional grooves and folds may
be introduces to for strength or for inserting rubber sealants or simply
for decorative purposes.

L sections are used at the outer frame where the window meets the wall
material, where the gazing is held at one side only, while the T sections
are used to hold gazing in both sides. The z section is use for openable
sashes.

Window sill and window board

The window sill is the member at the base of a window opening. Its main object is to
throw off the rainwater and to form a covering to the wall at the base of the opening. Sills
may be formed in various materials such as wood, stone, bricks, marble, terrazzo, metal
sheet, and concrete.

To be effective it is necessary for the sill to project from the wall face, the projecting part
being provided with a drip, which is formed by cutting a throat in the under surface of the
projecting sill or by tilting further the material which forms the sill into an inclined position

Wooden sills are to be made of hard wood, the upper surface of the sill being weathered
and slanted to assist in keeping the rainwater from penetrating to the interior of the
window frame.

Stone and brick sills because of the rough surface they have, should extend out about 5
cm, be well tilted to facilitate rainwater to easily flow away from the window and wall of
the building.

Marble and terrazzo sills should have a nosing of 1.5 - 2.5 cm and a drip throat should be
cut in the under surface of the projecting nosing to bock water that may return back.

Window Board is the corresponding internal part to the external window sill. It is made
in wood, stone, marble, tiles, etc.

Weather stripping

In order to keeps moisture wind cold etc. coming in to the building

through joints of the window, a thin strip of rubber or nylon filament
brush is fixed or glued on to the window frame at the joints between the
frame and the sash

Glazing

Glass is used in windows to admit light and still provide protection to the
interior of the room from cold, heat, dust, etc.

the glass comes in different thickness and type ranging from clear glass
to tinted, figured and glass with a reflective finish.

The thickness of the gazing for windows depends on the size of the
opening that is free of intermediate frames (transom and mullion

the type of glass depends on the functional requirement of the room and
test of the users.

The most commonly used gazing is the A 4 mm clear glass. large sized
windows may use 6-8 mm thick glass.

Thank you!!

Debre birhan university

Building construction II
Chapter two
lintels and arches
TESFA FENTAW
November,2014

Lintel and arch

Lintels and arches

Openings for doors, windows or cupboards etc. must
be bridged over by some means to support the
superimposed part of the wall above the opening. This
support is usually given by providing
an arch or
a lintel

lintels

Lintels act like a beam and transfer the load vertically to the supporting
walls on the side.

Lintels are easy to build and the supporting walls need not be very
strong

The ends of lintels are built into the masonry so as to convey the weight
carried by them to the masonry in jambs.

At least 10 cm length of bearing is a minimum requirement

If the span if the lintel exceeds 1.2m, the end bearing should have a
minimum of 15cm. For very long spans, the bearing for the lintel end
should equal at least to its depth.

Types of lintels
Lintels are made of various materials such as:
wood /timber
stone
brick
steel
reinforced brick
reinforced concrete bocks
reinforced concrete Lintels

Timber lintels
Timber lintels are the oldest type of lintels and are not
commonly used nowadays.
They cannot take greater load, are vulnerable to fire,
subjected to decay if not properly ventilated

Stone lintels
are not widely used, as At type of stone needed for
this work is not available at all places
Dressed stone lintels give good architectural
appearance
Stone is very weak in tension and may crack if
subjected to vibratory load

Brick lintels
Plain brick lintels are not structurally strong and they
are not used in large openings and where loads are
heavy
reinforced brick lintels are used for heavy loads and
longer spans

Reinforced concrete lintels

On account of their durability, strength and fire
resistance, economy and ease in construction are very
common in use.
They can be used for bigger spans and heavy loading
conditions.
Reinforced concrete lintels can be cast on site or precast

Steel Lintels

are preferred where superimposed load is very heavy and the opening is
also large.

Steel lintels can easily be concealed using plastering or burying in the

wall.

Steel lintel consists of section of rolled steel T, L, or I sections, used

singly or in a combination of two or three.

ARCHES

An arch is normally a curved member composing of a mechanical

arrangement of wedge shaped building units up holding each other by
mutual pressure of their own weight and maintained in equilibrium by
reaction from supports called abutment.

Arches of steel and reinforced concrete are built in single units of ridged
nature, without the use of wedge shaped units.

Bricks or masonry arches may be flat

Arches are constructed where loads are heavy, span is large, strong
abutments are available and architectural of bricks, stone, or reinforced
concrete appearance is required.

