Thesis

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN
BURDWAN TOWN, WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Submitted by
SUBRATA CHATTOPADHYAY, M.Sc.
Supervised By
Dr SRIMANTA GUPTA
And
Dr RAJNARAYAN SAHA
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
SCIENCE (ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE) OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
BURDWAN – 713104
WEST BENGAL
2012
CONTENTS
Pages
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT iii-vi
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii-xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii-xiii
1 INTRODUCTION 1-17
1.1 Air pollution 1
1.2 Urban areas- the focus of air pollution 2
1.3 Meteorological influence in urban air pollution 3
1.4 Air quality problem in South Asia 4
1.5 Effects of air pollution 6
1.6 Major air pollutants 6
1.6.1 Particulate matter pollution 6
1.6.2 Heavy metal pollution 7
1.6.3 Inorganic ion pollution 8
1.6.4 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution 8
1.6.5 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) pollution 9
1.6.6 Carbon monoxide (CO) pollution 9
1.6.7 Ozone (O3) pollution 10
1.7 GIS- an effective tool in air pollution monitoring 11
1.8 Motivation behind the research work 12
1.9 Objectives of the research work 13
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 18-61

2.1 Literature review on particulate matter [respiratory suspended 18
particulate matter (RSPM or PM10) and total suspended
particulate matter (TSPM)] and its composition
2.1.1 RSPM and TSPM 19
2.1.2 Heavy metals 24
2.1.3 Inorganic ions 28
2.2 Literature review on gaseous pollutant 29
2.2.1 SO2 and NO2 30
2.2.2 Literature review on other gaseous pollutants (CO 34
and O3)
2.3 Literature review on application of principal components 40
analysis (PCA) and factor analysis for predicting the sources
of air pollution
2.4 Literature review on application of air quality index (AQI) in 41
monitoring of air pollution
2.5 Literature review on application of GIS in mapping of air 45
pollution
2.6 Literature review on meteorological effect on air pollution and 48
modelling of air pollution data
3 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY 62-97
3.1 Description of the study area 62
3.1.1 Geography 62
3.2 History the study area 62
3.2.1 Culture 62
3.3 Burdwan town- at present 63
3.4 Land use / land cover pattern of the study area 63
3.5 The New Burdwan- future scope 63
3.6 Reason behind selection this town as study area 64
3.7 Site selection in the study area 64
3.8 Sampling (6:00 am to next day 6:00 am) and analysis of 66
gaseous pollutants and particulate matter
3.9 National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) 67
3.10 Principle of operation of APM 460 BL Respirable Dust 68
Sampler
3.11 Brief description of the procedures 68
3.11.1 High volume sampler (HVS) method for RSPM and 68
TSPM
3.11.2 Atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) method (IS 70
5182) [Part 22:2004] for heavy metals
3.11.3 Methods for water soluble inorganic ions 71
3.11.3.1 Ion selective method for Fluoride 71
3.11.3.2 Estimation of Sodium (Flame 72
photometric method)
3.11.3.3 Estimation of Potassium (Flame 73
photometric method)
3.11.3.4 Estimation of Chloride (Titrimetric 74
method)
3.11.3.5 Estimation of Sulphate (Turbidimetric 74
method)
3.12 Method of sampling for gaseous pollutants 75
3.12.1 Determination of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in ambient 75
air (IS method)
3.12.2 Determination of Sulphur dioxide content of the 76
atmosphere (Tetrachloromercurate absorber or
pararosaniline method or IS method)
3.12.3 Ozone monitoring 78
3.12.3.1 GSS technology background 78
3.12.4 CO monitoring 79
3.13 Meteorology and construction of windrose diagram 80
3.14 Statistics 80
3.14.1 Air Quality Index (AQI) 80
3.14.2 Pearson correlation analysis and correlation 81
coefficient
3.14.3 Factor analysis 81
3.15 RS and GIS methodology 83
3.15.1 Supervised classification of study area 83
3.15.2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 83
3.15.3 Inverse Distance Interpolation (IDINT) 84
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 98-170
4.1 Spatio-temporal distribution of particulate matter, heavy metal 98
fraction and inorganic ion in study area
4.1.1 Particulate matter status in ambient air in study area 98
4.1.1.1 Respiratory suspended particulate matter 98
(RSPM or PM10)
4.1.1.2 Total suspended particulate matter 100
(TSPM)
4.1.2 Heavy metal concentration in PM10 102
4.1.2.1 Lead (Pb) 102
4.1.2.2 Cadmium (Cd) 104
4.1.2.3 Manganese (Mn) 105
4.1.2.4 Chromium (Cr) 106
4.1.3 Status of inorganic ions in ambient air in study area 107
4.1.3.1 Potassium (K+) 107
4.1.3.2 Sodium (Na+) 108
4.1.3.3 Fluoride (F-) 108
4.1.3.4 Chloride (Cl-) 109
4.1.3.5 Sulphate (SO42-) 110
4.2 Spatio-temporal variation of gaseous pollutant in the study 111
area
4.2.1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 111
4.2.2 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 112
4.2.3 Other gaseous pollutants: Ozone (O3) and Carbon 114
monoxide (CO)
4.2.3.1 Diurnal variation of O3 and CO in March 114
and April
4.2.3.2 Meteorological influence on diurnal 116
variation of O3 and CO in the study area
4.3 Statistical interpretation of analytical parameters 119
4.3.1 Pearson correlations among variables 119
4.3.1.1 Premonsoon 119
4.3.1.2 Postmonsoon 119
4.3.1.3 Winter 120
4.3.2 Factor analysis 121
4.3.2.3 Winter 123
4.3.3 Air Quality Index (AQI) 124
4.3.3.3 Winter 125
4.3.3.4 Percent (%) wise distribution in each 125
category of AQI
4.4 Overall interpretation of spatio-temporal variation of 126
particulate matter, gaseous pollutants by means of GIS
4.4.1 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of 126
RSPM
4.4.2 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of SO2 128
4.4.3 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of NO2 128
4.4.4 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of Pb 129
4.4.5 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of AQI 130
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 171-180

5.1 Summary of results 171
5.2 Conclusion 174
5.3 Management strategy 178
5.3.1 Pollution management strategies 178
5.3.2 Zoning strategies 179
5.3.3 Command and control approach 179
5.4 Future scope of the work 179
REFERENCES 181-203
ANNEXURES xiv-xxx
ABSTRACT
This research work is intended to serve as an in-depth analysis of spatial and temporal
variation ambient air pollutants patterns in the Burdwan municipality area with the
integration of Geographical Information System (GIS). An average of consecutive
two years of real time database of various criteria pollutants viz. Respiratory
suspended particulate matter (RSPM or PM10), Total suspended particulate matter
(TSPM), heavy metals in PM10 viz. Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Manganese (Mn),
Chromium (Cr); inorganic ions in PM10 like Potassium (K+), Sodium (Na+), Fluoride
(F-), Chloride (Cl-), Sulphate (SO42-); gaseous pollutant like Sulphur dioxide (SO2),
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and diurnal variation of surface Ozone (O3) and Carbon
monoxide (CO) are taken into consideration for execution of present research work.
Entire monitoring/sampling was done at twenty five monitoring sites covering the
residential, industrial and sensitive zone across the Burdwan municipality area in
three seasons i.e. premonsoon (March to May), postmonsoon (June, July, August,
September) and winter (January and February) in consecutively two years. Sampling
duration was twenty-four hours at each monitoring site and at three seasons except O3
and CO where diurnal variation was taken into account. Respiratory suspended
particulate matter which was also known as PM10 and TSPM were monitored by High
volume sampler (HVS) method using glass fibre filter paper. From these collected
filter papers the water soluble inorganic ions and heavy metals are extracted.
Subsequently, heavy metals are analysed through Atomic absorption spectrometric
(AAS) method. Gaseous pollutants like SO2 and NO2 were collected by bubbling the
sample in specific absorbing reagents put in two impingers and analysed by standard
method. Concentration of O3 and CO is recorded by the portable analyser (model:
aeroQUAL Series200 and PPSMPL gaZguard Tx respectively). Micrometeorology of
each site during monitoring is also taken into consideration in order to find out its role
in dispersion and dilution of pollutants. In this research work micrometeorology such
as wind speed and direction, humidity, temperature and rainfall were also recorded at
each monitoring site during each sampling time. Analytical results show RSPM
concentration ranges from 40.200-323.100 µg/m3, 4.480-277.720 µg/m3 and 34.260-
363.690 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively with an
average value of 126.824 µg/m3, 86.055 µg/m3 and 157.823 µg/m3 respectively. In
general it is observed that the average concentration of PM10 show distinct seasonal
variations with high winter and premonsoon value rather than its postmonsoon value.
The average concentration of TSPM is found as 278.716±191.912 µg/m3,
195.090±149.934 µg/m3 and 334.929±177.431 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon
and winter season respectively. Unlike RSPM, TSPM also shows higher average
concentration in winter followed by premonsoon and postmonsoon. Regarding heavy
metal the average value for Pb, Cd, Mn and Cr in the study area is found 0.160±0.117
µg/m3, 0.173±0.126 µg/m3, 0.219±0.139 µg/m3; 0.014±0.019 µg/m3, 0.011±0.015
µg/m3 and 0.013±0.015 µg/m3; 0.087±0.062 µg/m3, 0.208±0.292 µg/m3, 0.214±0.210
µg/m3; 0.012±0.047 µg/m3, 0.044±0.209 µg/m3 and 0.014±0.059 µg/m3 during
premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively. Analytical results of water
soluble cations show that average concentrations of K+ and Na+ are 2.064±1.615
µg/m3, 3.192±7.722 µg/m3, and 3.210±3.431 µg/m3; 5.023±3.673 µg/m3, 4.484±3.617
µg/m3 and 5.754±5.300 µg/m3 respectively during premonsoon, postmonsoon and
winter season. Whereas concentrations of anions like F-, Cl- and SO42- are
0.232±0.232 µg/m3, 0.340±0.401 µg/m3 and 0.431±0.633 µg/m3; 1.663±1.651µg/m3,
1.797±1.320 µg/m3 and 1.916±1.935 µg/m3; 10.734±6.921 µg/m3, 14.928±20.115
µg/m3 and 14.709±21.131 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
respectively. The average concentrations of gaseous pollutants viz. SO2 and NO2 are
10.156±7.411 µg/m3, 7.589±5.340 µg/m3 and 11.845±7.951 µg/m3; 97.645±79.034
µg/m3, 95.126±52.355 µg/m3 and 126.557±83.245 µg/m3 respectively in premonsoon,
postmonsoon and winter respectively. Overall micro meteorological data for
humidity, temperature, wind speed and rainfall are 29-93%, 18-38.5°C, calm-12
Km/hr and 0-3.8 mm during premonsoon, 35-92%, 11.4-36°C, calm-8.8 Km/hr, 0-8.8
mm in postmonsoon, 25-93%, 8.6-30°C, calm-5.3 Km/hr and no rainfall in winter.
Diurnal variation of O3 and CO along with micrometeorology reflects that in the
month of March the concentration of O3, CO, temperature, humidity and wind speed
ranges from 9.70-33.50 ppb, 0.33-10.25 ppm, 30.7-42.7°C, 27-80.1% and calm-14.1
Km/hr respectively; while in the month of April the variation of O3, CO, temperature,
humidity and wind speed are 3-33 ppb, 0.35-11.95 ppm, 30.6-50.3°C, 26-84.6% and
calm-16.3 Km/hr respectively. From the analytical results it is revealed that in general
some sites always remain above the prescribed standard of RSPM in all the season but
in winter season maximum violence of prescribed standard are occurred in
comparison to the other two seasons. The maximum violence of prescribed standard
iv
of TSPM is occurred during premonsoon and winter season. The scenario of Pb is
quite better in the study area as the atmospheric Pb does not exceed the NAAQS
standard anywhere in all selected monitoring sites. The tendency of remaining the Pb
concentration within the permissible level may be due to restricted use of leaded fuel.
Few sites are seen to remain above the standard of Cd. In case of Mn, violence of
prescribed standard is found to occur at many sites but exceptionally high
concentration of Mn is found in traffically congested area. Manganese tricarbinyl
compound which is being used now a day as additive in unleaded petrol to enhance
automobile performance may be possible reason for it. The maximum concentration
of K+ is found in industrial region, mainly dominated by rice mill in all season where
almost a cluster of rice mills are present in the study area. Burning of biomass in this
rice mill region may be the possible source of K+ in the study area. It is also noticed
that in Burdwan Municipality area the average SO42- is very high in postmonsoon
season. A possible mechanism of formation of such high concentration of SO42- in
postmonsoon is probably due to aqueous phase oxidation of SO2 in cloud droplets.
The concentration of SO2 was comparatively lower in all the seasons than the
prescribed standard of NAAQS in all the monitoring sites. The concentration of NO2
is comparatively high in all the seasons than the prescribed standard of NAAQS in
some of the monitoring sites. Vehicular emission is considered as the principal source
of NO2 in the study area. From the diurnal variation it is observed that the
concentrations of O3 are increased with the decreasing concentration of its precursors
and vice versa. A time lag of 5-7 hour is required for most of these precursor gases to
photochemically produce O3 to its maximum potential. It is also revealed that the
concentration of O3 is also a function of prevailing meteorological conditions.
Multivariate statistical analysis reveals that in all the three seasons both geogenic and
anthropogenic sources viz. soil resuspension, vehicle emission, coal combustion or
biomass burning is identified as major contributor of air pollution in the study area.
Calculated Air quality index (AQI) with surface interpolation technique and its
integration with GIS environment shows that a major portion of the study area
(13.326 sq km to 22.262 sq km) comes under fairly clean category in all the three
seasons whereas clean area covers 0.007 to 2.957 sq km. The moderately polluted
zone covers 0.019 to 11.260 sq km in the study area whereas polluted zones covers 0
to 0.426 sq km.
v
In view of the alarming level of concentration particulate matter along with heavy
metals such as Cd and Mn and gaseous pollutants such as NO2 proper management
strategies should be taken in collaboration with the local authority.
vi
List of Tables
Table no. Title Pages
Table 1.1 Sources and effects of common air pollutants 15
Table 2.1 Summary of major review work in the said research field 52
Table 3.1 Land use/land cover of Burdwan Municipality area 86
Table 3.2 Medical record (2008) of respiratory disease in Burdwan 87

