UNIT 6 DOORS, WINDOWS AND STAIRS

Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Doors
6.3 Definitions of the Terms
6.4 Classificationof Doors
6.4.1 ClrsslficatlonBased on Worlung Operations
6.4.2 Classlficatlon Based on Matenal Used
6.4.3 Recent Developments
6.5 Door Frames
6.6 Windows
6.6.1 Des~gnof Windows
6.6.2 Types of W~ndowMovement
6.6.3 Classlficauon of Wlndows
6.7 Glass and Glazing
6.8 Fixtures and Fastenings for Doors and Windows
6.9 Ventilators
6.9.1 Wall and Roof Ventilators
6.9.2 Standards of Ventllatlon
6.10 Stairs .
6.10.1 Type of Stairs
6.10.2 Material Classfication of Stans
6.10.3 Layout of Staircases
6.11 Summary
6.12 Answers to SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
To provide access into a building, to facilitate movement of people between its rooms, and
to allow ventilation and entry of light openings are provided in walls such as, doors and
windows with or without its ventilators. Doors and windows, can be closed whenever
required, for reasons of privacy and security. Windows and ventilators admit light and air
into the rooms providing a healthful environment; windows are also a means to provide the
occupants of the building with a view of the outside surroundings. Windows are provided
with shutters which can be glazed, panelled or venetianed so that they can be closed to the
required extent, and secured as and when needed. Ventilators and small windows provided
near the ceiling, basically for the purposes of ventilation.
A stair is a flight of steps arranged suitably for the purpose of providing access between

I
I
different floors of the building.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
defiie various terms related to doors; windows and stairs,
classify the doors, windows and stairs by inspection,
select appropriate of door matching with the requirements,
design the windows as per requirements,
select appropriate fixtures and fastenings for given situation,
define standards of ventilation,
classify different types of stairs, and
- . I
 DOORS-

A door may be defined as a framework generally, consisting of wood, steel, aluminium,

glass or a combination of these materials, secured in an opening left in a wall for the
purpose of providing access to the users of the structure. It basically consists of two parts,
i.e. (i) a frame and (ii) shutter (leaf).
The frame is nonnally made of timber because it is available everywhere and it can be
worked into different shapes without difficulty. However, where economy is the main
consideration, frames made up of steel or precast R.C.C. members are also used. Steel or
R.C.C. frames are recommended in construction on sites infested with termites. Shutters are
generally made up of timber framework with panel insets of glass, timber, plywood, block
board or a combination of such materials. In case of steel doors, the shutters are made of
framework or rolled steel sections with panel inserts of glass or steel plates. Next to steel,
aluminium is the metal largely used in the manufacture of doors. Aluminium doors are
considered to be the best as they are rust proof and present an elegant appearance. However
since aluminium is costly as compared with timber or steel, use of aluminium doors is
normally restricted to public buildings.
For small opening, a door is provided with one leaf or shutter and such a door is known as a
single leaf door, In case of a wider opening, the door should have two leaves and such a
door is termed as a double leaf door. Sometimes, a door is provided with shutter on both
sides of the frame. Shutter on one side of the frame may have wire gauge mesh (in case of
kitchen door) and on the other side the shutter may be fully panelled; such a door is known
as a double shuttered door.
Location of Doors
The designer or planner of a building should observe the following rules while deciding the
lpcation of doors :
(1) The number of doors should be kept minimum for each room, because larger
number causes obstruction and thus, decreases utility of the accommodation.
The location and size of a door should be based on its functional requirements.
(2) From point of view of utility of the accommodation and the primary need of the
occupants, doors should preferably be located near the comer of a room (nearly
20 cm from the comer).
(3) From point of view good ventilation and free air circulation inside the room, the
doors should be located in opposite walls facing each other.
(4) The location, number and size of doors are also decided considering the various
factors, namely, desued day light, desired vision of outside, privacy, natural
ventilation, heat loss, etc.
( 5 ) In addition to above listed factors, doors should preferably be located with a
view to improving the interior decoration of a room.
Sizes of Doors
In the context of doors, size means its width x height. In general, a door should he of such
dimensions that it allows the movement of the largest object likely to be passed through the
door. While in case of residential buildings it should be aimed that two persons walking
shoulder to shoulder can freely move through the door; while in public buildings, bigger
sizes are used. Normally, the sizes of doors provided in different locations in the buildings
are as follows :
(1) Internal doors for residential buildings : 0.9 m x 2 m
(2) . External doors for resideqtial buildings : 1.0 m x 2.0 m
(3) Doors for bath rooms and water closets in residential buildings : 0.7 m x 2.0 m
(4) Doors in public buildings, viz. hospitals, libraries, cinemas, etc. : 1.2 m x 2.25 m
( 5 ) Doors in garages : 2.5 m x 2.25 m
Note : Minimum height of a door should not be less than 1.80 m.
Common criterion for sizes of doors used in India is as follows :
Width = 0.4 to 0.6 x Height, or
Height = Width + 1.2 m.
 iAQ 1 Doors, Windows
4stairs
What are the various features to be considered while locating a door ?

SAt) 2
What arc thc commonly used slzes of clor~rs'7

6.3 DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS

Frame : A group of mmbers assembled and placed along the top,
bottom and sides of an opening so as to form an enclosure and
a support for the door assembly.
Sill : The horizontal member f o m g the bottom of the frame.
Shutter : Planks, panelled or otherwise, which fit in the frame.
Style : Up-ight or vertical outside members of a shutter a frame
work.
Top Rail : The top mast horizontal member of a shutter or framework
Lock Rail : Middle horizontal member df a shutter or framework wherein
lock and bolt are fixed.
Bottom Rail : The lower most horizontal member of a shutter or framework.
Mullion The vertical member running through a shutter or a frame.
Jamb Vertical face of a window or door opening which supports the
frame.
Reveal External jamb of a door or window openings at right angles to
the face of the wall.
Sash Bar Light weight units of a frame which carry .the glass within a
window or a door frame.
Sash Door Door where upper part is glazed
Panel The area included between the rails.
Hanging or The styles of a door, which is hung on one side.
Hinged Style
Cmss Rail Additional horizontal member connecting the two styles of a
shutter or framework.
Transom : Horizontal dividing member in a window or door frame.
Threshold : Wooden fixture fixed to the floor under a door frame, thus
' enabling the door to be cut short enough to clear floor
coverings on the inside.
Rebate : Depression cut in the frame to rceive the door. '

Louver : An inclined piece of wood fixed in a framework.

6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DOORS

Doors are generally classified either on the basis of their working operat~onsor the materials
used in their manufacture or fabrication. Doors are also classified accordmg to the basic
function being performed by them.
nm~drng
construction 6.4.1 Classification Based on Working Operations
From the operational point of view, the doors are classified as given below :
(a) Swinging Doors
(b) Folding and Accordian Doors
(c) Sliding D m s
(d) Revolving Doors
(e) Rolling Doors
(f)Collapsible Doors
Swinging ~ & r s
In these doors, the shutters are hung from the door frame by means of hinges or butts fixed
to one side of the shutter'so that they swing on a vertical axis (Figure 6.1). These doors may
be of single swinging, double swinging or double acting type.
In single swinging type doors, if a person is standing on the outside of a door and the hinges
are to his left, the door is a left hand door, but if they are to his right, it is a right hand door.
In double swinging doors, the shutters are hinged at opposite sides of an opening. These
doors are extensively used at the entrances of buildings.
In double acting doors, the shutters are provided with special hinges, which keep the door
closed when it is not held open. The door of this type can be easily pushed in either
direction

Pee hole
wit! g l a n

3Smm
shutter

ELEVATION SECTION A-A

Double action
spring hinge

--
I- m0
PLAN
-I

Folding or Accordan Doors

These doors are used singly or as folding partitions so that two rooms may be used together
as a single room or separately if so desired. They are made of wood or metal and are used
for very large openings,?hese doors are also hinged together.
Sliding Doors
The sliding doors which slide side ways were extensively used in the past for residences.
These door shutters can also slide either upward or dowow ard, and do not cause any
obstruction to the movement of the people. The vertical sliding doors are pulled up by
cables or chains and are used for large openings in industrial buildings and for freight ,
elevator doors. The right angle doors are suspended from an overhead track and are used to Doors. W m d o w s
very limited extent for garages. Figures 5.2 (a) to (c) shows essential features of a single and and Stairs
double leaf straight sliding door.
Opcnli;g-

C -.
II
TYPE- B

TYPE- C
Figure 6.2 (a)
Plen Showing Alternative
Arrangemenb of Shuttern

SECTION A - 8 \
ELEVATION - --.,
. l-t,'
Figure 6.2 (b) Figure 6.2 (c)
Elevation of a S i e Shutter Sliding Door Enlarped Details at Seetion AB

Revolving Doors
These doors are extensively used where frequent opening and closing of a door is to be
avoided due to heavy foot traffic, e.g. fish market, public buildings. banks, hotels, stores,
theatres, hospitals etc. Arrangements are made to rotate the door about a central pivot and
also to lock the door. These doors revolve about one side of the shutter and get closed
automatically whenever pushed and left off after use. Figure 6.3 shows the plan of the
revolving doors in the revolving locked and open position.

w.. Outride .,*Ov

Figure 6.3 :Revolving Doors

Rolling Doors
Rolling doors are a modification over sliding doors. These doors are generally made of steel
or slats of sheet metal which can be easily closed or opened by slightly pulling or pushing
the shutter. They do not require much space and are commonly used for garages, show
Building C O D S ~ T U C ~ ~ O U rooms, shops, godowns, factory buildings etc. These are popularly lcnown as rolling
shutters. Figure 6.4 she-ws the sectional elevation and plan of a rolling door.