They could be made overall from reinforced concrete. Arches can be cast
in-situ or are also available in precast units

Technical terms

Abutment: The point where the ends of the arch rest on the wall and
support the weight of the structure above them.

Center: the center of the circle that defines the segmental arch.

Centering: a wooden or metal curved form that is used to supporting an

arch during construction (until the arch is competed and can support its
own load.)

Crown: the highest point of the external curve of the arch

Extrados: the upper surface of an arch

Intrados: the undersurface or soffit of the arch

Depth: the distance between the intrados and extrados

Keystone: the central stone or brick at the top of the arch which may be
wedge shaped. The keystone holds the arch together.

Technical terms

Skew Back: The inclined surface of the abutment which receives the
arch Springer

Springer: the first stone or brick laid at the start of the arch (at the
abutment)

Springing line: the line that joins the springers on the two sides

Rise: the vertical distance between the springing line and the highest
point of the intrados

Span: the horizontal distance between the springers

Method of Construction

Debre birhan university

Building construction II
Chapter three
stairs and other arrangements
for vertical circulation
TESFA FENTAW
November,2014

stairs
STAIRS: are one of the different means of vertical circulation in a building.
Other types of vertical circulation include
LADDERS
RAMPS
LIFTS, AND
ESCALATORS

the last two being operated mechanically.

MAIN PURPOSE is to give access to and descent from the various levels
of floors in a building.

Stair terms
STAIRCASE is the apartment in which the stairs are situated.
FLIGHT is a series of steps between landings.
STEP is the unit in a flight of stairs and often termed a flier.
TREAD is the horizontal upper portion of a step.
RISER is the vertical or front portion of a step.
LANDING is the horizontal platform at the top of a flight of steps.
RISE is the vertical distance between two successive treads.
GOING is the horizontal distance between two risers.
WINDER is a step used for changing the direction of a flight of
steps.

Stair terms
PITCH is the angle of inclination between a line joining the nosing of each
step in a flight and the floor.
HEADROOM is the vertical distance between the nosing of one flight of steps
and the soffit of the flight of steps immediately above.

HANDRAIL is a rounded or moulded member of wood or metal fixed on the

top of balusters
STRINGS OR STRINGER is a structural member which supports the steps
and act as inclined beams
BALUSTER is a vertical member which supports the hand rail. The combined
framework of hand rail and baluster is known as balustrade.
NEWEL POST is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to
connect the ends of strings and handrail.

Stair terms

handrails

Handrails are always incorporated in stairs.

Usually a handrail is required on both sides of the stair.

Its main purpose is to give support when ascending or descending the

stair. With so-called open stairs, it also protects people from falling down
at the side of the stair.

Handrails are usually made of wood or metal.

The handrail is secured to the wall by means of handrail bolts or at the

open side or self supporting stairs, etc., so called banisters or barriers
are mounted

The height of the banister is usually 1 m. The material of the banister

may either be wood, steel or any other metal

Stair design
Having wrong dimensions this concerns both length,
width and turns of the flight of stairs will make walking
difficult.
The following rules may be generally followed.
rise +tread 40 and 45cm.
2 rise +tread 58 and 63cm.
rise tread 400 and 500cm.

Stair design
A flight of stairs should preferably not have more than 16 steps.
In public buildings a single flight between landings should be
limited to 12 steps.
For large buildings arise 18cm and tread 27cm is
satisfactory. For ordinary buildings slightly greater rise and
slightly less tread is permitted. However, A rise 20cm and
tread 22cm should not be used
Width of stairs should be adequate for the number of people who
are expected to use them. A stair width of 0.8-1m is
recommended for residential building while 1.5m wide stair for
public buildings is considered essential.

Stair design
The slope of the stairs should never be greater than 40 and not
less than 20 to prevent under exertion or wastage of space.

all the risers and treads should be of uniform dimensions

The stairs should be well lightened especially at terns.