municipality
Table 3.3 Locational details of sampling sites at a glance 88
Table 3.4 Details characteristics about the sampling sites 89
Table 3.5 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 89
Table 3.6 Standards of heavy metals 90
Table 3.7 Primary standards (2008) of CO and O3 90
Table 3.8 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (2009) for CO and 90
O3
Table 3.9 Air quality index Table (Mudri, 1990) 91
Table 3.10 Summary of methodology 92
Table 4.1 Spatial and temporal variation of respiratory suspended 131

particulate matter (RSPM) in the study area (average of data
obtained in 2008 & 2009)
Table 4.2 Spatial and temporal variation of total suspended particulate 132
matter (TSPM) in the study area (average of data obtained in
2008 & 2009)
Table 4.3 Spatial and temporal variation of Pb in the study area 133
(average of data obtained in 2008 & 2009)
Table 4.4 Spatial and temporal variation of Cd in the study area 134
Table 4.5 Spatial and temporal variation of Mn in the study area 135
Table 4.6 Spatial and temporal variation of Cr in the study area 136
Table 4.7 Spatial and temporal variation of K+ in the study area 137
Table 4.8 Spatial and temporal variation of Na+ in the study area 138
Table 4.9 Spatial and temporal variation of F- in the study area 139
Table 4.10 Spatial and temporal variation of Cl- in the study area 140
Table 4.11 Spatial and temporal variation of SO42- in the study area 141
Table 4.12 Spatial and temporal variation of SO2 in the study area 142
Table 4.13 Spatial and temporal variation of NO2 in the study area 143
Table 4.14 Zone wise spatial and diurnal variation of O3 and CO in the 144
study area (a) in the month of March (b) in the month of
April
Table 4.15 Spatial and diurnal variation of O3 and CO (site wise) in the 146
study area
Table 4.16 Premonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, 148

gaseous pollutants and meteorological parameter
Table 4.17 Postmonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, 149

Table 4.18 Winter correlation analysis between particulate matter, 150

Table 4.19 Factor loadings along with its contribution (%) after varimax 151
rotation in premonsoon
Table 4.20 Eigenvalues of factors in premonsoon 152
rotation in postmonsoon
Table 4.22 Eigenvalues of factors in postmonsoon 154
rotation in winter
Table 4.24 Eigenvalues of factors in winter 156
Table 4.25 Premonsoon AQI status of study area 157
viii
Table 4.26 Postmonsoon AQI status of study area 158
Table 4.27 Winter AQI status of study area 159
Table 4.28 Projected areal coverage of the study area with respect to the 160
standard of respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM)
standard of SO2
standard of NO2
standard of Pb
Table 4.32 Projected areal coverage of the study area on basis Air 161
quality index (AQI)
ix
List of Figures
Figure no. Title Pages
Figure 1.1 Five years trend of air quality in four mega (metro) cities of 17
India
Figure 3.1 Study area location 94
Figure 3.2 Land use/land cover map of Burdwan Municipality showing 95

various sampling locations
Figure 3.3 Calibration graph for SO4 96
Figure 3.4 Calibration graph for NO2 96
Figure 3.5 Calibration graph for SO2 97
Figure 3.6 Diagram of typical sensor formulation 97
Figure 4.1 Windrose diagram (Premonsoon) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 162

(a & b)
Figure 4.2 Windrose diagram (Postmonsoon) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 162

(a & b)
Figure 4.3 Windrose diagram (Winter) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 163

(a & b)
Figure 4.4 Spatial interpolation of respiratory suspended particulate 163

matter (RSPM) (Premonsoon)

matter (RSPM) (Postmonsoon)

matter (RSPM) (Winter)
Figure 4.7 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Premonsoon) 165
Figure 4.8 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Postmonsoon) 165
Figure 4.9 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Winter) 166
Figure 4.10 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Premonsoon) 166
Figure 4.11 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Postmonsoon) 167
Figure 4.12 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Winter) 167
x
Figure 4.13 Spatial interpolation of Pb (Premonsoon) 168
Figure 4.14 Spatial interpolation of Pb (Postmonsoon) 168
Figure 4.15 Spatial interpolation of Pb (Winter) 169
Figure 4.16 Zonation of Air Quality Index (AQI) with the help of inverse 169
distance interpolation technique (IDINT) ( Premonsoon)
distance interpolation technique (IDINT) ( Postmonsoon)
distance interpolation technique (IDINT) (Winter)
xi
List of abbreviations
AAS Atomic absorption spectrophotometer
APHA American Public Health Association
AQI Air quality index
BDL Below detection limit
Bl Blank
Cd Cadmium
CO Carbon monoxide
Cl Chloride
Conc Concentration
CPCB Central pollution control board
Cr Chromium
Cu Copper
DEM Digital Elevation Model
E East
ESE East- South- East
EU European Union
F Fluoride
GIS Geographical information systems
GT road Grand trunk road
h Hour
hυ Photon (h=constant and υ=frequency)
HVS High volume sampler
IDINT Inverse Distance Interpolation
ISE Ion Selective Electrode
K Potassium
Km/hr Kilometre/hour
km Kilometre
lpm Litre/minute
M Air
Mn Manganese
µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic metre
mg/m3 Milligram per cubic metre
N North
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
n.a Not available
NE North- East
NH-2 National highway 2
NNW North -North- West
NW North- West
Na Sodium
Ni Nickel
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NRP National research programme
OD Optical density
O3 Ozone
Pb Lead
PM10 Particulate Matter with aerodynamic diameter of 10 micron
PM2.5 Particulate Matter with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 micron
PM Particulate matter
ppm Parts per million
RSPM Respiratory suspended particulate matter
RS Remote sensing
S South
SE South- East
SSW South- South-West
SW South- West
SL.No. Serial number
Sm Sample
sq km Square kilometre
sq m Square metre
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SO4 Sulphate
TSPM Total suspended particulate matter
UN United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNCED United Nations conference on environment and development
UNCHS United Nations conference on human settlements
W West
WHO World Health Organisation
Zn Zinc
xiii
INTRODUCTION
This section briefly gives the background information regarding the

spatial and temporal variation of ambient air pollution in Burdwan
town, West Bengal, India. Some of the effects of air pollutants on
human health are also mentioned along with their source. The
motivation, as well as specific objectives of this study is also
highlighted.
1.1 Air pollution
C lean air has so far been treated as unlimited and free natural resource. But now a
days clean air can no longer be taken for granted. Pollution of the atmosphere
has been an undesirable spin off of human activities presumably since the cavemen
first lit fires. Air pollution is defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain
substances are present in such concentrations and duration that they may produce
harmful effects on man and his environment. The amount of pollutant in the air is
expressed in terms of its mass/volume concentration, usually as micrograms of
pollutant per cubic metre of air (µg/m3). And these concentrations vary widely
depending on the sources of pollution and their distribution, meteorological
conditions and the topographical features in the vicinity.
Common air pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide

(NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), lead (Pb), respiratory suspended particulate matter
(RSPM) and total suspended particulates (TSP) which include dust, smoke, pollen and
other solid particles. Most of these substances occur naturally in low (background)
concentrations, when they are largely harmless; they become pollutants only when
their concentrations are relatively high compared to the background value and begin
to cause adverse effects (Rao,1991).
Some air pollutants may be introduced through natural occurrences such as

volcanic eruptions, wind soil erosion, forest fires, sand storms, dispersion of plant
pollen, etc; however, pollutants are mainly introduced through man-made activities,
[1]
INTRODUCTION
particularly industrial manufacturing and motor vehicle operation. These activities are
mainly concentrated in cities and other urban areas, which today are expected to be
holding nearly half the World’s population (UNCHS, 1996).
1.2 Urban areas- the focus of air pollution
This problem of air pollution is accelerated in magnitude with increasing

urbanization. Thus polluted atmosphere has become as a part of urban life.
Urbanization, industrialization and economic growth resulted in a profound
deterioration of urban air quality (Wahid, 2006). As modernization and enhanced
industrial activities led to the increased use of fossil fuels and their derivatives,
particularly in developing countries leading to the emission of particulate as well as
gaseous pollutants into the atmosphere. In urban areas the transportation sector causes
the most pollution, producing CO, Pb and NO2. Industry, power plants and the
burning of solid waste also add to the pollution load.
Cities and urban areas therefore contain the bulk of people that are most
vulnerable to the immediate effects of air pollution. This fact received international
recognition when in 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) made specific recommendations in its Agenda 21 (UN, 1992)
with regards to addressing air pollution in cities. One key recommendation was, “…
the establishment of appropriate air quality management capabilities in large cities
and the establishment of adequate environmental monitoring capabilities or
surveillance of environmental quality and the health status of populations”.
Rapid economic growth through urbanisation is causing serious air pollution

related problems in many areas worldwide. The WHO has estimated that 1.4 billion
urban residents in developing countries breathe air in which pollutant concentrations
exceed WHO air quality guidelines (UNEP/WHO, 1992). Urban air pollution
episodes are associated with sudden incidences of high concentrations of pollutants,
which are generally governed by local meteorology, emissions and dispersion
conditions (Mayer, 1999). The major source groups responsible for urban air pollution
are primarily motor traffic and industries. Over a number of years, legislation and
control have led to marked decrease in the air pollution impacts of industries in many
countries. However, there has also been a substantial increase in urban air pollution
[2]
INTRODUCTION
from motor vehicles due to their increased demand to meet transportation needs
(Nagendra and Khare, 2002).
1.3 Meteorological influence in urban air pollution
Meteorology plays a crucial role in air pollution studies. In fact, there is a