SECTION A -A
ELEVATION bA

Guide
channel Hood cover
PLAN
Figurn 6.4 :Rdlittg Steel Stutter Door

Collapsible Doors
These doors consists of a mild steel frame which is made up of light steel channel sections.
They are provided with rollers at bottom and top to roll on rails when they open or collapse.
These doors work without hinges and can be opened or closed by a slight pull or push, and
are extensively used for residential buildings, public buiIdings, sheds. schools godowns etc.
Figure 6.5 shows the elevation of a collapsible door.

Top of the
owning
I

Fiure 6 5 :Collapsible Steel Door with Double Shutter

6.4.2 Classification Based on Material U d Dows, Wmdom
aDd stdm
On Ule basis of the material used for manufacturing or fabrication, the doors can be
classified as wooden, metallic and composite doors. Their sub-classification in each type is
presented in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 :Different Doors with Their Sub-divisions

Sl. No. / Kinds of

Sub-classification

(1)
Doon
Wooden (a) Battened and Ledged Doors
I Doors (b) Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors
(c) Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors
(d) Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Doors
(e) Framed and Panelled Doors
(0 Glazed or Sash Doors
(g) Flush Doors
(h) Louvered Doors
(i) Wie-gauged Doors

(a) Hollow Metal Doors

(b) Steel Plate Doors
(c) Corrugated Steel Doors
(d) Rolling Shutters
(e) Collapsible Doors

Composite (a) Metal Covered Doors

Doors (b) Revolving Doors
(c) Sliding Doors
(d) Telescopic Doors
(e) Swing Dwrs
(f) Fie Check Doors
I I 1 I
WOODEN DOORS
Each type of wooden door has been discussed briefly in succeeding paragraphs.
Battened and Ledged Doors
This is the simplest type of wooden door and is used for narrow openings, and
where cost is the main consideration. It consists of vertical battens fixed with
horizontal members called ledges. The size of the vertical battens varies from
100 m m to 200 mm and their thickness ranges from 20 mm to 40 mm. The battens
are joined together in various ways. The type of joint to be provided depends on
the desired appearance. Square joints in battens should be avoided as they open out
and give a very unsightly appearance. If they have to be used at all, square joints
should be grooved to enhance their appearance.
Ledges are normally three in number. The bottom ledge and the middle ledge are
wider than the top ledge. The section of a ledge may be taken as given below.
Top ledge : 100 mm x 25 mm to 100mrn x 40 mm
Middle and bottom ledge : 150 mm x 25 rnm to 200 mm x 40 mm
These ledges may be bevelled to prevent water standing against them if the door is
fitted on the exterior face of the building. Figure 6.6 shows the details of battened
and ledged door.
Battened, Ledged and Braced DM&
This is an improved form of battened and ledged door. In this type of door two
additional members are provided in the form of inclined braces between the ledges
as shown in Figure 6.7. The braces are normally housed and not tenoned into the
ledges. The braces incline downwards towards the side on which the door is hung.
In this position they act as struts and provide increased rigidity and strength to the
door. This type of door can be used for wider opening in situations where
appearance is not so important as economy is.
 CLAN

L L f VATION. SECT ION

fig- 6 6 :De
w of Battened Pad M e d Door

Ib SECTION A T 0.6
E L L VAT ION
 Tbe sizes of different components of the door are as given below :
(a) Battens : 100 to 175 mm wide and 20 mm thick.
(b) Ledges : 175 to 225 mm wide and 25 to 30 mm thick.
(c) Braces : 125 to 175 mm wide and having same thickness as that of ledges.
Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors
This is superior in strength and appearance to an ordinary battened and ledged
door. It consists of a framework of two vertical styles, bottom rail, top rail and one
middle rail. The battens are fixed in this framework. The styles ate generally
1QO rnm wide and 40 mm thick. The top and bottom rails are also of the same size.
The middle rail is about 200 mm wide and 40 mm thick as the lock fittings are
I fixed to it. Battens, are 100 to 125 rnm wide, and about 15 to 20 mm thick.
The middle and bottom rails are mortised and tenoned into the styles. The upper
and lower ends of the battens are let into the rails and the side battens are tongued
into the styles.
Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Boors
1 This door is stronger than the battened, ledged and framed type. In addition to the
I
members of the door, cross braces inclining upwards from the hanging side are
used.The middle and bbttom rails are mortised and tenoned into the styles and the
, braces are either housed into the rails at about 40 mm from the style or taken into
the comers and tenoned into the styles. The size of braces is 15 mm x 120 mm.
t Generally the thickness of the top rail or the styles is equal to that of the braces and
the battens together.
An improved type of this type of door is one in which the bottom rail, middle rail
and the braces are equal in thickness to that of the head rail minus the thickness of
the battens. This means that the battens will run over the bottom rail, middle rail
and braces. If such a door is used on the exterior side of a building, the water
otherwise collecting on the projection of the bottom rail, and rotting of the door is
avoided. This is a strong type of door and at the same time is also cheap.
Figure 6.8 shows the front elevation, the cross sectional elevation, and tht
sectional plan of a battemd, ledged, braced md framed door.

xCO
C R A M & 1.8
T O P RAIL ?BrW

a0 n m ~ I U I~CA T ~ L U

1RAClUG 7 D l DO

LOCK R A I L I O O X I O

SUACIW 7s r

OM M I L
a0

Fipn6.11 :B-, me
4 Brnced d Frsmed Door
Fmmed and Panelled Bocws
This type of door is commonly provided in all types of buildings. This door
consists of timber framework of styles and rails which are grooved on the inside to
receive one or more panels. Framed and panelled doors are made in several designs
to suit the functional as well as architectural requirements. Tbe door may be single,
double, tide, f m , or six panelled and so on. Tbe p m l s can be of timbea,
 plywoal, block board and hard board. TImber panels are fixed within the grooves
in the frame. However, additional timber beading is also provided either on one or
both sides to improve the elevation of the door. Commonly adopted designs of
framed and panelled doors are shown in Figure 6.9.
Top Rail Mullion
\ - I

Ell fi
Middle Rail

- I

BOFtOm Rail

Figore 6.9 :Detr31a d Frroed d Panelled Door

Following important construction details are to be noted :

(i) The styles are continuous from bottom to top.
(ii) Different rails, i.e. top rail, bottom rail, lock rail and frieze rail are jointed to the
styles.
(iii) Mullions, if any, are jointed to the rails.
(iv) Bottom and lock rails are of bigger size than the top and frieze rails.
(v) The lock rail is so placed that its centre line is at a height of 800 mm from the
bottom of the shutter.
I (vi) The styles and the rails are mortised and tenoned.
(vii) In case the panel inserts are of timber, the minimum width and thickness of
timber panel should not be less than 150 mm x 15mm. The maximum area of a
single panel in timber should not be more than 0.5 m2.

Fipr*610 t Padled Door rrith Woadca P d

(viii)In case of plywood, particle board or hard board panel, there is no restriction of
minimum or maximum size of the panel. However, for a single panel door, the
thickness of plywood should not be less than 12 mm,and for two or more
panelled door it should not be less than 10 mm.
 (ix) The width of styles is normPlly 100 mm and the bottom and lock rail are Dools,windom
Padstsirs
150 mm wide each. The thickness of shutter cul vary &om 30 mm to 50 mn
dependii upon the size of the h r , thickness of panels, the situation of doar'
and type of usage. Figure 6.10 shows four-, five-, and six- panelled door using
wooden panels.
Figure 6.11 shows the enlarged details at meeting stiles of the panelled door.
s

Figom 611 :Edarged D e w d M* Sdled d the Psndkd Door

Glazed or Sash Doors

This type of door is used in residential as well as public buildings like hospitals.
schools or colleges etc. With a view to supplement the natural lighting provided by
windows or to make the interior of one room visible from the adjacent one, glazed
or srsb doors are provided in several designs. They can be glazed fully or partly.
Fully glazed doors are recommended in situations where sufficient light is required
through the door opening as in the case of shopping or display centres, lobbies,
entrance halls etc. In case of partly glazed doors, normally the bottom one-third
height of the door is panelled and the remaining two-third is glazed. In case of
partly glazed doors, the styles are sometimes diminished at the lock rail to improve
the elevation and to permit more area of glazing in the process. The diminished
styles are known as gun stock stiles. Figure 6.12 shows the elevation and section of
a fully glazed door.
 PLAY

Figure 6.14 shows the view of the door with arrangement of fixing glass and
timber panels. Figure 6.15 shows the enlarged detail at section 'A' of door shown
in Figure 6.13.
 lull0 WmDEM '

bhADING
GOX 100 F R A M t

'FlushDwr
With the large scale production of plywood and face vaneers, use of flush doors
has become very popular these days. Rush doors have pleasing appearance, simple
construction, high strength, durability, and these doors cost less as compared with
panelled W r s . These doors are commonly used in residential as well as public
hugdings. Rush door shutter consists of a solid or semi solid framed skeleton
(core) covered on both faces with either plywood or a combination of cross bands
and face vaneers giving perfectly flush and jointless surface. In case commercial
type plywood or face veneer is used for the face panel the door is termed as
commercial type flush door. Similarly if decorative type of plywood or face veneer
is used fm face panel, the door is named as decorative type of flush door,
Decorative type flush doors cost more than c o m r c i a l type flush doors. Rush
door shutters are manufactured in standard thickness of 25,30,35 and 40 mm.
25 mm thick shutter is considered srritable for door openings upto
800 nlm x 2100 mm in size; 30 mmpr 35 mm thick shutter is used for d m
opening of 900 mm x 2100 rnm in size whereas 40 rnm thick flush door shutter is
recommended for door openings ranging from 1000 man x 2100 mm to
1200 mrnx2100mmin size.
I
Types of Flush Doors
Flush doors can be broadly divided into following three types :
(a) solid core type,
(b) Cellular core type, and
(c) Hollow core type.
Solid Core Type F l w h Doors
In this iype the wooden frame used for holding the core consists of stiles, top rail
and bottom rail, and the width of each member being not less than 50 rma The
frame is made of selected species of timber. Where it is not possible to use same
species of timber for the frame it is necessary to provide hard wood lipping around
the frame to achieve required strength and durability. Tbe width of the lipping
should be equal to the thickness of the core and its depth should not be less than
25 mm.
The solid core for the door consists of block board (laminated core), particle board
or a combhation of particle board and block board. The laminated type of core
consists of wooden strips of width not more than 25 mm glued together under
pressure. The length of the strips should normally be equal to the length of
laminated core or block board. The strips can also be jointed, such joints should
however, be staggered.
Plywood sheets are glued under pressure, on both faces, to the assembly of the
core housed in the frame. Instead of plywood sheets, separate cross bands and face
veneers can also be used. However, when cross bands and face veneers are glued
separately, the cross bands should be laid with their grains at right angles to those
of h e core and glued on its both faces. Face veneers are thereafter laid with their
$rains at right angles to those of the cross bands and are glued to the cross bands.
kY4- .. The thickness of tbe plywood or tbe wmbined thickness of cnu bod and face
veneers should not be less than 3 mm. Figure 6.16 shows the &tails of solid core
type flush door (solid core consisting of laminated core pieces).
r TOP ( U I L