At least 2(2.1m is recommended)m head room measured vertically
above the pitch line
Handrails- for public buildings the minimum height for handrail is
90cm from the floor for horizontal handrails and 80cm for racking
handrails measured vertically from nosing.
The width of the landing should not be less than width of stair

Stair materials
Selection of materials depends upon Availability of materials,
fund, aesthetics, fire resistance. It is important that material for
stair should correspond as much as possible. The properties of
the material should be slip proof.
The most common materials for stairs:
Wood/timber
Stone
Reinforced Concrete
Mild steel
Wrought iron

bricks

Wooden stairs
Wooden stairs are
Light in weight
Easy to construct
Poor fire resistance
Quite noisy

WOODEN STAIRS
77

WOODEN STAIRS
78

Stone stairs
Strong, rigid, heavy( difficult to transport)
Widely used at main entrances of public buildings
Should be dressed and properly bounded to each other

Brick stairs
Used at entrance of buildings
May be plastered or pointed at all joints
Brick stairs are durable, have good aesthetic value,
but requires frequent maintenance

STAIRS
81

STONE and CONCRETE

Metal stairs
Mainly used as security exits
Metal stairs make lot of noise and can be built in smaller area.
Spiral stairs are mainly made of metal.
They are normally manufactured in a workshop and fixed on site,
which makes it faster and will be functional immediately.

The metal used for stair has to be properly treated for possible
corrosion, where specially exposed to external adverse weather
condition

STEEL STAIRS
83

STEEL STAIRS
84

Reinforced concrete stairs

Most commonly used type of stair
Durable, strong, have good fire resistance, less noisy
Can be kept clean and it may have more attracting appearance if
suitable finishes are used.
can take any shape
Can be cast in situ or precast

PRECAST CONCRETE STAIRS

87

REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRS

88

Classification of stairs
Straight flight stair
Quarter turn stair
Half turn stair
Bifurcating stairs
Geometrical or continuous stairs

Straight flight stair

The stair continue throughout their

entire length in one direction only.

This may consist a single flight or a

flight with one or two landings in
between.

Quarter turn stair

Quarter turn stair is a stair type which changes the direction of

the flight at right angles either to the left or to the right

At quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing or

there may be winders

Half turn stair

Half turn stair is the one which has the direction of its
flight reversed by 180

Bifurcating stairs

Bifurcating stairs are commonly used in public buildings at their

entrance hell. The stair has a winder flight at the bottom, which
bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the other
to the right.

Geometrical or continuous stairs

In this type of stairs, the strings and handrails are continuous and are
set out in accordance with geometrical principles.

Continuous stairs do not normally have any landings and they may be of
Circular
spiral or
helical stairs.

Helical stairs

Circular
stair

Spiral stair

Requirements of a good stair

RAMPS

When space permits a sloping surface or ramp can also connect

different levels or floors.

To save space in some buildings floor may serve as a ramp

Ramps are especially useful when large numbers of people or vehicles

have to be moved from floor to floor. So they are frequently adopted for
public buildings, such as railroad stations, stadiums, and exhibition halls.

they are either legally required or highly desirable for all buildings,
especially to accommodate persons in wheelchairs.

ramps should be constructed with a nonslip surface.

Short, straight ramps act as beams and may be constructed as wood,

steel, or concrete floor systems.

Long or curvilinear ramps are usually of steel or reinforced concrete

Ramps have been built with slopes up to 15% , but 8% is a preferred

RAMPS

Curbs, guardrails or
wall to prevent falling

LADDERS

Are used primarily in industrial construction

and in utility and services areas

They may be used in private residential

construction where space is extremely tight
and traffic is minimal.

ELEVATORS
Elevators travel vertically to carry passengers, equipment's and
freight from one level of the building to another,
The two most common types are electric and hydraulic elevator.
1) Electric elevator:

Consist of a car that is mounted on guide rails supported by

hoisting cables, and driven by electric hoisting machinery in a pent
house.

2) Hydraulic elevator:

Consist of a car supported by a piston that is moved by or moves

against a fluid under pressure.

The type, size, number, speed and arrangement of elevators are

determined by;

Elevator(lift)

Elevator

ESCALATORS

Escalators, or powered stairs, are used when it is necessary to

move large numbers of people from floor to floor.

They provide continuous movement of persons and can thus

remedy traffic conditions that are not readily addressed by
elevators.

Escalators should be viewed as preferred transportation systems

whenever heavy traffic volumes are expected between relatively
few floors

Escalators are used to connect airport terminals, parking garages,

sports facilities, shopping malls, and numerous mixed-use
facilities.

Escalators are typically used in pairs with one going up and other
going down

assignment
Design LTZ framed external door and aluminum framed window for a living
room(6*5m). Provide an arch over the door and a lintel for the window.
Draw to a suitable scale

Plan, section and all necessary details

Design a half turn stair for public building.