strong seasonality in the meteorological factors, which modulates the air quality
levels. The important meteorological variables having influence on the levels of the
pollutants over urban are wind speed and direction, rain amount and duration, air
temperature, and relative humidity. Local meteorology which is often called
micrometeorology has a major role in air pollution. The relation between
micrometeorology and dispersion of air pollutants essentially involves wind in
broader sense. Wind fluctuations over time and space play a crucial role in dispersion
of air pollutants. Wind flow in horizontal direction is a key parameter in transport of
pollutants. A high wind speed always has high dilution capacity. On the contrary low
or mild wind may favours in accumulation of pollutants. Wind direction also largely
influences the pollutants dispersion. Wind direction and wind speed for a given time
period in particular space is known as windrose which helps to understand the
prevailing wind speed to predict the dispersion of pollutant from a point to area
source. Turbulence and atmospheric stability are also very important parameter in
dispersion of air pollutants. The urban surface pattern and temperature or solar
isolation is the key parameter to determine these two. Thermal turbulence and
unstable atmospheric condition always favour the dilution of the emitted air pollutants
whereas mechanical turbulence and stable atmospheric condition do the reverse.
Relative humidity often entertains the formation procedure of some secondary
pollutant whereas wash out effect of rain scavenges the air pollutants from
atmosphere. Thus the analysis of the meteorological observations in the tropical
countries like India showed the maximum solar radiation and the highest atmospheric
temperature was recorded during the summer season (March–May). It was observed
that the velocity of wind was maximum during the months of July followed by August
and September. The predominant wind velocity was observed in the northeast
monsoon season. In the summer months, the observed wind speed was relatively
lower than those in the winter season. The variation of relative humidity showed a
[3]
INTRODUCTION
steep decrease from winter to summer and then a slow increase in the rainy season
and remained steady in winter. So, accurate monitoring and measurement of the
meteorological parameters has always been one of the chief requirements for
understanding the quality of the atmosphere (Seaman, 2003). The chemical reactions
of the pollutants depend on ambient weather conditions and are influenced by short-
wave radiation, air temperature, wind speed, wind direction and relative humidity
(Elminir, 2005). Along with other chemical reactions, dispersion and dilution
processes result in ambient air pollution that shows spatial and temporal variations in
concentrations of different substances. The air quality in cities has been found
correlated with combinations of various meteorological factors. Air quality is affected
not only by emission of pollutants but also by meteorological parameters. The
identification of air pollution sources is an important step in the development of air
quality control strategies. Abatement strategies may significantly improve the air
quality once the sources are identified (Gupta et al., 2004; Wang and Shooter, 2004).
So, temporal variation of air pollution might be taken in account along with the spatial
variations.
1.4 Air quality problem in South Asia
Today, the ambient air in most large Indian cities is severely polluted and this
pollution has a tremendous impact not only on the health of the population but also in
the ecosystem. Industrialisation, the growth in the number of vehicles in urban areas
has lead to a rapid deteoriation of ambient air quality by emitting various kinds of air
pollutants. Urban air pollution has grown in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata,
across the Indian subcontinent in the last decade in an alarming condition (Agarwal et
al., 1999). The World Health Organization ranked Delhi as the fourth-most polluted
mega city of the world (UNEP/WHO, 1992). However, in Indian subcontinent, it is
not just Delhi, but even small and medium towns are deteriorating air quality rapidly
(CPCB, 1995). Out of the 23 mega cities, Delhi is the most polluted followed by
Mumbai, Calcutta, Bangalore, Chennai, Kanpur, Ahmedabad and Nagpur. They have
severe air pollution problems mainly with the average levels of suspended particulate
matter levels much higher than the prescribed standards. Dehradun, located in the
Himalayan foothills in western Uttar Pradesh, now often tops the list of one of the
[4]
INTRODUCTION
most polluted places in urban India (CPCB, 1995). So does Gajroula, a relatively
unknown little town of western Uttar Pradesh, India (CPCB, 1995). Historically, the
level of total suspended particulate (TSP) levels in a number of South Asian cities
have been high (CPCB, 1991; CPCB, 1992; CPCB, 1993; CPCB, 1995). In
comparison, the ambient concentrations of NO2, SO2, CO, and ozone (O3) have been
relatively low, typically not exceeding the WHO health-based guidelines (Aggarwal
et al., 1999). Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) can be elevated in megacities but the exceedances above internationally
recognized air quality standards are not of the magnitude observed for particulate
matter (Aggarwal et al., 1999). Large cities in India and Pakistan appear to have very
high concentrations of fine particles (World Bank, 2004). However apart from these
countries, Dhaka in Bangladesh and Kathmandu in Nepal suffer from serious
particulate air pollution, the latter in part because of its topography (being located in a
valley which traps polluted air) (Begum et al., 2004; Carrico et al., 2003). In response
to the emerging scientific evidence that small particles are especially damaging to
health (Dockery et al., 1993; Pope et al., 2002), environmental agencies in advanced
countries like American and European countries began requiring monitoring of
smaller particles, first with a cut-point of 10 µm aerodynamic diameter (PM10) and
more recently with a 2.5 µm aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5). Recently, several large
cities in South Asia have begun monitoring PM10 and in some cases also PM2.5.
Consistent with high ambient TSP levels, the recorded levels of PM10 and PM2.5 have
been found to be elevated (Begum et al., 2004; Carrico et al., 2003; NEERI, 2000;
Khaliquzzaman et al., 1997). In India Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
monitors the ambient air quality in various cities on a regular basis. According to
CPCB report in 2008 Chennai had shown all three criteria pollutants viz. RSPM, SO2
and NO2 within the national standards. Other three mega cities such as Mumbai,
Kolkata and Delhi had shown that the annual concentration of SO2 and NO2 are well
within the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) while RSPM indicated
increasing trend in all five consecutive years (Figure 1.1).
[5]
INTRODUCTION
1.5 Effects of air pollution
Air pollution may cause several health problems. It impacts economic

productivity, reduces agricultural productivity, damages property and causes
ecological changes that increase the risk of environmental disaster.
On man, air pollution is now associated with respiratory and eye diseases such
as asthma, lung cancer and conjunctivitis, especially in the young and elderly
(UNEP/WHO, 1992; Patel, 1994). Pb as a pollutant is particularly serious for
children, since relatively low concentrations of lead in the blood may have a
damaging and permanent effect on their mental development (Needleman et al, 1991).
On the environment, air pollution is a major contributor to effects such as acid rain,
which has been responsible for much damage to soil, fish resources and vegetation,
often very far away from the source of the pollutant (Acid Rain 2000, 2001). Air
pollution is also responsible for the effect of smog, which is a reduction in visibility
due to scattering of light by airborne particles. It may also cause offensive odours in
addition to soiling buildings and monuments. However, by far, the most serious long-
term soon threaten the very existence of human life, especially in the coastal and
highland regions. Concern about global warming led to the famous Kyoto Protocol of
1997, through which over 100 countries undertook to reduce their emissions of certain
pollutant gases significantly (NRP, 2001; Brasseur and Pszenny, 2001). The effects
of these pollutants are summarized in Table 1.1. Considering its effects and potential
effects on man and his environment, air pollution is clearly one of the greatest threats
to sustainable development today.
1.6 Major air pollutants
1.6.1 Particulate matter pollution: Particulate pollution, one of the major

environmental health problems, causes approximately three million deaths per year in
the world (WHO, 2001; Borrego et al., 2006). Particulate matter (PM) is a complex
mixture of substances in solid or liquid states in the atmospheric environment (Viana
et al., 2006) and there are quite a few studies on the levels of ionic constituents and
major heavy metals in PM10 that is present in Indian urban areas. A great deal of
attention has focused on particulate matter (PM) pollution due to their severe health
effects, especially fine particles. Several epidemiological studies have indicated a
[6]
INTRODUCTION
strong association between elevated concentrations of inhalable particles (PM10 and
PM2.5) and increased mortality (Peerz and Reyes, 2002; Lin and Lee, 2004; Namdeo
and Bell, 2005). Particulate deposited on skin and in the nasal passage could cause
allergy, skin disease and respiratory diseases. But the most serious health risks are
posed by fine particles which reach the lungs and may accumulate there. This
accumulation of particulate matter in lungs may cause fibrogenesis of lung tissues.
Particulate matter pollution in the atmosphere primarily consists of micron and sub
micron particles from anthropogenic (motor vehicles, biomass and fossil fuel burning)
and natural source (wind blown soils and sea spray) (Cohen, 1998). The relation
between ambient particulate matter and heart disease were recognised in the
nineteenth century when evidence showed that the number of hospital admissions
increased on days that the ambient air concentrations of particulate matter was higher
than the other days (Peters, 2005). Many atmospheric processes including cloud
formation, visibility variation, and solar radiation transfer can be influenced by
atmospheric aeorosols. The gaseous and particulate components of atmospheric
aeorosol have a noticeably role in the deteoriation of air quality (Wu et al., 2002).
In India due to increasing traffic, unplanned urban and industrial development,

growing energy consumption, and the high influx of population to urban areas,
alarming levels of particulate matter are reported in urban atmospheres by different
researchers. The number of urban agglomerations/cities in India with populations over
a million increased from 5 in 1951 to 9 in 1971 and 23 in 1991. The vehicle
population grew from 0.3 million in 1951 to almost 40 million in 1997–1998, more
than a 100-fold increase. Despite the increasing levels of particulate matter,
information on PM10-associated metals in Indian atmosphere is meagre (Mohanraj et
al., 2004).
1.6.2 Heavy metal pollution: There are many investigations on lead (Pb),
cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr ) and other heavy metals in air and
their toxic effects (Onder and Durson, 2006). This may result in a wide variability in
the intake of some metals through food (e.g. seafood), drinking water or air. High
levels of air borne heavy metals as such as Pb, Cd and certain persistent organic
pollutants may also cause neurodevelopment and behavioural defects in children.
Lead (Pb) is a community air pollutant. It is associated with increased blood lead in
[7]
INTRODUCTION
adults. Important symptoms of lead toxicity are anaemia, colic, premature loss of
teeth, changes in bone marrow etc. Heavy metals associated with PM have a definite
influence on the target organ in biological functions affecting the normal
development, growth of body tissues, enzyme activities and their proper functioning
(Fergusson, 1990; Dasilva and Williams, 1991). PM of size less than 10 µm [PM10 or
respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM)] contains high concentrations of
heavy metals of toxicological interest (Rizzio et al., 1999). About 75 – 90 % of
metals such as copper (Cu), Cd, nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and Pb are found in the PM 10
fractions.
1.6.3 Inorganic ion pollution: Aerosols are natural constituents of the earth
atmosphere with stable suspensions representing two or three phase system consisting
of liquid and /or solid particles and a gaseous medium in which the particles are
suspended. Aerosols provide reaction sites for pollutant gases, influence and play a
fundamental role in cloud formation and modify precipitation by functioning
condensation nuclei besides acting as carriers for pollutant transport. Also they have
great influence on meteorology and atmospheric chemistry as well as atmospheric
radiation budget. The characteristics and distribution of atmospheric aerosols are
highly variable, changing spatially, temporally and with altitude and source (Mouli et
al., 2003). Atmospheric aerosols influence many atmospheric processes including
cloud formation, visibility variation and solar radiation transfer (Bodeanie, 1983;
Pusescel et al., 1986) and play a major role in acidification of clouds, rain and fog and
the transport of pollutants from industrial regions to remote and pristine areas
(Swietlicki et al., 1996).
1.6.4 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution: Atmospheric pollution due to nitrogen