COGS 0- M A R 0 1-
OR L I P P I N 6

Y T WOOD 9 r R I P S
L A M I N A T L O CORL SOL10 CORL OC
CICCC. PARTICLL mOAAD

,CROSS S 4 N O

OR P L Y WOOD

OR P L Y WOO-

L BOTTOM RAIL L sOTTOM R A I L

ELLVATION CLCVATION

FACE VENEER O R WLIO c o m e O F

PLY WOOD PARTICLE SOARD

w L SOFT V W D S T R I P S EOOC O r Y A R D WOO0 PLY WOOD

M LAWfNATtV OR L t r r l N a
conc ' C I 8 C t .
DETAIL AT. A DETAIL AT, A

Figure 6.16 :Dttrilr d Sdid Core 'Qpe Flmh Door

(LdtFigwe :S a d Core Coddng of M.tdCore Picar)
(Right F i p m :Sd1 Core C d g d Pu4kk B d )

Cellular Core n p e Flush Doors

In this type,the timber frame is constructed from stiles, top rail and bottom rail
each not less than 75 mm wide. The cellular core is formed by fixing w p e n or
plywood battens not less than 25 mm in width to the frame in such a maper that
the voids formed do not exceed 25 cm2 in area. In addition, the voids are uniformly
distributed and total contents of the void do not total more than 40% of the area of
the shutter. The door shutter is formed by gluing, under pressure, plywood sheets
or cross bands and face veneers oh both faces of the core. The thickness of the
plywood should not be less than 3 mm.
Hollow Core n p e Flush Doors
In this type, the frame consists of stiles, top rail, bottom rails and minimum two
intermediated rails, each not less than 75 mm in width. The space between the
stiles and the rails is divided by fixing wooden battens not less than 25 rnm in
width in such a manner that the voids are equally distributed and area of any void -
remains less than 500 cm2.Instead of battens, rolls or ships of veneers can also be
used for forming the core. Plywood sheets or combination of cross bands are face
veneers are then glued under pressure on both faces of the core. The thickness of
plywood used should not be less than 6 mm in this type of shutter. Figure 6.17
shows the details of hollow core type flush door.
Louvered Doors
This type of door allows sufficient amount of air circulation even when closed and
at the same time maintains privacy. The louvers are fvred in a series so that the
upper back edge of any louver is above the lower front edge of the next higher
louver. The louvers may be fued into the stile or made movable as shown in
Figure 6.18.
 ELEVATION

DETAIL A T . A

-rr 6.17 1 Hd)ow Corr 'Pgpc Flwb Door

Wlre-gauged Doors
These doors enable air to pass into the room and do not allow flies or insects to
,
come in. They are made ofivertical and horizontal stiles into which wire gauge is
~~ildia g
Construction fixed. They may be hung on the same door frame or on a separate frame. The stiles
and rails shall be of the same size as that of the other door. Wire gauge shall be of
best quality woven wire webbing. The entire area of the wire gauge within a panel
shall not have any joint. Wire gauge is fixed to the leaf of rails and
20 mm x 20 mm heads are fixed. Double leaf wire gauge door shall close with the
meeting stiles abutting against each other in Figure 6.19. The leaves may close to
such an extent that the junction projects outside from the face of the frame. The top
of the frame and the stile, if any, shall have a wedge-shaped wooden projechon.

PLAN

Figare 6.19 :Details of Wire Ganged or Fly PFoolDoor

SAQ 4
d whnt materials can be used for t l ~ r a n d ~:,ccrc\. '
In a wootten p a ~ ~ e l l rdot^

SAQ 5
Draw a dimensioned sketch ot ii batteraed ledged ant1 braced ctc)ns 'j

SAQ 6
What are the advantages of flush doors ?

METAL DOORS
Each type of metal door has been discussed briefly in succeeding paragraphs.
Hollow Metal Doors
They are made of furniture steel and are shaped as wooden doors in appearance
The rails stiles and places where hinges, locks etc. are fixed and strengthened b j
welding small T- or 1- section inside. The stiles are filled with some insulating
material so that there is not much noise when they are opened or closed.
Steel Plate Doors or M. S. Sheet Doors Doors, Wmdows
__n
This type of door is recommended for railway goods sheds, garages, godowns etc.,
where high degree of protection and safety is needed. The door is normally
provided with two shutters. The door shutter is fabricated from angle iron diagonal
braces or mild steel flats placed horizontally. Different members of the shutter
frame are riveted or welded at the junction. In case of riveted connections gusset
plates are necessarily used at each junction. Mild steel plates of required thickness
are fixed to the shutter frame with rivets or welds. The outer frame of the shutters
is provided with flat iron angle cleats for fixing the shutter to the door opening.
Each cleat has a 25 mm - $ hole in the horizontal leg for supporting the shutter on
pin clamps. lko-pin clamp is embedded in masonry and the other end has a 20 mm
M.S. pin riveted or welded to the clamp. The pin clamps are so placed that the top
pin faces downward and the bottom pin faces upwards, so that the shutter cannot
be removed by lifting over the pins. The pins are made to pass through the holes in
the cleats of the outer frame of the door shutter, and that is how the shutters get
supported and hence attached to the jambs.
Corrugated Steel Doors
A framework of angles and channels is built up with suitable bracings. In this
corrugated steel sheets are fixed vertically. If a stronger door is desired, additional
sheets can be placed, the gap between the two being filled with asbestos or any
other fire proof material.
Rolling Shutters
These doors are commonly used for show windows, stores, shop fronts and
godowns etc. The door shutter acts like a steel curtain and provides adequate
protection and safety against burglars and fire. The shutter consists of thin steel
slats (aIso known as laths), about 1.25 mm thick interlocked to each other and
coiled upon specially designed pipe shaft (also known as drum) mounted at the top
of the opening. The door shutter travels in two vertical steel guide channels
installed at either and of the opening. The guide channels are made out of mild
steel sheets and are deep enough to accommodate and keep the shutter in position.
The shutter is counter balanced by means of helical spring enclosed in the drum
and a hood of steel protects the drum, spring etc. from the weather. Figure 6.4
shows the details of a rolling steel shutter door.
When the area of door opening does not exceed 10 m2 the door shutter can be
easily opened or closed by pushing it up or down manually. The door in such a
case is known as push/ pull type rolling shutter.
When the area of door opening is more than 10 m2 the shutter is generally opened
or closed by means of reduction gear operated by a connecting rod and winding
handle or by means of chain pulley blocks. The door in such a case is known as
mechanical type iolling shutter.
Collapsible Doors
These doors are extensively used for shops, garages, public buildings, godowns
etc. and in situations where width of opening is large and provision of hinged
shutter becomes difficult for want of space. These doors are also used with the
consideration of increased safety and protection of property. Collapsible steel
doors are commonly recommended in situations where light and ventilation are
desired even when the opening is closed. Depending upon the size of the opening,
the door may have single or double shutters. The door essentially consists of
vertical double channels each 20 x 10 x 2 mm in size and spaced at 100 to 120 mm
apart. The channels are joined together with the hollow of channels on the inside
and are braced with flat iron diagonals 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick which allow
the shutter to open out or get folded. The shutters operate between two T-iron rails,
one fixed to the floor and the other to the lintel by means of anchor bolts, the door
shutter slides over the roller mounted at its bottom and is held in position by the
rails. The door is provided with locking arrangements, handles stoppers etc. and i t
can be opened or closed manually by slight push or pull. Figure 6.5 shows the
details of this type of steel door.
COMPOSITE DOORS
Each type of composite doors has been discussed briefly in succeeding paragraphs.
~dh~agconsbactlon Metal Covered Doors
They consist of cores of seasoned non-resinous timber covered with a tight fitting
sheet metal, e.g. furniture steel, galvanized steel, cold rolled copper sheet, bronze,
tin and lead combination (termed plate) etc. The cores are made of two or three
layers of 25 mm boards and about 200 mm wide. One layer should be vertical and
the other horizontal. The covering is made of 350 mm x 500 mm sheet preferably
with a double joint. The three ply doors are very strong and two ply doors give a
moderate degree of protection.
In case, cheaper doors of this type are needed. they can be made by making a
framework of wooden stiles and rails with the inner spaces being filled with
asbestos or other fue proof material. This type has got considerable fire resistance
qualities.
Revolving Doors
Revolving door provides entrance on one side and exit on the other simultaneously
keeping the opening automatically closed when not in use (Figure 6.3). The door is
so assembled as to exclude the wind drought. This type of door is advantageously
provided in places where there is a regular foot traffic of people entering in and
going out of the building especially when it is air conditioned or situated at a place
where strong winds blow for most part of the year. The door essentially consists of
four leaves radially attached to a centrally placed mullion in a circular opening.
The mullion or the central member is provided with ball bearing at the bottom and
bush bearing at the top, so as to enable the door to revolve smoothly without
producing jerks. The leaves and the mullion are enclosed in a vestibule. At their
edges the leaves are provided with rubber pieces which fit flexibly against the
inside face of the vestibule. The attached leaves may be glazed, panelled or partly
glazed and partly panelled. Such doors are commonly provided in hotels, banks,
offices and other such important public buildings. Figure 6.20 shows an isometric
view and plan of a revolving door.