Floor to floor height is 3.2m
Draw to a suitable scale
The plan of stair case
Sectional elevation
Bar bending schedule(use
Volume of concrete
Calculate quantity of sand cement and aggregate required for

Debre birhan university

Building construction II
Chapter four
Fire Places and Chimneys
TESFA FENTAW
November,2014

FIRE PLACES
FIRE PLACES:
The fire place has been the place where the open fire was
burned in the house. The fireplace was a standard element in
most houses until the advent of radiator heating systems as
an affordable alternative. Recently the fire place has shown a
revival for aesthetic reasons
In Ethiopia, because of the favorable weather that rarely
requires warming up the house, the fireplace is regarded as a
luxury. Nevertheless it is still built in some houses and thus it
is worthwhile to see the construction of a fire place.

MAIN PURPOSE: The Fire Place is designed to burn open fire

and reflect most of the heat from the fire burning in to the room
it serves as much as possible, while sending the smoke up
wards through the roof into the open.

110

111

112

113

FIRE PLACES
114
TERMS
Chimney: is the solid vertical wall that covers the flue.
Flue: is the slender vertical tube that takes smoke from the smoke chamber
to the outside. Flue area (in plan) is proportionally related to flue height and
the area of the fireplace opening. Flue termination must be located according
to codes. As an exterior building part, it requires weatherproofing.
Smoke Chamber: directs smoke from the fireplace into the flue by tapering
up & in.
Throat: passes smoke from the fireplace up into smoke chamber.
Damper: allows throat size adjustment from fully open to tightly closed.
Fireplace: is where actual burning takes place, size and proportion of the
fireplace determine size of other components of the fireplace/chimney system.
Hearth: extends the fireplace floor beyond the opening to protect the room
flooring from sparks, heat, and flame.
Ash Dump: an open able louver in fireplace floor providing efficient ash
removal. An external air intake may be installed in the ash pit wall to
introduce outside air into the fireplace via the ash dump in order to improve
combustion.

FIRE PLACES
115

116

FIRE PLACES
117

FIRE PLACE
LOCATION

FIRE PLACE DETAIL PROPORTIONS

118

FIRE PLACES
119

FIRE PLACES
120
DIFFERENT FIREPLACE

FIRE PLACES
121
DIFFERENT FIREPLACE

FIRE PLACES
122
CHIMNEY &
^FFLUE DETAILS

FIRE PLACES
123
PREFABRICATED FIREPLACE

Debre birhan university

Building construction II
Chapter five
Balconies and terraces
TESFA FENTAW
November,2014

BALCONIES and BAY WINDOWS

125
The terms balcony is usually confused with other building terms that
are similar but different. Thus, it is first useful to define these terms.

Balconies: Refers to an "open-air" platform projecting from the interior or

exterior wall of a building and enclosed by a rail.

Bay window : A bay window is an interior space that projects (bulges out)
to the outside and is covered by a window or some kind of wall and a roof.

Veranda: is a porch (covered exterior space) that extends along an outside

wall of a building.

Loggia: Refers to a covered walkway that is open on one side usually with
arches running along the side of a building.

Terrace: is a term used in conjunction with many things, however here for
our purpose it gives two meanings.
A flat exterior living space area paved or partially green (grassy) outside
a building but on the same level as the inside.
It also refers to a roof top patio (an exterior living space over a flat roof)

BALCONIES
126

BALCONY Concrete

BALCONIES
127

BALCONY :-TIMBER MADE

BALCONIES
128

BALCONY

BALCONIES
129

BALCONY

Antoni Gaudi - Casa Batll at

Night

F.L. Right Villa Kaufmann (Falling Waters)

BALCONIES
130

FLAT BALCONY

BALCONIES
131

POP OUT BALCONY

132

LOGGIA

VERANDA
133

TERRACE
134

Vincent Van Gogh Caf Terrace on the Place

du Forum, Arles, 1888

135

TERRACE HOUSES

BALCONIES
136

PURPOSE: Balconies are constructed on a building when an external

open-air space connected to upper rooms is desired

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE: Balconies are structural

floors and can be constructed out of materials that are
also suitable to Floor Construction. Structurally Balconies
may be constructed in a number of ways:
The structural floor construction is continued through and
outside the outer wall.
The structural balcony is secured to the floor joists
The balcony construction is built quite independent of the floor
joists
The balcony construction is secured to the wall by brackets and
tie Road Bracing.
The balcony structure is secured to the wall by a support from
the vertical wall or the floor below.

BALCONIES
137

CONSTRUCTION DETAIL

BALCONIES
138

CONSTRUCTION DETAIL : Floor Drain

BAY WINDOWS
139

BAY WINDOWS
140

BAY WINDOWS
141