dioxide (NO2) is a subject of grave concern. Generally, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) play
an important role in atmospheric processes on local, regional and global scales.
Unlike many other pollutants, NOx undergoes various complex reactions to generate
several secondary pollutants which are known to be even more harmful than their
precursor. NOx also has several adverse effects on human health and causes diseases
such as pulmonary edema and damages central nervous system, tissue, etc.
Consequently, there is considerable interest in estimating sources of NOx emissions
and its fate in the atmosphere. It is generally accepted that out of total emission of
[8]
INTRODUCTION
NOx in the atmosphere, 70 – 75 % is from vehicular sources in urban cities (Lal and
Patil, 2001). Particulate matters (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are mostly caused by
diesel vehicles which consist of taxis, minibuses, public buses and goods vehicles
whereas petrol vehicles emit other pollutants harmful to the environment. The
concentration levels of NOx are steadily increasing in urban areas in India. In the city
of Mumbai, annual average ambient concentration in 1978 was reported as 15 µg/m3,
but recent studies have shown levels of 60 µg/ m3. The total amount of NOx emitted
was 28529 metric tons in 1992 of which 19520 metric tons (i.e. 68.4 %) (Larssen et
al., 1994) was from vehicular sources. There has been an alarming increase in the
vehicular growth rate at 7.3 % per annum leading to an increase in ambient NOx
levels.
1.6.5 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) pollution: Sulphur dioxide is one of the toxic gases
emitted during burning of fossil fuel. Goyal and Sidhartha (2002) observed that
monthly mean SO2 concentrations had regular seasonal variations with highest
concentration in winter and lowest in monsoon in Delhi, India. In a study by
Carmichael et al. (2003) involving the measurement of gaseous pollutants at 50
locations in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe, maximum concentration of SO2
was observed in Agra (India), indicative of its major contributions from
anthropogenic emissions like power plants, industrial boilers, heating and cooking. A
long-term study of the impact of SO2 concentration released from the Mathura
refinery on the Taj Mahal (the monument which is adjudged as one of the wonders of
the world) in Agra, India was studied by Goyal and Singh (1990). This study has been
performed because of the suspected toxicity of SO2 that it may react with oxygen in
the presence of water vapour forming sulphuric acid. It has pungent odour and may
cause coughing, suffocation and other respiratory disorder. It also reduces the
capacity to do work. Thus it affects the children, elderly, asthmatics and other
vulnerable populations.
1.6.6 Carbon monoxide (CO) pollution: Carbon monoxide, an odourless and

colourless gas has its major origin in the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous
materials. It is a highly poisonous gas and is generally classified as an asphyxiant. The
chief source of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere is combustion, especially due to
auto mobile exhausts. Carbon monoxide (CO) is formed as a product of incomplete
[9]
INTRODUCTION
combustion of carbonaceous fuels in stationary and mobile sources. High CO
concentrations can cause acute CO intoxication competing with oxygen in binding to
blood haemoglobin. In urban ambient air CO concentrations have been (even under
most adverse conditions) below the concentrations causing acute poisoning, but inside
motor vehicles and indoor environments with indoor sources, such concentrations
have occurred. Epidemiological time-series studies have reported increased relative
risks of daily mortality and morbidity by 0.90 – 4.70 % in association with prevailing
urban air CO concentrations (Touloumi et al., 1994; Burnett et al., 1998).
1.6.7 Ozone (O3) pollution: Ozone (O3) is such type of gas that is found in both
troposphere and stratosphere. When it is present in stratosphere it is acting as
umbrella to UV radiation. But when it is found in troposphere i.e. near to surface it is
considered as pollutant. The existence of O3 is very important since it is involved in
oxidation reactions of troposphere and its tropospheric abundance determines the
oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. It also plays a key role in biogeochemical
cycles and global climate being a green house gas as it traps radiation at 9.6 µm
emitted by Earth [World Health Organization (WHO), 2005].
Tropospheric O3 is a secondary pollutant produced through a series of

photochemical processes. Its precursors are oxides of nitrogen, CO and Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) like nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs). Oxides of
nitrogen and CO mainly arise from automobile emissions while non methane
hydrocarbons (NMHCs) are combustion generated. Depending on the Nitrous oxide
(NO) concentrations, O3 may be produced or destroyed during oxidation of CO or no
change occurs. The following reactions occur to give birth to surface ozone (Satsangi
et al., 2004).
i. CO + OH → CO2 + H
H + O2 + M → HO2 + M
HO2 +NO → NO2 + OH
420 nm
ii. NO2 + hυ NO + O (3P)
O (3P) + O2 +M → O3 + M
[10]
INTRODUCTION
hυ
iii. OH + CH3CH=CH2 + O2 +NO →CH3CHO + HCHO + NO2 +OH → O3
Thus in urban setting O3 is formed from the catalytic reactions of NOx and VOCs
(plus CO) all of which are emitted from vehicles and other combustion sources. O3 is
also the photochemical precursor of OH radicals, which control tropospheric
chemistry.
1.7 GIS- an effective tool in air pollution monitoring
A geographical information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool related to

mapping and analysing spatially distributed phenomena related to the earth. GIS
would be of immense value of for a number of research areas in air field including air
pollution modelling etc. GIS should be viewed as one entity that will be concerned
with dealing and analysing spatial air data. At regional and local scales, studies also
reveal strong linkages among the density and characteristics of human activities, air
quality and various indicators of public health. Since urban areas have higher
population density and more intensive air-polluting activities (such as vehicle traffic,
industries, commercial and domestic activities), they attract more attention than other
places. Finding these relations between air quality and urban activities (so called
urban respiration) has become both a scientific subject and public issue. Improving
our understanding of this complicated phenomenon relies mainly on three aspects: (a)
improved collection technology for measuring spatial and temporal fluctuations of
trace gases at finer grains; (b) sophisticated models which can better explain and
predict air quality based on physical principles and available data; and (c) an
information infrastructure which streamlines the management, interpretation, and
presentation of the data and analyses in order to allow better and broader input,
collaboration, and debate of the models and their policy implications. A series of
extensions can be built by the GIS to adapt its functionality. As examples, the spatial
models of a flat urban area and a street canyon with extensive traffic polluted with
NOx may be constructed. The sources of air pollution are mapped into a few
categories according to the volume of pollution. Their locations and shapes (in case of
the line and area sources) together with the attributes are stored in separate themes.
Geographic information systems (GIS) have been used to make valuable contributions
[11]
INTRODUCTION
to the understanding and solution of key socioeconomic and environmental problems
such as facility management, public policy, natural resource management, and land
cadastre (Maguire et al., 1991). During the past decade, GIS have also been applied to
the assessment of environmental risk generally and environmental equity specifically.
According to Rejeski (1993) GIS help the risk analysis process moving from its
traditional focus on site-specific problems to a true macro-scale planning and policy
tool so that GIS have the potential in regionalizing the risk analysis process. By
allowing for data integration, spatial analysis and modelling and visualization, GIS
also provide great opportunity for environmental equity analysis (McMaster et al.,
1997). The recent development of remote sensing technology has provided invaluable
biophysical data to be analysed with GIS based socioeconomic data for environmental
applications (Martin and Bracken, 1993; Wilkinson, 1996; Mesev, 2003). There exists
much need for the integrated use of remotely sensed data and GIS data for
environmental equity analysis. This opens up the potential for new forms of analysis.
1.8 Motivation behind the research work
It is a fact that urban air pollution is growing due to increasing vehicle use,
poor and indiscriminate consumption of fossil fuels, industrialisation. However, only
now as the health costs of polluted air are mounting, people are beginning to realise
that clean air is valuable. The health impact of pollution is considerable. Premature
deaths due to respiratory and cardio- vascular diseases and illness like asthma and
bronchitis have increased.
Though several laws are in place to control industrial and vehicular pollution,
compliance has been inadequate. The number of vehicles in India has been steadily
increasing, leading to a concurrent increase in pollution. In the last few years the
number of registered vehicles increased frequently and all vehicles burn petrol or
diesel. Often this fuel is of poor quality due to illegal contamination and engines of
Indian vehicles are not very efficient, leading to increased pollution.
The existing law enforcement and other controls have been unsatisfactory. So,
new policies and strategies that provide polluters economic incentives to clean up are
necessary.
[12]
INTRODUCTION
Burdwan town is a virgin place so far with respect to the air quality
monitoring. This town is developing day by day. The number of registered motor
vehicle in Burdwan is 397550 (Source: District Statistical Officer, Burdwan). So
many projects are proposed to be set up here. So, a systematic monitoring programme
on air quality is solicited for the benefit of the town. Air quality management policies
are usually developed through a series of processes, which include air quality
monitoring, emission inventory preparation and control strategies delineation, and
long-term compliance monitoring (Molina and Molina, 2004). In order to delineate
appropriate air quality management plans, quantification of emissions from different
air pollution sources and their impact on ambient air quality becomes essential. So,
before stepping into any management strategy for reducing air pollution synoptic and
systematic monitoring of ambient air quality is a crying need. So, the following
objectives are aimed.
1.9 Objectives of the research work
Taking the afore-mentioned motivation into consideration, the objectives of this

study are mentioned below.
• To monitor ambient air quality status on the basis of criteria air pollutants viz.
PM10 (RSPM), SPM or TSPM, SO2, NO2, in residential and others, industrial
zone and sensitive zone of Burdwan town.
• To evaluate the heavy metal concentration viz. Pb, Cd, Mn, Cr and water-
soluble inorganic ions (K+, Na+, F-, Cl-, SO42-) present in particulate matter
(PM10).
• To monitor secondary pollutant like ground level ozone (O3) and its precursor
like CO along with meteorological parameters having diurnal variation.
• To monitor the micrometeorology and to investigate its influence in dispersion

of pollutants.
• To evaluate air quality status in all the three zones by comparing with National
Ambient Air Quality standards ( 1994) and NAAQS (2009)
• To carry out multivariate statistical analysis of experimental data
[13]
INTRODUCTION
• To calculate the Air Quality Index (AQI) of study area
• To represent the spatio-temporal distribution of pollutants by thematic map
• To make out zonation of high, medium and low air polluted areas of the
Burdwan town by spatial interpolation of AQI
[14]
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.1: Sources and effects of common air pollutants
Pollutant Anthropogenic Health Effects Environmental

Sources Effects
Particulate Emitted as particles or Eye, nose and throat Source of haze which
Matter formed through irritation; lung damage; reduces visibility.
chemical reactions; bronchitis; cancer;
Ashes, smoke, soot,
burning of wood, diesel early death.
and dust can dirty and
and other fuels;
discolour structures and
industrial processes;
property, including
agriculture (ploughing,
clothes and furniture.
field burning); unpaved
roads.
Lead Combustion of fossil Brain and nervous Harm to wildlife and

fuels and leaded system damage livestock.
gasoline; paint; (especially, children),
smelters (metal digestive and other
refineries); battery problems. Some lead-
manufacturing. containing chemicals
cause cancer in
animals.
Mercury Fossil fuel combustion, Liver, kidney and brain Accumulates in food
waste disposal, damage; neurological chain.
industrial processes and developmental
(incineration, smelting, damage.
plants), mining.
Manganese Ferrous and non Respiratory disease Accumulates in food

ferrous metal casting, chain
chemical industries,
additive in petrol
Chromium Iron works, rubber Can alter genetic Accumulates in food

works materials and cause chain.
cancer
Cadmium Tobacco smoke, Bone damage, affects Accumulates in food

combustion of fossil liver and kidney chain
fuels, fertilisers and
fungicide
[15]
INTRODUCTION
Pollutant Anthropogenic Health Effects Environmental

Sources Effects
Nitrogen Burning of gasoline, Lung damage, Ozone (smog) effects;

dioxides (NO2) natural gas, coal, oil. respiratory illnesses, precursor of acid rain
ozone (smog) effects. which damages trees,
(Cars are a major
lakes, and soil; aerosols
source of NO2.)
can reduce visibility.
Acid rain also causes
buildings, statues, and
monuments to
deteriorate.
Sulphur dioxide Burning of coal and oil, Respiratory illness, Precursor of acid rain,
(SO2) especially high-sulphur breathing problems, which can damage
coal; industrial may cause permanent trees, lakes and soil;
processes (paper damage to lungs. aerosols can reduce
manufacturing, metal visibility.
smelting).
Acid rain also causes
buildings, statues, and
monuments to
deteriorate.
Carbon Burning of gasoline, Reduces ability of Precursor of ground

Monoxide (CO) natural gas, coal, oil. blood to bring oxygen level ozone
to body cells and
tissues.
Ozone Secondary pollutant Breathing problems, Damages crops, forests,