4-Upright cmst vings or

with g h o pab

ELEVATION
F%tm 6.20 :AM aad &vPtion of a Revolviug Door
Sllding Doors
This type of door is considwed suitable for goods shops, sheds, godowns, garages
etc. and in places where the use of hinges for fixing the shutter is to be avoided.
Depending upon the size of the opening, and the space available on either side, the
door can have single, double 'or more number of leaves or shutters.The door is
provided with top and bottom guide rail or runners wihtin which the shutters slide.
The guide rails run past the opening for a distance equal to the width of the shutter
so that when the door is required to be opened, the door shutter wcupies a new
position parallal to the wall face and clear of the opening. The shutters are also
provided with locking arrangemdnas, handles etc. Figwe 6.2 shows various details
1
regarding a sliding door.
Telescopic Doors
They are used for very large openings. They are made up of five to fifteen leaves,
generally centre parting. When opened, the shutters are stacked in pockets at the
 ends. These are operated by two motors located in the end pockets. The central Doors, Windows
leaves are driven by an endless chain operated by the motor. The other leaves are and Stairs
moved by a series of cables attached to the powered central leaf and arranged in
such a way that all leaves arrive or close simultaneously.
Swing Doors
This type of door (Figure 6.1) is generally provided in passages of public buildings
like offices, banks, etc. The door may have single shutter or two shutters. The
shutters are fixed with special hinges known as double action spring hinges which
hold the shutter in closed position when not in use. Since these doors are pushed
open, they should have glazed shutters so as to enable the users to see the objects
on other side of the door and avoid accidents. As the springs return the door with
force, the glazing should preferably be carried out by use of wired glass or it
should be protected by other suitable means. Such doors should not be rebated at
the meeting stiles. The closing edges of the meeting stiles should be segmental.
Alternatively, the door shutter should have a peep hole, fixed with glass. The peep
hole should be at eye level.
Fire Check Doors
Fire check doors are required to control and restrict the spread of fire through the
door openings by minimising the damage of the adjoining area in the event of fie.
By provision of f i e check doors it is possible to prevent the spread of fire to
communicating rooms and floors and to reduce the chimney effect (which occurs
in tall buildings) thereby ensuring desired degree of fire protection to the building.
The design of the fire check doors and the material to be used in their construction
should be such that doors are capable of resisting the intense heat of f i e without
distortion and its thermal conductivity should be sufficiently low to prevent the
ignition of the combustible materials on either side. The fire resistance of the doors
should as far as practicable be the same as that for the wall in whikh it is to be
fitted. Normally, for openings upto 1.5 m wide single leaf door shutter is used and
for wider openings two leaves shutters is used. The doors can be of sliding, hinged,
manually operated or automatic type.
The fire check doors can be of the following two types :
(a) Steel plate doors
(b) Metal covered doors.
In case of the steel plate door, the shutter is made out of the steel plates of 6 mm or
more in thickness with stiles and rails on each face made obt of steel plate 6 mm
thick and 10 mm wide riveted or welded together. The arrangement of the
plateshails should be such that the door shutter becomes 18 mm or more in
thickness continuously along each edge.
In case of metal covered doors, the core of the shutter consists of 3 or 4 layers of
planed, tongued and grooved seasoned teak or yellow pined boards not less than
22 rnm in thickness. The core is encased in the sheet steel panels which have
tightly folded joints to exclude air and to ensure that the core does not ignite. This
type of door is constructed based on the principle that wood does not burn when air
is excluded but it is converted into charcoal. This type of door has added advantage
of not only preventing the flames but also the heat passing from one side to
another.
Fire check doors are used to safeguard against fire in warehouses, hotels, banks,
departmental stores and other public buildings.
SAQ 7
c a) What type of shutter will you use for a godown door, and why ?
(b) Name some of the non-wood materials that can be used for a door shutter.
~ ~ i l dCoastruetion
i a ~ 6.4.3 Recent Developments
Due to the concern for environment and rapid denudation of forests various alternatives for
wood substitution are now being considered. Many of these materials are still not tried over
a long period of time. A brief description of some of the alternatives is given below :
Particle Board
This is manufactured from small pieces of wood or other cellulosic materials
blended with a synthetic resin adhesive and consolidated under heat and pressure.
This is being used particularly as a panelling material. Cement bonded particle
boards are also available.
Medium Density Fibre Board
This is made from fibres of wood or other cellulosic material (like cotton stalk)
combined with synthetic resin and consolidated under heat and pressure. This -
material can be sawed like timber and hence, is now becoming popular as a
substitute for wood.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Shutters
It is a synthetic material based on carbon compounds derived from petroleum. On
account of its water resistant properties these shutters can be used for bathroom
doors.
Fibre Glass Reinforced Plastic
This is a composite material when fibre glass having mechanical strength
constitutes the structural part, and the polyester resin constitutes the matrix.
Various other material like rich husk boards, red mud polymer, composite glass, reinforced
gypsum, ferrocement etc., are also being tried, and their performance studied. Plantation
timber like eucelyptus and rubber wood after proper chemical treatment can also be used but
their life as compared to conventional timber would be much shorter.

6.5 DOOR FRAMES

External doors are fixed to frames (Figure 6.21). A door frame consists of two vertical
pieces (posts) and one horizontal piece at top (head). Sometimes a horizontal member is
added at the base also which is called a sill. The size of the members depends on the size of
the door to be hung. Generally, they are 120 rnrn x 75 mrn in section. They have a rebate of
about 30135 mm depth wherein the door shutter fits and one groove where the plaster abuts.

Figure 6.21 :Details of a Door Frame

The joints between the head and the post may be of any one of the following types : Doors, Widows
sad stain7
(i) Closed mortised and tenoned joint,
(ii) Haunched mortised and tenoned joint.
(iii) Pin and tenoned joint, and
(iv) Double tenoned joint.
Figure 6.22 (a) to Figure 6.22 (d) show the above joints.

.-
Figore 6.22 (a) I Figure 6.22 (by
Closed Mortice and Tenon Joint Between Detail of Pin and Tenon Joint
Door Frame Head and Vertical Member

WEDGES

-
Figure 6.22 (c) Figure 6.22 (d)
A Haunched Tenon with Double Tenon Joint
Conespoodiog m e of Mortice

Other types of door frames ma& of metal like steel rolled sections, pressed steel and
aluminium are also used. RCC frames have also been used as a wood substitute which is
cheaper than metallic frames.

6.6 WINDOWS
A windowsmay be defined as an opening ma& in a wall for the purpose of providing day
light, vision and ventilation. The construction of window is identical to that of door.
Window consists of a window frame and shutters. The frame consists of two vertical
~ ~ i ~ d constroctio~
hrg members called jambs, one flat, i.e. horizontal member connecting the jambs at top, hown
as head and another flat member connecting the jambs at their feet, known as sill. The
shutter can be fully glazed, panelled and glazed or only panelled type. Windows are
normally provided with two shutter leaves.
The selection of size, shape, location and the number of windows to be provided in a room
depends upon the following considerations :
(a) Size of room to be lighted.
(b) Location of the room and its utility.
(c) Architectural treatment to be given to the building.
. (d) Direction of wind and its speed.
(e) Climatic factors prevailing at the site such as humidity & temperature variation.
Based on these considerations the following thumb rules have been framed to determine the
area requirements for windows in a room; and, the size and hence, the number of windows
can thus be worked out once total area required for whdow opening is known :
(a) The total area of window openings should normally vary from 10 to 20% of the
floor area of the room. In hot and arid regions itcould be 10 to 15% of the floor
area. When the building is to be located in hot anbumid regions, the area of
window awnings should vary between 15 to 20% 01the floor area.
(b) In case of public buildings like, schools, offices, factori* hospitals etc., the
minimum area of windows should be 20% of the floor are$
(c) For adequate natural Iight the total area of glass panes in winhws should be at
least 8% of the floor area.
6.6.1 Design of Windows
The important points to be kept in mind while making provisions for windows in a room are
listed as follows :
(a) The size and number of windows should be sufficient to provide adequate light
and ventilation to the room
(b) Windows should be located opposite to each other wherever possible. Windows
provided on the northern side permit maximum day light without glare.
(c) Window sills should be placed at 750 to 1000 mm above the floor level. This is
considered as a reasonable height for the inmates to have a convenient look
outside. In case of bath and W.C. and other situations where privacy is required
window sill should be kept at 1750 rnrn above the floor level. The top of
windows and doors should however be at the same height.
(d) Buildings in humid regions need special attention for adequate ventilation of the
room. The area of window opening in such regions should be maximum and a
window should be so located as to permit maximum ventilation of the
apartment.
(e) The shutters of a window in external walls should open outside. This checks the
entry of rainwater inside the room.
(f) All external windows specially those on ground floor should be provided with
mild steel, round or square, bars of steel grills to safeguard against theft.
(g) Windows in external wall should be provided with chaija projections to prevent
the entry of rainwater into the room, as well as protect the window material
from water. Similarly, it is desirable to slope the window sill towards the
external face of the wall. The sill should preferably be weathered and throated
to throw the rain water of the face of the wall.
SAQ 8
(a) Discuss the points considered for deciding the location of windows in a room.
(b) Normally, what percentage of floor area is provided for window openings ?
 -