(O3) formed by chemical reduced lung function, and other vegetation;
reaction of VOCs and asthma, irritates eyes, damages rubber, fabric
NOx in the presence of stuffy nose, reduces and other materials;
sunlight. resistance to colds and smog reduces visibility.
infections, premature
aging of lung tissue.
Volatile Organic Fuel combustion, Ozone (smog) effects, Ozone (smog) effects,
Compounds solvents, paint. cancer and other vegetation damage.
(VOCs) serious health
(Cars are a major
problems.
source of VOCs.)
[16]
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: Five years trend of air quality in four mega (metro) cities of India
[17]
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section takes a closer look at relevant literature of interest for this
particular study. It starts with a description of particulate matter,
followed by trace metals and inorganic ions and gaseous pollutants
like SO2 and NO2. Some relevant studies on other gases like surface
Ozone and CO are also discussed. A brief overview is also given of
these relevant studies that have been conducted at regional as well as
global scale.
2.1 Literature review on particulate matter [respiratory suspended

particulate matter (RSPM or PM10) and total suspended particulate
matter (TSPM)] and its composition
P articulate pollution in urban atmosphere has been becoming a matter of

concentration now a day. Different kind of natural as well as anthropogenic
activities are contributing a large amount of particulate matter into ambient air. There
are a number of research works are performed on particulate matter in several cities
like Delhi, Kolkata, Raniganj- Asansol, Dhanbad- Jharia, Lucknow, Mumbai,
Chennai, Visakhapatnam etc. in our nation as well as in abroad like in Taiyuan,
Kathmandu , Guiyang, Dhaka, Pakistan and Italy etc. All these research works reflects
that these particulate matters are comprised of trace amount of heavy metals like Pb,
Cd, Cr, Mn and other inorganic ions like Na+, K+, F-, SO42- and Cl-. These secondary
air pollutants are also found to be dependent on the prevailing meteorological
condition. It is noticed that the atmospheric Pb is in decreasing trend now a day due to
phase out of leaded gasoline in cities. Cd and Mn both are originated from mainly
from industrial origin and transportation activities etc. However, a few mentionable
works are as follows.
[18]
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 RSPM and TSPM
National level: Balachandran et al. (2000) had examined the concentration of

composition of PM10, the thoracic fraction of the atmospheric particulate matter in
Delhi. PM10 particulates were subdivided into two fractions, coarse (2.1–10 mm) and
fine (2.1 mm). The mean value of PM10 obtained at Daryaganj for four months was
658.45±231.2 µg/m3 which was 1.45 times higher as compared to JNU (454.77±106.2
µg/m3) and 1.1 times higher as compared to Moti Nagar (552.8±225.7 µg/m3) in
Delhi. All these values were found to be exceeded the national standards (150 µg/m3
for industrial area and 100 µg/m3 for residential area for 24 h) for PM10 for both
industrial and residential area as specified by Central Pollution Control Board of
India.
The monthly mean suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentrations reached

the highest (465.68 µg/m3) in November and the lowest (150.07 µg/m3) in August.
The high concentration of SPM was obvious in winter due to the presence of low–
level ground-based inversions. However, the high winds and convective atmospheric
conditions in postmonsoon and premonsoon seasons encouraged dispersion of
particulates; on the other hand, the major emission sources of SPM in Delhi were
power stations and industries (Goyal and Sidhartha, 2002).
Road ambient air pollution status along Dhanbad- Jharia road was studied by
Jain and Saxena (2002). The variation in the SPM concentration were found as 351.12
to 411.41 µg/m3 in monsoon and 536.88 to 602.02 µg /m3 in winter season. According
to Verma et al. (2003) the air was contaminated maximum with both gaseous and
particulate matter in Lucknow. It was observed that RSPM level was higher than the
permissible limit of 140 µg/m3 at all sites and ranged between 150 -945 µg/m3. The
highest level of RSPM was found at the site with maximum traffic density (6723
vehicles/h) while the least RSPM was found at the site with minimum traffic density
(52 vehicles/h).
Respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) and total suspended

particulate matter (TSPM) in Chennai was studied by Pulikesi et al. (2006). It was
found that the TSPM values were exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) at Koyambedu, Mandaveli, Taramani and Vallalar Nagar study
[19]
LITERATURE REVIEW
area. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) was also measured by Reddy and Ruj
(2003) in the Raniganj- Asansol area in West Bengal, India. Results of the
investigation indicated that the 95th percentile value of SPM levels exceeded the
limits (200 µg/m3) at different sites and was within the limit of 500 µg/m3 at one
region. It was also observed that monsoon experienced the lowest SPM levels at the
four monitoring sites, which was because of the wash-out of dust by intermittent
precipitation. It was also observed that in general the SPM levels tended to decrease
with increasing relative humidity. Another important fact was revealed by them that
SPM concentration was higher during the day than during the night. This was mainly
attributed to the hectic industrial, mining and other community activities, as also to
increased vehicular traffic during the day period. SPM values were found to exceed
the prescribed standards in winter at most of the sites and in summer at few sites in
Visakhapatnam (Reddy et al., 2004).
Measurements of the aerosol number concentration and the PM10 mass

concentrations of urban background aerosols in different seasons were performed by
Monkkonen et al. (2004) in New Delhi 2002, including the simultaneous
measurements of NO2, SO2 and CO concentrations. The results indicated an
interesting relationship between the aerosol number and the PM10 mass
concentrations. The number concentration increased with the mass concentration up
to 300 µg/m3. Diurnal mean NO2 concentrations varied from 50 µg/m3 (2- 6 am) to 79
µg/m3 (6-10 pm) with a maximum value observed in November (170 µg/m3) and a
minimum in March (6 µg/m3). NO2 concentrations were usually highest in the
evenings (6-10 pm), which could be explained by the traffic peak hour after 6 pm, but
also by the use of natural gas as fuel in cooking ranges.
Kumar and Joseph (2006) had worked on PM2.5 and PM10 to understand the
fine particle pollution in compliance with ambient air quality standards in Mumbai.
The average PM2.5 concentration at ambient and at Kerbsite was 43 and 69 µg/m3.
The correlation coefficients between PM2.5 and PM10 at ambient and at Kerbsite were
0.83 and 0.85 respectively thus indicating that most of the PM2.5 and PM10 were from
similar sources. PM10 levels exceeded the central pollution control board standard
during winter season.
[20]
LITERATURE REVIEW
Gupta et al. (2008) had dealt with air quality monitoring in an urban region of
Kolkata, consisting of residential, commercial and industrial sites having high
population density and pollution. Daily average PM10 concentrations exceeded quite a
number of times the NAAQ standards. Approximately 85 % of the monitored PM10
data at residential area and 70 % at industrial area exceeded NAAQS. The observed
daily average PM10 concentrations were 140.1 µg/m3 and 196.6 µg/m3, respectively at
residential and industrial sites, while 8 h average concentrations of PM10 at
commercial site were 131.3 µg/m3.
The respirable particulate matter (RPM; PM10) and total suspended particulate
matter (TSP) concentrations in ambient air in Tuticorin, India, were preliminarily
estimated by Sivaramasundaram and Muthusubramanian (2010). Both the RPM and
TSP levels were well below the permissible limits set by the US Environmental
Protection Agency. The RPM concentrations ranged between 20.9 and 198.2 µg/m3,
while the TSP concentrations varied from 51.5 to 333.3 µg/m3 during their study
period.
International level: Clarke et al. (1999) had found that in urban conditions, small
aerosol particles were mostly emitted from combustion processes, i.e. car engines and
industry. Urban aerosols had a higher proportion of vehicular (and possibly industrial)
emissions, which were in very fine size range. The larger particles correspond to the
effects of human activities including road dust raised by vehicular motion, building
activities and industrial emissions. According to Vakeva et al. (1999), Mazzera et al.
(2001), Querol et al. (2001), Viana et al. (2006), Adachi and Tainosho (2004) the
particulates were directly emitted into the atmosphere through natural and manmade
(anthropogenic) processes including transportation, fuel combustion in stationary
sources, industrial processes, land cleaning, wild fires and solid waste disposal. It was
also found that from the particle formation studies, it could be assumed that the
majority of the submicron particles were due to primary emissions from traffic, or at
least particles were formed very close to the sources (car engines) of precursor gases
(Vakeva et al., 1999).
Giri et al. (2006) had measured the ambient particulate matter concentrations
(PM10) at a network of six air monitoring stations in Kathmandu valley during the
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LITERATURE REVIEW
years, 2003 to 2005. The study revealed that particulate concentrations (PM10)
measured were persistently higher at air sampling sites representing roadside areas
compared to the background sites. The highest daily average PM10 mass concentration
(633 µg/m3) for the study period was recorded at Putalisadak air monitoring station in
the year 2005. Within the Kathmandu valley daily 24-h average PM10 ranged from 7
µg/m3 (Matsyagaon in the year 2004 and 2005) to 633 µg/m3 (Putalisadak in the year
2005). The lowest and highest average annual concentration during the study period
was found 47.78 µg/m3 and 199.80 µg/m3 respectively at Matsyagaon and Putalisadak
air-monitoring sites. It could be assumed that the difference in the observed
concentrations can mostly be attributed to the traffic. Due to the rapid growth of
industrial activities, population and traffic density, people in Kathmandu were facing
serious air pollution problems.
Mulaku and Kariuki (2001) outlined the air quality management capabilities of
developed and developing nations and found that in developing nations, especially
those in Africa, such capabilities were either absent or only rudimentary; the situation
in Kenya was given as an example. They studied to determine the spatial distribution
of TSP in Nairobi, Kenya’s capital city. A map showing the distribution had been
produced, probably the first of its kind for the city, which showed that the levels of
TSP in most of Nairobi were much above the average recommended by the World
Health Organization.
A field study was carried out in central Italy on characterising atmospheric

particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) from the point of view of the chemical
composition by Perrino et al. (2007). An evaluation of the sources of PM and an
identification of possible reliable tracers were obtained using a chemical fractionation
procedure in their study. Total concentrations and speciation of metals had been
studied in TSP of Guiyang by Wu et al. (2008) from April 2006 and January 2007 in
PR China. The total average concentrations of five sites were found as 263 and 75.5
µg /m3 for SPM and PM10 by Salam et al. (2008) in greater Dhaka.
Ali and Athar (2008) had investigated the air and noise pollution at selected
sites along three sections of National high way in Pakistan to assess the enormous
impact of transportation system on ambient air quality. Particulate matter (PM10) was
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LITERATURE REVIEW
found very high in all the locations of three sections. By comparing the data with
specified limits of USEPA ambient air quality standards, the concentrations were
found high at all the locations and were in range of 123- 434 µg/m3 against USEPA
ambient air quality standards of limit 150 µg/m3. In all the location particles of soil
were very fine and proportion of clay was higher that could also be the reason of high
value of PM10.
Wang et al. (2008) had worked to define the air quality during the Olympic
Games from August 7 to September 30 in 2007 in Beijing. The results showed that the
average daily concentration of PM10 during observation was 0.19 mg/m3. The
concentration of PM10 was much higher than the values of the standard. Perrino et al.
(2008) had worked on monitoring the inorganic constituents of urban air pollution in
the Lazio region in Central Italy. The results showed a major impact of primary
anthropogenic pollutants on traffic stations and a homogeneous distribution of
secondary pollutants over the regional area. An evaluation of the sources of PM and
an identification of possible reliable tracers were obtained using a chemical
fractionation procedure.
Xie et al. (2009) characterized the ambient particulate pollution, samples of

particulates with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm (PM10). Iron-rich particles,
gypsum, cement particles, silicon sulphide particles, ammonium chloride, potassium
sulphate etc were analysed in this research. The majority of the particles were seemed
to originate from coal combustion, which conformed to Taiyuan’s industrial structure.
Coal combustion was the main source of particles in Taiyuan air, as evidenced by the
abundance of the characteristic coal-burning-related particles.
Traffic-related air pollutants were monitored near major roads at 10 sites in

Japan by Naser et al. (2009). Suspended particulate matter (100 % cut-off
aerodynamic diameter at 10 mm), PM2.5 (50 % cut-off aerodynamic diameter at 2.5
mm), and black carbon, from which elemental carbon (EC) content was calculated,
were instantaneously and continuously monitored at four stations at various distances
(about 5, 35, 70 and 150 m) from each of the target roads. They compared the
observed concentrations with concentrations calculated by means of the conventional
Gaussian plume model.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.2 Heavy metals
National level: Many studies had addressed the problem of pollution by heavy metals
including Cu, Cr, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, V, As, Be, Cd, Mn etc. Most of these were short-
term studies of coarse suspended particulates or total suspended particulates (TSP)
(Negi et al., 1996; Khillare et al., 2004; Tripathi et al., 2004). Recently, some studies
had been done on metal composition of PM10 (Balchandran et al., 2000; Karar et al.,
2006; Nair et al., 2006). Sharma and Maloo (2005) studied air quality in Kanpur in
terms of PM10 and PM2.5 and chemical composition in terms of heavy metals in PM10
only. Moreover only in some studies inventory or statistical analysis was carried out
to apportion sources and determined full year seasonal variations (Khillare et al.,
2004; Karar and Gupta, 2006).
The concentrations of major heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni and Fe
present in the particulate matter were also determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer by Balachandran et al. (2000). Chelani et al. (2001) studied the
trend of toxic metals in Mumbai during the period 1993–1998 in ambient air of
Mumbai. They used the classical additive model. Toxic levels of Cd and Cr were
observed to be stationary during this period. Fe, Zn and Ni were found to exhibit
decreasing trend with magnitude of 54.4, 30.0 and 4.6 %/year whereas Pb was
observed to increase 50 %/year. Cd and Mn in the SPM at all the stations were found
below the detection limit of 0.01 µg/m3 along Dhanbad- Jharia road (Jain and Saxena,
2002).
Feng et al. (2003) had explained partly the differences of metals among the
seasons. The levels of suspended particulate matter (SPM) and heavy metals viz. Pb,
Cd, Cr, Ni and Fe were measured by Khillare et al. (2004). The annual average
concentration of SPM in Delhi was found to be 416.34±223 µg/m3. The vertical
profile in polluted areas like city centres and street canyons in Mumbai was monitored
by Tripathi et al. (2004). Thirteen trace metals, namely Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg,
Mn, Na, Ni, Pb and Zn were estimated in the SPM. The study indicated insignificant
differences in the concentration levels of SPM and trace metals at different heights.
Mohanraj et al. (2004) estimated respirable (RSPM) and non respirable

(NRSPM) fractions of suspended particulate matter along with heavy metals present
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LITERATURE REVIEW
in RSPM in Coimbatore. The mean quantity of heavy metals in RSPM was in the
order; Zn >Cu > Pb >Ni >Cr > Cd. Concentrations of these heavy metals were in the
range of BDL (below detectable level) to 2147 ng/m3 in RSPM. This fact was also
revealed by them that significant positive correlation among metals excepting lead
and copper suggested that they were originated mostly from a common source.
Ambient PM10 was monitored by Karar et al. (2006) in Kolkata during

November 2003 to November 2004. Chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) were the seven toxic trace metals
quantified from the measured PM10 concentrations. The measured toxic trace metals
generally showed inverse relationship with wind speed, relative humidity and
temperature.
Gupta and Kumar (2006) studied the trend of TSP and PM10 in Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai using t-test adjusted for seasonality, seasonal Kendall
test and intervention analysis for the period 1991–2003. These tests had indicated that
overall PM10 levels in all four metro cities had been decreasing or stationary. There
were limited attempts to study the linear trend of PM10 and toxic metals in India. The
possible reasons for lack of studies in India were one time large investment,
operational cost and the required quality control.
Haritash and Kaushik (2007) had worked on heavy metals in respirable

suspended particulate matter (RSPM) in Hisar. Role of meteorology in concentration
of heavy metals in RSPM were studied by them. Their important findings were that
the concentrations of all the heavy metals were higher in premonsoon (extended
summer) and monsoon followed by postmonsoon, autumn and winter.
Samples of airborne aerosols (PM10 and PM2.5) were collected at an urban and
a rural site of the North central, semi-arid part of India during May 2006 to March
2008 by Kulshrestha et al. (2009) for determining seven trace metals (Pb, Zn, Ni, Fe,
Mn, Cr and Cu) for both sizes. Significant seasonal variations of particulate pollutants
were obtained using the daily average concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in their study.
Airborne particulate matter (PM10) was collected for a period of 1 year at six
locations in Madurai city by Bhaskar et al. (2010) to analyse PM10 samples for the
estimation of heavy metals and ions in it. The average PM10 concentrations varied
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LITERATURE REVIEW
3
from 97.2 to 152.5 µg/m and gaseous pollutants served as precursors of ionic
particles in the atmospheric environment. Apart from that it was also found that
industrial areas had the highest concentrations of heavy metals such as Fe, Zn and Cr
and also the SO42-ions, traffic areas had endured highest concentrations of Cd and the
NO3− ion.
Ambient concentrations of PM10 were measured in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata

and Chennai during 1998–2007 by Gupta et al. (2010). Trend analyses of PM10 and
heavy metals of four mega cities indicated that PM10 and heavy metals showed
decreasing trend. The cause of decreasing trend was explained in this manner that
during the last 10 years, many interventions had been undertaken such as, changes in
fuel quality, better vehicle technologies, improved industrial fuel mix, shifting of
industries outside the city limits, resulting in improvement of urban air quality.
International level: Lum et al. (1982) reported that Cd in urban aerosol was almost
completely in exchangeable form. According to Hlavay et al. (1998) Cd, liberated
during combustion processes, had been shown to occur in elemental and oxide forms
whereas emissions from incineration were predominantly as CdCl2. They also found
that Cr was mostly emitted to the atmosphere from coal combustion, the metal
industry and waste incineration. Hlavay et al. (1998) again revealed that Pb in urban
and industrial areas was emitted by different sources and each of these industries
emitted lead with different form. Emissions from vehicle exhausts had dominated the
contribution of lead to the atmosphere, although smelting operations also contributed
to the atmospheric lead load.
Weiwei et al. (2006) worked on the geochemical characteristics of trace metals

(As, Cr, Co, Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, V and Zn) in PM10 as well as their sources and
contributions in Wuhan, the biggest metropolitan in central China. Based on the
results, PM10 in Wuhan was characterized by relatively high levels of As, Cd, Mn, Pb
and Zn compared with other Asian cities. The time series of these elements indicated
that As, Cu and Zn at both sites have similar trends, whereas Pb levels showed
different patterns due to different emission sources. The levels of Cd were similar at
all the sites (9 to 12 ng/m3). The levels of Pb measured at Wuhan (409 and 615 ng/m3
for the urban and industrial sites) were similar to those reported for Shanghai (515
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LITERATURE REVIEW
3 3
ng/m ). The levels of Mn (116 and 227 ng/m at the urban and industrial stations,
respectively) were similar to those reported for Beijing and Shanghai (110–195
ng/m3) higher than those reported for Hong Kong, Tokyo and Taiwan (23–70 ng/m3).
The levels of Cr (11and 23 ng/m3 at the urban and industrial stations, respectively)
were similar to those reported for Beijing, Shanghai and Taiwan (20–40 ng/m3), but
higher than those reported for Tokyo and Hong Kong (6 ng/m3).
Wu et al. (2008) measured the concentration of heavy metals in China. The

average concentrations were from 14.48 ng/m3 for Cd and 1,161.45 ng/m3 for Zn. The
concentrations of Cd, Cr, Pb and Zn were significantly higher during winter than
those at other seasons. The concentrations of most elements (Cd, Cr, Pb and Zn) were
significantly higher during winter than those at other seasons. The metal
concentrations in TSP were relatively low during spring and summer seasons. This
kind of seasonal pattern, with lower concentrations of metals in summer, was
supported by the findings of Wong et al. (2003).
Aerosol particulate matters and heavy metal concentrations were measured in

Dhaka (Mahmud et al., 2008). The overall average concentrations of TSP, PM10 and
PM2.5 were 68, 43 and 35 µg/m3, respectively. It was also reported that about 82 %
particles were from fine fraction (PM2.5) and 18 % were from coarse fraction (PM10-
2.5), which indicated mechanical processes were one of the main sources for the
particulate matters in Dhaka. The heavy metal (lead, copper, zinc, and iron)
concentrations were also determined. The average concentration for lead (96 ng/m3)
was lower than the WHO guideline value and also lower than the previous
measurements in Dhaka.
Salam et al. (2008) had found the total average concentrations of As, Cd, Cu,
Fe, Pb, and Zn in PM2.5 was 6.3, 13, 94, 433, 204 and 381 ng/m3 respectively. The Pb
concentration in Dhaka showed a decreasing tendency, presumably due to the ban on
the use of leaded fuel. The overall trace metal concentrations in Dhaka were higher
than those in European (e.g. Spain, Norway) and East Asian (e.g. Taiwan) locations,
but lower than those measured in South east Asian (Kanpur, Delhi, Mumbai, India;
Lahore, Pakistan) cities. Average Cd concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 34.9 ng/m3.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Kuvarega and Taru (2008) had determined the levels of TSP, PM10 and PM2.5
as well as levels of Pb, Co, Ni and Cd in TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 in Harare. Their major
findings were that the levels of Pb and Ni were generally higher than those of Co and
Cd and this could had been due to high traffic volumes and various industrial
activities in the Workington Industrial Area.
Leilli et al. (2008) assessed the concentrations of total suspended particles

(TSP), particulate matter (PM) with an aerodynamic diameter ≤10 µm (PM10) and air
transmitted particulate trace metals in Tehran. In their study the average
concentrations of heavy metal in TSP were found as Pb: 183.63±147.81 ng /m3; Cr:
13.72±2.40 ng/ m3; and Cd: 6.80±1.97 ng/ m3 and for PM10 were: 150.36±157.01
ng/m3; Cr: 9.12±2.14 ng/m3 and Cd: 6.87±2.22 ng/m3. In 2010 heavy metals (HMs) in
the airborne particulate matter (PM) in Сentral Asia was also monitored by Kulmatov
and Hojamberdiev (2010).
2.1.3 Inorganic ions: Over the last two decades, the water-soluble elements in
atmospheric aerosols were reported more commonly in India (Kulshrestha et al.,
2001; Parashar et al., 2001; Safai et al., 2005; Mouli et al., 2006; Tiwari et al., 2007;
Sharma et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2008; Reddy et al., 2008(a) etc) and also in Agra
(Kulshrestha et al., 1998; Parmar et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2003;
Kumar et al., 2006, 2007), probably because of the ease of analysis.
Heterogeneous production of sulphate in an urban fog had been investigated

using data collected during the SCAQS program in the Los Angeles area, for the
period of 10-11 December 1987 by Pandis et al. (1992). Significant increase in
sulphate concentration was observed during the afternoon of 11 December. Trajectory
analysis suggested that these high sulphate concentrations were associated with the
arrival at the receptor sites of air parcels that passed through the fog layer the previous
night.
Mouli et al. (2003) collected atmospheric aerosol samples to analyse major

inorganic ions — F-, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Na+, K+, NH4+ and Mg, Ca present in it at
Tirupati. According to them the aerosol ionic composition was found to be dependant
on the aerosol mass, meteorological conditions of the area. They also found that
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LITERATURE REVIEW
composition of the aerosols showed higher concentration of SO42- followed by NO3-,
NH4+ and found to be influenced by local terrestrial sources.
The possibility of chemical transformation of SO2 to SO4 was studied by