6.6.2 Types of Window Movement Doom, Wmdom

aDfl stair0
The various window movements can be classified as follows :
(a) Hinged,
(b) Pivoted,
(c) Sliding, and
(d) Composite.
The sub-classifications within each type of window movement is presented in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 :Different Types of Window Movements with Their Sub-divisions

Qpe of Window Movement

1
Figure 6.23 shows the varicluf types of window movement.

Types of Wmdow Movemart (1 :Top Hung, 2 :Side Hung, 3 :Bottom Hang and 4 :Fixed

.P Pivot

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
WIHO OW PIVOTED w m m m v o r ~w
~
~mw
Fig- 6.23 :Details of Fixed and Pivoted Windows
nading corstmcth 6.6.3 Classification sf Windows
Depending upon the type of material used, name of operational movements of the shutters,
location and the manner in which they are fixed, windows can be broadly classified
shown below :
(a) Wooden windows,
(b) Metal windows, and
(c) Miscellaneous windows.
Sub-classification within each type is presented in Table 6.3.
Table 6 3 :Different Types of Windows with Their Sub-divisions

Windows
Further Classification in Simlllar Materiaf 1
I
Wooden (a) Fixed windows
windows (b) Pivoted windows
(c) Double hung windows
(d) Sliding windows
(e) Casement windows
(f) Saqh or glazed windows
(g) Louvered or venetiated windows

Metal . (a) Solid section metal windows

Windows (b) Metal covered and hollow metal windows
I
Miscellaneous (a) Bay windows
Windows (b) Clerestarey windows
(c) Comer windows
(d) Dormer windows
(e) Gable windows
(f) Sky lights
(g) Fan lights

WOODEN WINDOWS
Each type of wooden windows has been discussed briefly in succeeding paragraphs.
Fixed Windows
In this type of window the glass pane or the glazed shutter is permanently fixed in
the opening made in the wall. This type of window is used in situations where light
or vision alone is needed,\as no ventilation is possible through fixed windows.
Figure 6.24 shows the elevation of a fixed window.

GWMG

SECTION .A.A .

Plvattd Windows
This type consist8 of a frame and a shutter which is pivoted to allow it to open with
the top rail swinging inside. The pivots are fixed slightly higher than the horizontal
central line of the shutter so that the shutter can be self closing. The fittings used
are pivots, cleats, latches and ventilating gear etc. Figure 6.23 (c) shows the details
of fixed and pivoted windows.
Double Hung Windows Doors, Widows
and Stairs % a

This type of window (Figure 6.25) consists of a pair of shutters both of which can
slide to facilitate cleaning. Ventilation can alsrj he controlled effectively, The
shutters move vertically within the openings left in the frame and the walls. A panr
of metal weights contained within the frame are connected to each shutter by
means of chords or chains after being passed over pulleys which are fixed to the
frame. The components of this type of window are bricfly described in subsequent
paragraphs.
Frame
This consists of two vertical members, a head and a sill. The vertical members are
made of an inner lining, pulley stile, back lining and an outer lining. A small
wooden section is used between the two weights to keep them apart. Small parting
bead is provided to separate the two shutters when they are opposite to each other.
The sill is made of solid woo&
Shutters
These are of ordinary type with two vertical stiles, a top rail, a bottom rail and sash
bars. The usual thickness of the shutter shall be about 50 rnm.
Firrings
Shutter fastener - 2 Nos.
Shutter fit - 1 No.
Shutter handle - 2 Nos.
Tower bolts - 4 Nos
Pulleys, cord, chain etc.

PARTING STl?IP
. ,

SECTION AT

Figun 6.25 :Elevation a d Details d a Double Hmg Widow

Sliding Windows
These windows are made of shutters which move horizontally or vertically on
small roller bearings. The shutters are of usual size. Suitable openings in the frame
are left to accommodate the shutters.
 Butt hinge E-r]
Counter flap hinge
Rising butt
hinge

h r - madi , Gwnthinge

--- Double s t r a ~W. I.

PLAN gate hinge

Figure 6.40 r Various Types of Hmgcs for Doors and Wmdowe

Bolts
Different type of bolts commonly used for doors and windows are described below :
Tower Bolts
The bolt passes through two or three staples attached to the base plate. The plate is
screwed to the inside face of the door shutter and the bolt engages in a metal
socket screwed to the frame.
Barrel Bolt
This type of bolt is similar to the tower bolt except that the staples are replaced by
a barrel.
Hasp and Staple Bolt
In this case the hasp is secured to the shutter whereas the staple is screwed to the
door frame.
Eye and Hook
This type of fitting is used for keeping window shutter in position when the
window is open. The hook is fixed to the sill of the window frame and the eye is
fixed to the bottom rail of window shutter. Figure 6.41 shows various types of
bolts.
Handles
Handles are rnanufastured in a variety of designs. Some of-4hecommonly used types of
handles are shown in Figure 6.42

Locks
\'v~ous types of locks fitted on doors and windows are shown in Figure 6.43.
Double Hung Windows Doors, Windows
and stairs
This type of window (Figure 6.25) consists of a pair of shutters both of which can
slide to facilitate cleaning. Ventrlatlon can alsn be controlled effectively. 'The
shutters move vertically within the openings left in the frame and the walls. A pair
of metal weights contained within the frame are connected to each shutter by
means of chords or chains after being passed over pulleys which are fixed to the
frame. The components of this type of window are briefly described in subsequent
paragraphs.
Frame
This consists of two vertical members, a head and a sill. The vertical members are
made of an inner llriig, pulley stile, back lining and an outer lini~lg.A small
wooden section is used between the two weights to kcep them appart. Small parting
bead is provided ti? separate t!~e two shatters whe11 they are opposite to each vther.
The sill is made of solid wood.
Shutters
These are of ordinary type with two vertical stiles, a top rail, a bottom rail and sash
bars. The usual thickness of the shutter shall be about 50 mrn.
Fittings
Shutter fastener - 2Nos.
Shutter fit - 1 No.
Shutter handle - 2 Nos.
Tower bolts - 4 Nos
Pulleys, cord, chain etc.

PARTING LlUlP

S E C T I O N A1 A A

FTgure 6.25 :Elevation ad D e a l s d a Douhle Hmg Window

Sliding Windows
These windows are made of shutters which move horizontally or vertically on
small roller bearings. The shutters are of usual size. Suitable openings in the frame
are left to accommodate the shutters.
BIliWPlr- Casement Whdows
Windows having shutters which open like doors are called casement windows.
This has a frame consisting of stiles, top rail and bottom rail. Tbe window frame is
made in the same manner as a door frame except that it has a sill at the bottom.
However, it may have an additional central vertical member which is called a
mullion. Additional horizontal members known as transomes may also be used.
The wooden frame can be made as one unit with the door frame.
Heads, mullions and bansomes are normally 100 mm x 60 mmto 120 mm x.75 mm
in section. 'Ihe size of sills may be more than the nonnal one. ' h e joints and the
construction of the window frames is similar to the door frames.
Tbe window is provided with iron bars or welded iron grills, particularly on the
ground floor as a safety measure against burglars. Wrought iron bars varying in
diameter from 15 mm to 20 mm at a spacing of 100 mm to 150 mm,centre to
centre, are used in ordinary buildings. However, the present trend is to provide
welded grills with beautiful patterns.
Sash or shutters which comprise of vertical and horizontal sash bars are also
similarly constructed. A shutter should not be greater than 600 mm x 1200 mm in
size. The sash bars have a size 40 mm x 30 mm or 40 mm x 35 mm. Small grooves
are made in the frame and the rails. These are capable of stopping water which
would otherwise proceed by capillarity into the room. It is essential that the
windows should not admit rain water into the room. Hence, the sills may be
projected outside and throated.
Fittings
(1) Hinges 4 Nos. of 100 mm (2) Bolts 3 Nos
(3) Handles 2 Nos. (4) Stops 2 Nos.
Figures 6.26 and 6.27show the elevation and plan of a casement window
respectively.

\
CONCRETE OR WOOEN SILI.

FFpn&26~-&ment W i d o w Flgm 6.27 :P h d n Casement Window

Sash or Glazed Whdows

In this case the window shutter consists of two vertical stiles, top rail and bottom
rail. The panel space between the stiles and the rails is suitably divided by small
timber members or bars placed both horizontally and vertically or only
horizontally to suit the design requirements. 'Ihese bars are known as sash bars or
glazing bars. Thus the sash bars divide the total panel space of a window shutter
into panels of small size. The sash bars have rebates for fixing glass panels. The
glass panes are cut 1.5 to 3 mm smaller in size than the size of the panel to permit
slight movement of the sash bars due to temperature variation without damaging
the glass panes. The glass panes are secured in position either by putty or by small
fillets known as glazing beads. Figure 6.28 shows the details 0f.a glazed or sash
nrindnnr
 Doors. Windows
llwl Stairs

Bottom r a i l

ELEVATION SECTION X - X

PLAN

DETAIL AT A
Figure 6.28 :Details of a Glazed or Saqh Window

Louvered or Venetianed Windows

In this type of window the stiles of shutter are grooved to receive a series of
louvers which may be of glass or wood. The louvers are set with~nthe grooves in
inclined position so that they slope downward to the outside in order to run off the
rain water and obstruct the horizontal vision at the same time. For economcal
construction the angle of inclination of the louvers or blades to the vertical stiles
should be 45". This type of window provides ventilation and light even when the
opening is closed. Such windows are commonly recommended for bathrooms,
WCs and other areas where privacy is the main consideration. I1 is however,
difficult to maintain them clean as the dust gets easily deposited on the louvers.
Sometimes the louvers or the blades are pivoted lo the trame at both ends and in
addition every blade is connected by a small hinge to a vertical batten; when the
batten is pulled down, the gaps between the blades get closed. Figure 6.29 shows
the details of a louvered or venetianed window.

Sill

F ini shed floor lev

ELEVATION SECTION X - X

i ,
<-

Agure 6.29 :Details of a Louvered or Venetianed Window

Building Corntruetion METAL M'INDOWS
Each type of metal windows has been disc~lssedbriefly in succeeding paragraphs.
Solid Section Metal Windows
Tbcy are made of Iight rolled steel sections which act as a frame. The glazing i s
fitted into &is frame. The shutter containing the glass car1 have various types of
movements, i.e. it may be hinged at bottom, top, side, or be pivoted to move in a
horizo~ltaltw vertical direcuon. Similarly horizontal or vertical moving shutters of
double hung type x e possible. The frame is fastened into the nlasonry with lugs
embedded in cement concrete. To fix on RCC work, raw1 plugs may he used. Teak
wood frame and sill can also be used to fit in the steel shutter to enhance the
appewmcc.
Contuiluous windows which can be operated mechanically are used for big
openings and are pivoted suitably at the top.
Steel windows should receive one coat of primer before being installed. Then they
should be painted with another coat of a durable paint and repainted after the
glazing is fixed. The materials used for metal windows may be steel, bronze,
aluminium. stainless steel etc. Figure 6.70 shows the elevation and section of a
steel window.

Figurn 6.30 :Elevation and ~eetiooofa Steel W i d o w

Metal Covered and Hollow Metal Windows

Metal covered windows art: more fire resistant than solid section steel windows.
However they are more expensive. Their construction is similar to that of the metal
covered doors and metallic coverings described therein can be used.
Hollow metal windows are made of blue annealed steel, galvanized steel, bronze,
copper or nickel steel. They are generally double hung type or casement type.
These are more fire resistant than the metal covered and the wooden windows.
Figure 6.31 shows the section through a steel window with a metallic sub-frame
and a weather bar. Figure 6.32 shows the section through the sill of a steel window
showing the use of metallic sills ,md window board. Figure 6.33 shows the section
through a steel window showing metallic sub-frame and tiled sill.
MISCELLANEOUS WINDOWS
Each type of miscellaneous windows has been discussed bnefly in succeeding paragraphs.
Bay Windows
This is a window which projects outward from the face line of the wall or a
building. This gives extra tloor area to the room and at the same time provides an
 Dwrs, Windows
.mlStrim

Figure 6.31 :Steel W i d o w with a Metallic Subfnune

SUb FRAME I

Figure 632 Figure 6.33

additional space for admitting light and air into the room. A number of these
windows might increase the architectural beauty o i the entire house. Figure 6.34 .
shows the sectional plan of a bay window.

C ~ at s t u LEML
~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~

Figure 634 :Plan of a Bay \VWow

Clere-storey Windows
This type of windows are used to achieve better ventilation and cooling effect in
the living or main rooms of a building, which have a ceiling height greater than the
surrounding r o o m . Clere-storey windows are provided near the top of the roof of
the main rooms, and they open out above a lean-to-roof or the roof slab of the
adjoining veranda.
Besides improving the elevation of the building, such windows also provide
adequate natural light and ventilation to the room. The window shutter is
.
 hotizontally pivoted and the window can be opened or closed by the use of two
cords, one attached to the top rail and the other to the bottom rail of the shutter. It
is however, important to see that the upper part of the shutter opens towards inside
of the room and the lower part opens outside. This is necessary to prevent rain
water entering the room. Figure 6.35 shows the clere-storey window over a
verandah roof slab and Figure 6.36 shows the sectional elevation of a clere-storey
window over a lean-to-roof.

M I D AT TOP

Corner Windows
As the name suggests this type of window is essentially located in the comer of a
room. By the use of this window it is possible to ensure light and ventilation from
two directions at right angles to each other. In addition, it serves as an architectural
feature for improving the elevation of the building. Details of comer window are
shown in Figure 6.37.

- WINDOW F ~ A Y L

I--- SHUTlCR

ROOM

L ')MUTlLn J

F9gum 637 :Saetional Plan of a Corner Window

Dormer Window
It is a vertical window built in the sloping side of a pitched roof. This window is
provided to achieve proper ventilation and lighting of the enclosed space below the
 roof. Dormer also provides architectural feature for the building. Figure 6.38 Doom, Wmdows
nod Stairs
shows a dormer window and a gable window.

El- 6.38 :Dormer Window d Gable Wladew

Gable Window
The window provided in the gable end of a pitched roof is known as a gable
window as shown in Figure 6.38.
Sky Lights
This is a type of fixed window provided on the sloping surface of a pitched roof,
the window being parallel to the sloping surface. Sky lights are provided with a
view to permit the room below to be fully lighted with natural light. The opening
for the sky light is made by cutting the common rafter suitably. The framework of
sky light supporting the glass panels consists of an arrangement of trimming
pieces, curb frame, bottomrail and top rail as shown in Figure 6.39. The opening
made for accommodating the sky light is properly treated by lead flashing so as to
ewure complete water proofing of the roof surrounding the opening.

Figure 639 :Sky Light

Fan Light
The function of fan light is to ensure cross ventilation in the room even when the
door is closed. It also assists in providing natural light in the corridorsor passages.
Fan light is fitted between the head of the door frame and the transorne. The shutter
of the fan light may be pivoted at the centre or it may be hung.
Building Construction
6.7 GLASS AND GLAZING
Glass
The various types of glass used in the construction of doors and windows are described
below.
Plate Glass
This is a transparent and flat glass having plain polished surfaces and showing no
distortion when objects through it are viewed at any angle. Show windows, picture
windows and exposed windows in costly buildings are fitted with this type of
glass. The thickness of plate glass varies from 3 mm to 6 mm, however, 6 mm
thickness is usually preferred for use in windows.
Clear Window Glass
This is a transparent, relatively thin flat glass having plain and smooth surface but
small waviness 'of surface is present which is visible when viewed at an angle. The
thickness varies from 2.5 mm to 7.5 mm.
Obscured Glass
One side of this glass is patterned while rolling is being done during the
manufacturing process, which obscures direct vision but does not obstruct light.
Figured glass or rough cast glass are examples of this type.
Processed Glass
These are of three kinds, i.e. ground glass, chipped one process and chipped two
process. There are many patterns available; and some patterns provide true privacy
with uniform diffusion of light while others give maximum transmission of light.
Wired Glass
Rolled flat glass having wire mesh embedded in it is called wired glass. This is
used where slight degree of f i e protection or safety against any breakage is
desired.
Prism Glass
This has prism shaped ribs for deflecting light. The prisms with different angles
are available to suit various needs.
Active Glass
This reduces heat and a large percentage of glare. Also it transmits lesser amount
of ultraviolet rays which bleach some coloured fabrics.
Quartz Glass
This transmits ultraviolet rays and is used in hospitals where maximum benefit
from sun's rays is desired for the health of the patients.
Bullet Proof Glass
This is made of laminated plate glass which, may break under impact but will not
shatter.
Glazing
.
The process of placing glass within sash bars is called glazing. Rebates of about 6mm depth
are provided on one side of the sash bars to support the glass pane. After the glass is placed ,
in position, it is maintained there by means of putty, glazing beads, strips or moulds of
wbod. Windows are sometimes provided with two thicknesses of glass with an air space
between them. This is called "double glazing" and is adopted in air-conditioned buildings.

6.8 FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS FOR DOORS AND

WINDOWS
The fixtures and faytenings for doors and windows can be of iron, brass or aluminium. It is
however important to ensure that the item should be reasonably smooth and free from sharp
edges and comers. The screw holes in the item should be of counter sunk type. Iron fixtures
and fastenings are nonnally black enamelled or copper oxidised. Brass fittings on the other
hand are oxidised or finished bdght or chromium plated. Aluminium fittings are nonnally
anodised. The fixtures and fastenings are manufactured in different shapes and sizes to suit
 the requirements of different sizes and types of doors and windows. The fittings and Doors, Wmdows
and stairs
fastenings can be broadly grouped as under :
(a) Hinges,
(b) Bolts,
(c) Handles, and
(d) Locks. 8

Hinges
Different types of hinges commonly used for doors and windows are described below.
Butt Hinges
This type of hinge is most commonly used for fixing door or window shutter to the
frame. The sizes of hinges vary from 50 mm long & 37 mm wide to 125 mm long
& 75 mm wide. One flange of hinge is screwed on to the edge of the shutter and
the other flange is screwed to the rebate in the frame. For the normal size of a door
three hinges and for a window two hinges are used for each shutter.
Back Flap Hinges.
This type of hinges are used with thin shutters where butt hinges cannot be used.
These hinges ate fixed to the back side of the shutters and frame and hence they
are called back flap hinges.
Counter Flap Hinges
This type of hinge has three parts and two centres. Provision of this type of hinge
enables the shutters to be folded back to back.
I: Strap Hinges
This type of hinge is normally used with ledged braced doors, garage doors,
boundary wall gates etc. The hinges have long arms which are fixed to the shutter
and the rebate in the frame.
Parliamentary Hinges
These type of hinges are used in situations where d m and window opening is
required to be kept free of obstruction due to shutters when open. Parliamentary
hinges permit the shutters when open to rest parallel to the wall clear of the
opening.
Garnet Hinges

'=x
This type of hinge is also known as T-hinge and is co bnly used for battened or
ledged and braced doors. The long arm of the hinge is s ewed to the shutter
whereas the short arm or plate of the hinge is screwed to the door frame.
Spring Hinges
Spring hinges are manufactured in two designs, single acting type of spring hinges
and the double acting type of spring hinges. The single acting type of spring hinges
are used when the shutter is required to be opened on one side only whereas double
acting type are used when shutter is required to be opened on both sides of the
opening. These hinges enable the door or window shutter to close the opening
automatically due to spring action when not in use. I
Rising Butt Hinges
This type of hinge is also known as skew butt hinge or lifting butt hinge. By virtue
of their design, these hinges can raise the door shutter by about 10 mm on opening
and the door gets closed automatically in case the shutter is not held back by any
stopper. These hinges enable the door shutter to operate even in the presence of
small obstructions offered by a carpet or mat etc. spread on the floor. The types of
A
hinges are shown in Figure 6.40.
\
SAQ 1 0
W'haltjs a parliamentary hinges and when is it used in the doors ?
 &tt hinge
Counter flap hinge
Rising butt
hinge

Mar- madi Garnet hinge

Parlimentary hingr

--- Double strap W.I.