Sharma et al. (2003) in the city of Kanpur. It was also concluded that the important
migration pathway in study area for the transformation of SO2 to SO4 appears to be
oxidation of SO2 on the surfaces (of particulate) available in the ambient atmosphere.
It was found that the SO4 levels were considerably high (2.8- 43.6 µg/m3) compared
to levels in cities in the US [(1.9-3.6 µg/m3) Sandberg et al., 1976; (15.7-18.4 µg/m3)
Altshuller, 1976; (4.0-14.0 µg/m3) Dockery et al., 1993].
The size distributions of different anions and cations viz. SO42-, NO3-, Cl- and
F-, NH4+ in ambient air were monitored by Xiu et al. (2004). Han et al. (2005) had
revealed that the concentration of most secondary aerosol components showed a
summer minimum and a winter maximum with higher correlation between them at
Gosan. They also revealed that OC and EC had the highest concentration and good
correlation with ion components, such as K+, Ca2+ in fall. It means that biomass
burning could significantly influence the ambient fine carbonaceous particulate in fall,
which was primarily long-range transported.
The major water-soluble ions- F-, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Na+, NH4+, K+, Ca and Mg
were analysed by Mouli et al. (2006). They suggested that the ionic composition was
influenced by local terrestrial sources. The presence of SO4 and NO3 may be due to
re-suspension of soil particles (formation by heterogeneous oxidation). Ca, Mg and
Na were mainly soil derived ones.
2.2 Literature review on gaseous pollutant
The gaseous pollutants vary from city to city. As local people’s life style
influence a lot in their emission. It is found that in most of the city SO2 is under
permissible level. Whereas NO2 is somewhere seen to have high concentration as well
as somewhere low concentration. Vehicle emission is the main source of NO2.
Similarly, CO pollution is also dependent vehicle emission. The secondary pollutant
surface O3 is found in different parts of India and abroad. It is found that in most of
the places it is not exceeded its standard but its formation is not only dependent on its
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LITERATURE REVIEW
precursors but also on the prevailing meteorological condition. A few mentionable
works monitoring the gaseous pollutant in ambient air are as follows.
2.2.1 SO2 and NO2
National level: SO2 concentration released from the Mathura refinery on the Taj
Mahal (the monument which is adjudged as one of the wonders of the world) in Agra,
India was studied by Goyal and Singh (1990).
A study on NOx at 19 traffic intersection points within the city of Kolkata was
performed by Mondal et al. (2000). They observed significant seasonal variations
with maximum concentration during winter and minimum during peak monsoon. The
behaviour of oxides of nitrogen (NOx: NO, NO2) was observed by Lal and Patil
(2001) in Mumbai. The monitoring results showed that at larger distance from the
road the level of NO decreased but the concentration of NO2 remained the same
which was very harmful.
Sub-regional and sector level distribution of SO2 and NOx emissions

inventories for India had been estimated for all the 466 Indian districts using base data
for years 1990 and 1995 by Garg et al. (2001). Total SO2 and NOx emissions from
India were 3542 and 2636 Gg, respectively (1990) and 4638 and 3462 Gg (1995)
growing at annual rate of around 5.5 %. The sectoral composition of SO2 emissions
indicated a predominance of electric power generation sector (46 %). Power and
transport sector emissions equally dominated NOx emissions contributing nearly 30 %
each.
Goyal and Sidhartha (2002) had studied to know the concentrations of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) in Delhi. The monthly mean SO2 concentrations were in the range of
16.15- 34.44 µg/m3 and showed regular seasonal variations with the highest
concentrations in winter and lowest in monsoon season. It was observed that high SO2
concentrations were generally associated with the wind blowing from WNW–NW
directions and the high SPM concentrations were usually related to the wind blowing
from W–NW directions. It was noticeable that wind pattern in northern part of India
including Delhi revealed that the wind blew from the western part of India to Bay of
Bengal during most of the time in a year except in monsoon months (June-September)
when the direction of the wind was reverse.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Reddy and Ruj (2003) measured the concentration of gaseous pollutant in the
Raniganj- Asansol. The 95th percentile values of SO2 levels did not exceed the
reference level at any of the monitoring stations. The 95th percentile value of NOx
was found to be exceeded the limit (80 µg/m3) at some sites but is within the
prescribed limit of 120 µg/m3 at a site. It was observed that the annual average of SO2
values were minimum and almost equal at all the monitoring sites and did not exceed
the reference levels of 80 µg/m3 at any site. The average SO2 levels were relatively
high during winter in comparison with both the summer and the monsoon. The annual
average NOx concentration levels did not cross the reference levels of 80/120 µg/m3 at
any of the four sampling sites. Vehicles were the dominant transportation source of
NOx in this region. The relatively high concentration of NOx at all these sites (annual
average 56.85–60.42 µg/m3) was mainly due to the fact that the two sites (RGC and
BBC) were near to the Grand Trunk Road, one of the busiest National Highways.
In summer and postmonsoon seasons, the concentrations of SO2 and NOx were
within the prescribed limits except at few sites in summer. Winter data showed the
levels of SO2 were exceeding the limits at one residential site in Visakhapatnam
(Reddy et al., 2004). Contribution of pollution from different types of sources in
Jamshedpur, the steel city of India, had been estimated by Bhanarkar et al. (2005). In-
depth zone-wise analysis of the above indicated that for effective air quality
management, industrial source emissions should be given highest priority, followed
by vehicular and domestic sources in Jamshedpur region. The results of the modelling
exercise showed that in the city area, concentration levels of SO2 and NO2 would be
relatively high.
Kumar and Joseph (2006) had also worked on NO2 in Mumbai. Gupta et al.
(2008) showed that concentrations of gaseous compounds were highly dynamic with
significant seasonal variations characterized by high winter and low monsoon levels.
Daily average concentrations of SO2, NO2 and NH3 in the study area were found to be
within the permissible limit of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) as
specified by Central Pollution Control Board, India. The daily average concentrations
of SO2 and NO2 were observed to be 12.3±9.2, and 32.5±14.2, at the residential site,
with 21.3±15.7 and 49.9±9.8 µg/m3 at the industrial site, respectively. The
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LITERATURE REVIEW
corresponding (8 h average) values at the commercial site were 15.5±11.9 and
39.9±17.3 µg/m3.
International level: Valeroso and Monteverde (1992) found that the major air
pollutants were SO2, CO, NO2, HC, Ox and particulate matter. Their experimental
results showed two types of concentrations exhibited by the pollutants depending
upon whether they were photochemically reactive (NOx, SO2, HC and Ox) or non
photochemically reactive and particulate matter). The variation corresponding to non
photochemically reactive pollutants showed two maxima, one in the morning at 8:00
am and secondary in the evening from 8:00-9:00 pm. However, the photochemically
reactive pollutants exhibited only a single maximum at about noontime or early
afternoon. Kato and Akimoto (1992) had estimated SO2 and NOx inventories for 25
Asian countries for some selected years.
Dennekamp et al. (2001) also found that substantial concentrations of NOx

were generated during cooking on gas. The measured concentration of NO2 was
almost 4000 µg/m3after using a gas cooking range consisting of four rings for 75 min
with full power in a laboratory of volume 70 m3. Diurnal mean SO2 concentrations
varied from 9 µg/m3 (2–6 am) to 12 µg/m3 (6–10 pm) with a maximum value
observed in May (30 µg/m3) and a minimum in November (1.5 µg/m3). The diurnal
mean CO concentrations varied from 1.8 ppm (10 am–2 pm) to 2.8 ppm (6–10 pm).
El-dars et al. (2004) investigated the ambient sulphur dioxide levels in four
residential locations within the capital region of Egypt. The results indicated that the
measured cumulative ambient SO2 concentrations were in excess of the national and
the international monthly mean exposure limits, irrespective of the type of local
activity. SO2 and PM10 levels were investigated by Turalioglu (2005) in Erzurum
during the periods of 1990-2000, the heating season to assess air pollution level. It
was found that emission values of SO2 and PM had increased dramatically until
1994–1995 winter season; emission values of both pollutants are maximum in 1992–
1993 winter periods. Air quality concentrations of SO2 and PM10 were also found in
parallel with emission values of these pollutants. The decreases in emission of
pollutants were explained in this manner that after 1995, both emissions and air
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LITERATURE REVIEW
quality values of sulphur dioxide and particulate matter were decreased by using high
quality coal instead of low quality lignite.
Salam et al. (2008) also monitored the status of gaseous pollutant in greater
Dhaka. The overall average value of SO2 at five sampling locations in Dhaka was 48
µg/m3, which was very close to the annual average of the World Health
Organization’s (WHO) guideline values for the European Union (WHO 2000: 50
µg/m3). The highest concentration (76.8 µg/m3) of SO2 was found in the commercial
and heavy traffic areas (BCIC Bhaban, Motijheel), and the lowest concentration (20.7
µg/m3) was found in the semi-urban area (Jahangirnagar University campus, Savar).
The elevated concentration of SO2 in the city centre was probably due to the high
content of sulphur in fossil fuel. The highest concentration of NO2 (40 µg/m3) was
found at Medinava hospital, Dhanmondi site, with medium traffic, whereas the lowest
concentration (5.0 µg/m3) was found at Jahangirnagar University, Savar, a semiurban
location.
The concentrations of SO2 were strongly affected by weather conditions and

varied distinctively with seasons. The concentrations of SO2 were higher in winter
(heating period) because of the burning of high-sulphur coal and lower in summer
than other seasons. In contrast, as a result of industrial pollution controls, in recent
years, the concentration of SO2 during summer in Beijing had been cut down
obviously. The photochemical reaction activity leaded to an obvious decrease of NOx
(NO and NO2) in the daytime (Wang et al., 2008).
According to Ali and Athar (2008) the concentration of nitrogen dioxide was
found in range of 0.02–0.08 ppm in Pakistan. The reason for high concentration of
NO2 at this location could be the presence of large chemical manufacturing plant
adjacent to the road. The nitrogen dioxide concentration at some sampling locations
was higher than USEPA limit of 0.05 ppm, while at some location it was very well
within limit of USEPA ambient air quality standards. Similarly the concentration of
sulphur dioxide was found in the range of 0.02–0.07 ppm and concentrations at all the
sampling locations were within limits of USEPA ambient air quality standards. The
concentration of sulphur dioxide was found highest at a sampling point where it was
in range of 0.05–0.07 ppm due to presence of industrial activity near the road. Traffic-
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LITERATURE REVIEW
related air pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx) were monitored near major roads at
10 sites in Japan by Naser et al. (2009).
2.2.2 Literature review on other gaseous pollutants (CO and O3)
National level: Verma et al. (2003) had also worked on O3 being a secondary
pollutant. They found that O3 did not show any linear correlation with the traffic
density. Measurements of the aerosol number concentration and the PM10 mass
concentrations of urban background aerosols in different seasons were performed by
Monkkonen et al. (2004) in New Delhi 2002, including the simultaneous
measurements of NO2, SO2 and CO concentrations.
Surface ozone had been measured at Tranquebar (11° N, 79.9° E), a tropical
rural coastal site on the East coast (the Bey of Bengal) of Southeast India, during the
period from May 1997 to October 2000 by Debaje et al. (2003). The measurements
showed that there existed a significant diurnal cycle of average O3 with a maximum
concentration (33±4ppbv) in the afternoon and average minimum O3 (11±2 ppbv) at
sunrise. O3 also was found to have higher concentration (23±9 ppbv) in May and
lower concentrations (17±7 ppbv) in October at this site.
Satsangi et al. (2004) estimated the seasonal and diurnal variation of surface
ozone with a preliminary analysis of excellence of its critical levels at a semiarid site
of India. They found that monthly average O3 mixing ratios ranged between 8 to 40
ppb with an annual average of 21 ppb. They also found that O3 exposure in their study
were lower than the critical level of O3 and suggested that the level O3 had not any
impact on reduction in crop yields.
Pulikesi et al. (2006) had investigated the concentrations of surface ozone