PLAN gate hinge

Figore 6.40 1 Various Types of Hmges for DOORand Wmdows

Bolts
Different type of bolts commonly used for doors and windows are described below :
Tower Bolts
The bolt passes through two or three staples attached to the base plate. The plate is
screwed to the inside face of the door shutter and the bolt engages in a metal
socket screwed to the frame.
Barrel Bolt
This type of bolt is similar to the tower bolt except that the staples are replaced by
a barrel.
Hasp and Staple Bolt
In this case the hasp is secured to the shutter whereas the staple is screwed to the
door frame.
Eye and Hook
This type of fitting is used for keeping window shutter in position when the
window is open. The hook is fixed to the sill of the window frame and the eye is
fixed to the bottom rail of window shutter. Figure 6.41 shows various types of
bolts.
Handles
H;lndles are manufactured in a variety of designs. Some of-the commonly used types of
handles are shown in Figure 6.42

Locks
\'arious types of locks fitted on doors and windows are shown in Figure 6.43.
 Doors,Wmdows
and Stairs

M I T I U cm~? - 8
Figure 6.41 .: Various Types of Bolts for Doors and Wmdows

W
d
O

DOOR
u v e n IWQLI
a (LACK PLATC
@ $ ! LEVER H U ( ~ ~ L
CIhWDLk SPRING U Y O l b

Figure 6-42 :Various m

es of Handles for Doon and %'indows

J--
Figure 6.43 :Various m
es of Locks Used in Doors and Whdow

6.9 VENTILATORS
Ventilation may be defined, in its essential function, as a process of removing or supplying
air by natural or mechanical means to or from an air source or any space. Good ventilation
is an important factor in providing comfort in a building. Adequate ventilation (i.e., change
of air in a room) is essential to maintain the temperature limits inside the building and to
remove the air, vitiated by the products of respiration, bacteria and all objectionable or
Building Construction unpleasant odours. C)n the other hand, poor ventilation gives rise to a feeling of discomfort
to the inhabitants, because it causes increase in temperature and humidity which leads to
perspiratio~lor sweating. The want of fresh air produces nausea, headache, sleepiness,
laziness and unattentiveness.
A ventilator may be defrned as a narrow window of small height provided near the roof of a
room for providing ventilation for the room.
There are two types of ventilators, namely,
(a) Wall ventilators, and
(b) Roof ventilators.
6.9.1 Wall and Roof Ventilators
Ventilators can be combined with a window or a door frame.
Wall Ventilators
These are provided on the walls, and the top of the ventilator should be close to the ceiling
so that the vitiated air is removed through the ventilator. This consists of a frame and a
shutter which is horizontally pivoted to the frame. The shutter can be opened or closed by
means of two cords, one attached to its top rail and the other to the bottom rail.
Roof Ventilators
These are normally provided in industrial buildings making use of the stack effect. In this,
ventilation rate is affected by the convection effects arising from temperature or vapour
pressure difference (between inside and outside of the room), and the difference of height
between the outlet and inlet openings. If the inside air temperature is higher than that of
outside, the warmer air tries to rise and pass through the opening in the upper part of the
building. At the same time, the incoming cooler air from outside through the opening at
lower elevation replaces it. The rate of air flow, in addition to the temperature or pressure
difference and height difference, also depends upon the ratio between the areas of two
openings.
There are also other types of roof ventilators. Some are stationary and others change their
position with the wind. The stationary type is constructed with a covering for protection
against rain, snow, etc., and provides an easy escape of air despite wind direction. Other
types have a vane which keeps the wind at the back of the openings and provides an
increased flow of air due to an aspirating effect. and are commonly used in barns or
warehouses.
Where ventilation or movement of air is brought about by mechanical means, such as
exhaust fans or blowers the results are positive and can be depended upon regardless of
outdoor wind and temperature conditions. In addition the desired effects can be had without
special architectural planning of windows, doors and other openings.
To determine the size and number of ventilators required to handle a specific job in an
industrial building, one must keep in mind a few simple rules. There are four primary
factors affecting the capacity of a roof ventilator which may be summed up as follows :
(a) The difference between the indoor and outdoor temperature is perhaps the
greatest factor affecting the air flow. It is a common knowledge that hot air is
lighter than cold air and will rise to seek its level. The greater the temperature
difference, the faster the rise. Consequently, an initial velocity is given to the
air, which aids the ventilator in its performance.
(b) The velocity of wind (air in motion against any surface) will produce an area of
lower pressure on the leeward sic1: of the surface and cause a partial vacuum in
the ventilator head, accelerating the discharge of the air in the ventilator stack-a
fact utilized advantageously in the design of all efficient ventilators.
(c) Height of ventilator above air inlets, or increased elevation, results in greater
draft, so it follows that the higher the ventilator head above the air inlets to the
room, the greater the exhaust.
(d) Exhaust capacity, theoretically, is directly proportional to the cross sectional
area of the stacks, assuming of course, that the ventilator heads are equally
efficient. In as much as circular areas vary directly as the square of their
diameters, it follows that doubling the size of a ventilator will increase its area
and exhaust capacity four times.
The above mentioned points must be kept in mind when considering ventilator
requirements. One has to be certain that provision is ma& for supply of air to be drawn into
rooms to take the place of air which is exhausted by the ventilators. Intake may be in the
form of windows, doors, or other openings. If the room is closed most of the time, it will be
necessary to install grills or louvers, the free area of which should be twice the combined
areas of the ventilator throats.
Properly designed ventilators do not down draft unless a tremendous amount of air is being
removed from the same room by mechanical means. Be sure there are no large elecuic fans
or blowers, exhausting great amounts of air from a point near the ventilator. One cannot
expect natural ventilation to compete with powerful mechanical exhaust apparatus unless
the latter is satisfied by ample provision of air. A large boiler will create a starved
air-condition in a room which is not supplied with proper air intakes.
In illstances where ventilators are required to remove large quantities of hot gases or steam,
it is best to place a hood over the immediate source. This hood should be as low as possible
and should project at least 600 rnrn around the vat or pol. If a hoist or conveyor makes it
necessary for the hood to be placed a considerable distance above the source, this projection
should be greater depending upon the height. The hot gases rising into the hood must be
drawn away quickly; therefore, a large ventilator area is necessary to cope with the
requirements.

6.9.2 Standards of Ventilation

Wherever possible, ventilation rates by mechanical means should be calculated on thc basis
of the amount of fresh air to be supplied for each occupant. This should vary from 420 to
1.000 cft per hour or even more. In cases where the occupation cannot be determined,
ventilation rates should be based on the number of complete air changes to be provided.
Table 6.4 shows the number of air changes to be provided in various buildings where the
number of occvpants cannot be ascertained.
Table 6.4 :Rates of Air Change with Mechanical Ventilation ,

The ventilation of factories and workshops is governed by the Factories Act. Much depends
upon the size of the factory, both as regards floor area and height, in relation to the number
of occupants, and on the nature of the process employed.
Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation system should invariably be installed when a definite rate of
ventilation is necessary or when it is desired to have the conditions within the building
under control.
Mechanical system of ventilation can be classified as follows :
Extract Ventilation .
This is cheap both to install and operate but it should be remembered that an
exhaust fan is a means of creating a low- pressure area in proximity to it, with
consequent depression over a wider area. Air from outside will therefore enter
J
 through any opening to counteract this depression, and it is important that inlets be
placed at the opposite end of the building with respect to the exhaust (extract ) fan,
or at least as far away from it as possible. Any inlet which is positioned near the
exhaust fan is likely to cause a short circuit leaving an area adjacent to the inlet
unventilated.
Supply System
This is the reverse of the extract ventilation method, in that the air is positively
introduced into the room or an enclosure by means of fans, thereby creating a
pressure within the enclosed space. Naturally, too high an air pressure cannot be
tolerated with comfort and suitable outlets must therefore be arranged to allow the
air to flow out of the room
In practice the supply systed is frequently employed where fresh air only is to be
used, e.g., in operating theatre suites, since full control is maintained over the air
introduced including its heating, cooling and filtering. However, where
circumstances permit the use of recirculation, it is a relatively simpler matter to
arrange for regulated amounts of air, at room temperature, to be returned through
the fan system thus achieving economy on heating or cooling loads.
Balanced Ventilation
This is the only method which can be relied upon to give satisfactory results under
all conditions, as the air movements can be definitely regulated at all points from
inlet to extract point. A disadvantage of the balanced system is that it is dependant
for successful operation on the closing of all windows and it is liable to cause
complaint in offices and other buildings where normally the windows may be
opened at the discretion of the occupants.
S,%Q11
Vv-h,.: wgii undhbf$i;lr::!i j j Air c;i;;rrgs '

6.10 STAIRS
In buildings having more than one storey, stairs are provided for vertical movement of
occupants between the floors. Stairs consist of a series of steps and landings that makes it
possible for people to go up or down on foot with ease. Stairs are basically composed of
treads, which are the flat horizontal portions of the steps, and risers, which are the vertical
parts between the two steps. The projecting edge of a step which is usually rounded is called
nosing. Handrails are provided at the exposed sides of a stair to prevent people from falling
down, and these are supported on vertical members called balusters. Posts at the top and
bottom of a stair which have to be stronger than the rest are known as newels. The enclosure
containing the set of steps and landing is known as the staircase. While planning and
designing stairs it is important to ensure that there is sufficient headroom, which is the
minimum clear vertical distance between the tread of a step and the bottom of the flight or
landing immediately above the user. Figure 6.44 shows the various parts of a flight of stairs.
Stairs can be made from various materials like timber, bricks, stones, steel, plain concrete or
reinforced cement concrete. The selection of material depends on the type of structure, * '
availability of materials and finances available, life of a building, aesthetical considerations,
fm resistance requirements, etc.
The number of stairs to be provided in a building is dependent on the usage of the building
and is generally, governed by the requirements stipulated in the local building bye laws. For
public buildings the codes require at least two staircases with reference to fire safety
considerations. The maximum horizontal distance from any point in a floor upto the stair is
also generally stipulated and may be of the order of 30x11. The width of the stairway
governs the exit capacity, and for public buildings it is about 1.8 m,whereas for residential
ones it could be 0.9 m.
Stairs should be located such that they are easily accessible. It has to be ensured that there is
sufficient light and ventilation in the staircase.
 -
Figure 6 4 4 :Elements of Stair

6.10.1 Types of Stairs

Various types of stairs are available for incorporating in the design of a building as shown in
Figure 6.44 :
Straight Stairs
In this type, there is a straight flight of stairs, with or without intermediate landings.
Dog Legged Stairs
This consists of two straight flights of steps with usually a level landing where the
direction of traval changes by 180'. If there is constraint of space, winders, which
are steps with tapered treads, i.e. triangular in plan, can be provided instead of a
half landing.
Open Well Stairs
It consists of two or more straight flights with a central well. There could be
quarter landings or winders at the comers.
Winders are not allowed in stairs that are to be used as exits during emergencies.
Geometrical Stairs
This type of a stair is similar to the open well type, but instead of having quarter
landings or winders at the comers the stair follows a curve with winders which are
less sharp than those in the open well.
A spiral staircase is a form of geometrical staircase, which is without a well with
its steps consisting of a series of winders going round a central post.
Size of Treads and Risers
For convenience in performing movements, the tread should be wide enough and the risers
should not be too high. Very high risers and narrow treads are difficult to negotiate. A
suitable balance has to be arrived.at taking into account the cost and comfort. Some of the
thumb rules to obtain proper tread (cm) and riser (cm) dimensions are listed as under :
(a) The product of riser height and tread width should be between 450 and 480.
(b) Riser height plus tread width should range between 43 and 45.
(c) The sum of the tread width and twice the riser height has to be 61 to 64.
6.10.2 Material Classification of Stairs
In earlier days, timber stairs were widely used, but with the advent of concrete construction,
stairs are now mostly made of reinforced cement concrete.
In wooden stairs, the treads are made of abrasion resistant wood such as oak, teak, etc. while
the risers could be of softer wood like deodar, pine, etc. The thickness of the tread is
generally, 30 to 32 m n and that of the risers 25 mm. The tread and riser are connected by a
tongue and groove joint, and also screwed or nailed together.
The treads and risers are supported on one or more stringer beams (also h o w n as
carriages). Upper edges of these beams are cut to receive the risers and treads. Stringers are
supported on transverse beams known as headers.
 ' S T R A I G ~ T FLICItT QUARTER TURN DOG LEGGED
NEWEL

OWN WCLL OPEN W L U QUA6tff.R tURN

NEWEL GEOMIT~ICAL GEI~MCIRICIL

HUII TURN
GEOMLTRICAL
-
QM 6.45 :Various Qpes d Stairs

For stone stairs, the stones should be durable and weather resistant. Being heavy ip weight,
they require adequate supports and are not commonly used except for monumental
buildings or for front entrances of public buildings.
Steel stairs can be made of risers, and treads of cold fonned steel or floor plates. These are
supported at the ends by carrier angles which in turn are fastened to inclined stringers. Their
use is generally restricted to factories, godowns etc.
Nowadays most of the stairs are built of RCC having following advantages :
Concrete can be moulded to the required form; it has fue resistant qualities; it can be
designed to suit the given width and span; and requires hardly any maintenance. As RCC
can be cast at site, unlike other materials, it is easy to adjust the heights of risers and widths
of treads to the actual dimensions of the staircase as may have already been constructed.
These stairs are generally designed as slabs spanning between beams. They can also be
designed as cantilevered steps.
Escalators
In public buildings where there is a large valume of pedestrian movement between
floors, moving stairs, which are powered by electric motors, are provided and these
are called escalators.
Lifts Doom, Windows .
Pad S t a h
For speedy vertical movement particularly in tall buildings, having many floors,
lifts are used. These are provided in shafts and are generally operated by
machinery run on electricity provided at the top, above the last floor to which
access is to be provided. There are openings in the shaft onto each floor level with
automatically operated doors which open and close along with the lift car doors,

c!ci-.idc zbrjut the dinlensions oi'trsails and risers in stairs !'

tfizw wi!!;r~!~u

6.103 Layout of Staircases

The layout of staircases is influenced by the space available for the canstmotion of
stairs, and the height between the two floors.
A few examples are worked out below to illustrate the layout of staircases.
Example 6.1
The stair of a residential building is to be located in a staircase measuring
1.5 m x 4.5 m. If the vertical distance between the floors is 3 m, draw a layout plan
of the proposed stairs.
Solution
Since the width of the staircase is @;en as 1.5 m, it is not possible to take any turn
in this limited space. Moreover, the length of the stair is also 4.5 m, so the
provision of a landing is also not feasible to climb a vertical height of 3 m. Thus, in
this case, straight flight stairs will be provided.

Assuming a rise of 20 cm, the required number of risers, R = -

300 - 15
20
Number of treads to be provided, T = R - 1 = 15 - 1 = 14
It is proposed to keep the width of tread = 25 cm
Space occupied by 14 treads = 25 x 14 = 350 cm = 3.5 cm
Space left for passage = 4.5 - 3.5 = 1 m
The layout is shown in Figure 6.46.

Figure 6.46 :Layout of stmight Flight StPirs

BU&~ Construction Example 6.2
A suitable stair is to be provided in an office building. The staircase has the
dimensions 2.8 m x 6 m. The vertical distance between the floors is 3.6 m. Bvo
doors measuring 1.2 m each are provided in the longitudinal walls, facing each
other and located 50 cm from the transverse wall.
Solution
Assume, the width of the stair = 1.3 m
Since the width of the staircase is 2.8 m, a half turn stair can be provided. The
direction of the flight is reserved by the introduction of a half-space landing, and
thus two flights shall be provided. The width of the landing will be kept equal to
the width of the stair.
Space available in the centre of the staircase = 2.8 - (2 x 1.3) = 0.2 m
Since this space is limited, a dog-legged stair will be provided.
3.6
Height of each flight = - = 1.8 m
2
180
Assuming a rise of 16 cm'hthe required number of risers = - = 11.25 say 11
16
180
Exact rise of each step = - = 16.35 cm (say)
11
Numbers of treads to be provided in each flight, T = R - 1 = 11 - 1 = 10.
Keeping the width of tread as 27 cm, we have,
Space taken by 10 treads = 27 x 10 = 270 cm = 2.7 m
Space left for passage = 6 - 2.7 -- 1.3 = 2 m
The arrangement of the steps and doors is shown in Figure 6.47.

FSgan 6.47 :Layout ot a Dog Legged Half ?Lra Stain

Example 6.3 i

A stair is to be located for an office in a staircase hall measuring 4.35 m x 5 m. The

vertical distance between the floors is 4 m. Draw a dimensioned plan of the
proposed stair.
Solution
Since it is a public building, the width of the stair should be adequate for the
number of people expected to use them
Assume stair width = 1.5 m
Space available in the centre of the staircase = 4.35 - (2 x 1.5) = 1.35 m
Hence, an open well type of stair shall be provided.

Taking a rise of 16 cm, the required number of risers = 400

16
= 25
 If two flights are provided, number of risers shall be 12 and 13. However, being a Doors,Windom
public building, the number of steps in one flight should be restricted to 10. Hence, snd Staim
provide 5 treads in the landing portion and make the stair of quarter-space landing
type. This requires providing 9 treads each in the other two flights.
:. Total number of risers needed to provide 23 treads in three flights
= 2 3 + 3 = 26

400 = 15.4 cm
Hence, height of each riser = -
26
Adopting tread width of 27 cm, space occupied by 9 treads
= 9 x 27 = 243 cm = 2.43 m

The arrangement of steps is shown in Figure 6.48.

Figure'6.48 :Layout of an Open Wail Type Staircase

6.11 SUMMARY
Doors are essential to provide access and at the same time ensure safety and security. They
consist of a frame and shutter(s). Doors can be classified on the basis of their working such
as swinging, sliding, revolving etc. Thay can be fabricated from different materials like
wood, steel, aluminium etc.
Windows are provided for light and air circulation, while ventilators are exclusively for
ventilation purposes. These also have frames and shutter(s), and can be made from different
materials as in the case of doors. Generally, windows are provided with glass panes so that
even in a closed position they admit daylight into the room and afford a view of the outside.
Doors and windows have to be provided with fittings such as hinges, for fixing shutters to
the frames, bolts and.locks for security purposes, and handles for facilitatingtheir operation.
Stairs are required as a means of access between floors where the building has more than'
one storey. The tread width and riser height have to be suitably designed, so that they can
negotiate the difference in level between the floors without causing undue strain on the user.
Stairs can be constructed from various materials like wood, steel, stone, etc. but nowadays
they are predominantly of Reinforced Cement Concrete construction.

6.12 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in the
section "Further Reading" at the end of the block to get the answers of the SAQs.