(O3), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS) and wind
direction (WD) during the summer of 2005 at five sites in Chennai. The study had
dealt with the characteristics of hourly and daily mean surface O3 under different
climatic conditions, such as temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and wind
direction and other pollutant concentrations. The maximum hourly O3 concentration
reached 53 ppb on 17th May. The ground-level O3 concentration in Chennai varied
between 2 and 53 ppb. The concentration of NOx and O3 were below the prescribed
limits. The mean O3 concentration in all sites had been observed to be higher in the
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LITERATURE REVIEW
wind flow from SSE and S than that of the SSW and WSW. It had also been observed
that surface O3 concentration increased with the increase in temperature and
decreased with increase in relative humidity.
Beig et al. (2007) observed surface ozone (O3) with its precursors namely,
carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) simultaneously on diurnal scale
at Pune. According to their findings the maximum ozone reached as high as 85–90
ppbv during February, where as minimum of 10- 15 ppbv was observed during the
monsoon month of August. They revealed that a time lag of 5-7 hour was required for
most of these precursor gases to photochemically produce ozone to its maximum
potential.
Reddy et al. [2008(b)] made an attempt to examine the governing

photochemical processes of surface ozone (O3) formation in rural site. For this
purpose, measurements of surface ozone and selected meteorological parameters had
been monitored at Anantapur, a semi-arid zone in India from January 2002 to
December 2003. The annual average diurnal variation of O3 showed maximum
concentration 46 ppbv at noon and minimum 25 ppbv in the morning. The average
seasonal variation of ozone mixing ratios were observed to be maximum (about 60
ppbv) during summer and minimum (about 22 ppbv) in the monsoon period. The
monthly daytime and night time average surface ozone concentration showed a
maximum (55 ±7 ppbv; 37±7.3 ppbv) in March and minimum (28±3.4 ppbv; 22±2.3
ppbv) in August during the study period. The monthly average high O3 was observed
at noon in March was due to the possible increase in precursor gas concentration by
anthropogenic activity and the influence of meteorological parameters. Mixing ratio
of ozone started increasing at about 7:30 am and it reached a maximum value at about
4:00 pm. The ozone variation was not only controlled by solar radiation, but also by
dynamics. Favourable conditions for photochemical O3 production were high
temperature, high intensity of solar radiation, and sufficiently high concentrations of
NO (Naja and Lal, 2002). Surface temperature was highest (43- 44°C) during March
and April months leading to higher photochemical production. On the other hand,
relative humidity (RH), which was higher during the rainy season, showed negative
correlation with temperature and ozone mixing ratio.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The surface level measurements of O3, CO, CH4 and light non methane
hydrocarbons (NMHCs) were made at eight different rural sites in the central part of
India during February, 2004 by Lal et al. [2008(a)]. They reported that the average
mixing ratios of O3, which were in the range of 60–90 ppbv, were significantly higher
compared to the typical values reported for urban sites of India. Emission
characteristics of ozone related stress gases at a semi urban site in the Indo-Gangetic
plain was studied by Lal et al. [2008(b)]. In their study elevated levels of O3 were
observed when CO and NOx were in the range of 200-300 ppbv and 20-30 ppbv
respectively.
Carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and black carbon (BC) aerosol mass
concentrations were analysed from January–December, 2008 over tropical urban
environment of Hyderabad. Higher concentration of BC, CO and ozone was observed
during premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter and lowest concentrations exhibited
during monsoon season (Badarinath et al., 2009).
International level: It was well known fact that O3 forming capacity due to precursor
emissions was highly dependent on the amount of NO2 and HC (Altshuler et al., 1995;
Berastegi et al., 2001; Jiang et al., 1997) and both of these precursors were closely
related to traffic (Mayer, 1999; Cardelino and Chameides, 1995). Pitts and Pitts
(1997) estimated the tropospheric air pollution. A complex VOC-NOx chemistry for
O3 control was discussed in this study. In addition OH, NO3 and O3 were shown to
play a central role in the formation and fate of air borne toxic chemicals, mutagenic
PAH and fine particles.
Oh et al. (1999) worked on the prediction of ozone formation in air pollution.

They intended to test the performance of the ozone formation prediction schemes. The
prediction results of ozone formation were compared to the real data. From the
comparison it could be seen that the prediction scheme based on the parameter
estimation method gave a reasonable accuracy with limited prediction horizon.
Analyses of seasonal and diurnal variations in CO, NO and NO2

concentrations were presented by Shahgedanova et al. (1999). Meteorological
conditions during an intense pollution episode were analysed in the context of the
characteristics of the main sources of pollution. The occurrence of high levels of CO
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LITERATURE REVIEW
concentrations was associated with high pressure systems, surface based inversions
and low wind speeds. High concentrations of NO2 were caused by fumigation of the
surface with pollutants emitted by power plants.
Diem and Comrie (2001) made an attempt to allocate anthropogenic pollutant

emissions over space toward managing ozone pollutions. The two precursors of
ground level ozone viz. VOC and NOx were estimated in this study. The resulting
inventory revealed that on road motor vehicles account for approximately 50 % of
VOC and NOx emissions annually. An on-road motor vehicles and residential wood
combustion were the largest VOC sources in the summer and winter months
respectively.
Bhugwant and Bremaud (2001) had measured ozone and NOx variability along
with Black Carbon and PM10. NOx and PM10 particles were anti-correlated with
ozone, with noticeable ozone destruction during peak hours (mean ~ 6 and 9 ppbv at 7
am and 8 am respectively) when NOx and PM10 concentrations had exhibited
maximum values.
Rizk et al. (2002) had analysed the pesticide impact on air quality especially
surface ozone. In this study it was found that different pesticide’s had potentiality to
ozone formation in troposphere. As for example, organo-phosphorous insecticides
(Dimithocite) were found that its decomposition and degradation in the environment
may be an effective hydrocarbon precursor for surface ozone.
Langmann and Baur (2002) had worked on ozone modelling. In this study, the
impacts of background concentration of O3 on regional scale model results were
analyzed during the summer smog episode in Europe. It was found that depending on
the weather situation, moderately modified assumptions of background O3
concentrations revealed an uncertainty of near surface O3 concentration of 5-15 %.
Throughout the world, several attempts are made to predict the tropospheric
Ozone. Luis et al. (2003) had worked in Mexico City in the year 2003. They
attempted to find the liquefied petroleum gas effect on ozone formation. In this
experimental study of outdoor smog chamber was carried out to determine effects of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) on maximum ozone. 60 % additions of commercial
LPG and 60 % propane / 40 % butane mixture of the initial concentration were
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LITERATURE REVIEW
introduced into eight smog chambers containing morning ambient air of Mexico city
metropolitan area (MCMA). The final results showed that by increasing 60 % of the
associated compounds to LPG in the air of MCMA or diminishing 50 % of them, had
not an appreciable influence. The largest effect on ozone formation is determined by
total no methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) contained in the atmosphere, being the
maximum of ozone formed in the smog chambers, on the average it diminished a 55
%.
Stroud et al. (2004) investigated the ozone budget and its dependence on
nitrogen oxides and the production rate of free radicals. Photochemical Box model
was applied to calculate local ozone production and loss rates for the arctic free
troposphere. This model derived that ozone production rates was increased by a factor
of 28 in the 1 - 3 km layer and a factor of 7 in the 3- 6 km layer between February and
May. Gross ozone production rates were calculated to increase linearly with NOx
mixing ratios up to ~ 300 pptv in February and for NOx mixing ratios up to ~ 500 pptv
in May.
Edwards et al. (2004) in USA had investigated O3 exposures and implications

for vegetation in rural areas of central Appalachian Mountains, USA. Response of
vegetation to ozone in these areas was determined using the combination of W126
values (sigmoidally weighted exposure index), the number of hours that average
concentrations≥0.01ppm (N100), and the presence of moderate or more extreme
droughts. In general, W126 and N100 values suggested that negative vegetation
growth responses over most of the 12 year would have been minimal for most sites,
even for those exceeding ozone standards.
The strong spatial and temporal variability of traffic-related air pollution

roadside was monitored by Vardoulakis et al. (2005). It was found that the highest CO
and NOx concentrations during recent years were seen in the region of Paris.
In greater Dhaka CO values varied between industrial, urban and semi-urban

sites. The highest concentration (334 µg/m3) of CO was observed at the industrial site
(Novarties, Tejgaon), whereas the lowest value (42 µg/m3) was found in the semi-
urban area (Jahangirnagar University, Savar). The highest concentration of CO at the
industrial sites was presumably due to the incomplete conversion of fossil fuel during
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LITERATURE REVIEW
different mechanical and industrial processes. The total average concentrations of CO
and O3 were 166.0 and 28 µg/m3, respectively. The total average O3 concentration
was also much lower than the daily maximum values established by WHO 9average
of 100 µg/m3 for an 8-h sample) (Salam et al., 2008).
According to Wang et al. (2008) the peak value of O3 appeared between 11am
and 6 pm local time (maximum appears at 2 pm local time) when the solar radiation
was extremely high in the daytime in Beijing.
In Pakistan Ali and Athar (2008) had found the results of carbon monoxide
were in range of 1.5- 6.1 ppm that was within permissible limit of USEPA Ambient
air quality standards. The comparison of CO at nine locations showed that the highest
values were seen at a site where traffic congestion and volume of traffic was high.
The daily average concentration of CO was 2.25 mg/m3 with the range of
0.72×3.46 mg/m3, which was lower than the National Ambient Air Quality Standard
(Wang et al., 2008).
In Spain the analysis of tropospheric ozone concentration was done by Castell

et al. (2008). They had studied temporal and spatial variations of ozone at different
scales; daily, weekly, seasonally and annually. In this study the link between elevated
ozone concentrations and high values of the recirculation factors (r = 0.7 - 0.9) had
shown the importance of recirculation flows on the local air pollution episodes.
Shipboard measurements of nitrogen dioxides, nitrous acid, nitric acid and

Ozone in eastern Mediterranean sea was done by Vecera et al. (2008). This study
revealed the importance of nitrous and nitric acids for the transport of nitrogen of
marine biota in busy ship lanes. Castellano et al. (2009) identified NOx and O3
episodes to estimate ozone by statistical analysis. Ozone concentration had been
forecasted by time series modelling.
Hosseinibalam et al. (2010) analysed and assessed the ground-level ozone

measured at two stations in Tehran. Ozone as a pollutant showed typical annual,
weekly and diurnal cycles. This study had shown that the ozone level concentrations
were below the WHO guidelines in Tehran during 2000- 2003. It was also found that
the diurnal cycles of O3 were typical for stations that were strongly influenced by
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LITERATURE REVIEW
motor traffic. The research indicated that the ozone level was also affected (positively
or negatively) by meteorological conditions, e.g. relative humidity, solar radiation,
temperature, wind speed and wind direction.
2.3 Literature review on application of principal components

analysis (PCA) and factor analysis for predicting the sources of air
pollution
Factor analysis and principal component analysis have a wider application in

identifying the major source of air pollution. From the literature it is found that these
sources are varied from place to place. However, mainly different anthropogenic
activities like industrial process, transpiration activities, bio mass burning, coal
combustion etc and some natural source like soil resuspension are major contributor
of gaseous as well as particulate pollution. The literatures are as follows.
Principal components analysis (PCA) was used for the investigation of an air
pollutants data base. The data set were made of nearly 400 measurements of 26
gaseous organic compounds and meteorological data. The measurements were carried
out at four different places in Netherlands. PCA was considered as a simple way to
display visually most of the total variation in a few dimensions. It was also considered
very helpful in the identification and recognition of sources and the investigation of
meteorological effects (Verbek et al., 1984).
Balachandran et al. (2000) had applied principle component analysis (PCA) in

their research work in order to identify the major sources of fine and coarse fraction
of PM10. Three major sources were identified, namely vehicular emissions, industrial
emission and soil resuspension for particulate pollution and heavy metal present in it.
Factor analysis was also carried out using the measured elements and had
identified soil and sea salt spray as the main sources for the SPM at all the floors in
Mumbai (Tripathi et al., 2004). Khillare et al. (2004) had applied principal component
analysis (PCA) and found vehicular traffic and industrial emission as the major
contributors of metals in Delhi. According to Kaplunovsky (2005) properties of factor
analysis were a robust method of investigation of pollution source in environmental
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LITERATURE REVIEW
studies. These properties were considered and discussed on the examples of using
methods of factor analysis in air, water and land ecological systems.
Factor analysis was applied by Weiwei et al. (2006) to the datasets focusing on
the apportionment of the mass of selected trace metals. Results indicated that Pb, Cd
and As had a common source (smelting) at both sites, whereas the sources of Ni
varied from coal combustion and steel in Changqian to mineral and traffic in Hankou.
Gupta et al. (2008) had applied principal component analysis. Three factors
were drawn out of the seven variables, which represent 84 % of the variance. The
results showed that local emissions dominated the concentration of SO2, NO2, NH3
and PM10. The major sources of emissions affecting this urban area included mobile
sources along with contributions from industrial sources, coal-fired power plants and
domestic heating.
According to Kulshrestha et al. (2009) principal component analysis revealed

that source of pollution were resuspension of road dust due to vehicular activities,
solid waste incineration and industrial emission at urban site whereas resuspension of
soil dust due to vehicular emission, construction activities and wind blown dust
carrying industrial emission, were common sources at rural site.
2.4 Literature review on application of air quality index (AQI) in

monitoring of air pollution
A few research works is applied to calculate the air quality index value of air
pollutants. The advantage of calculation of AQI is that it takes account the impact of
several air pollutants instead of individual one. So, the total picture with respect to all
the monitored parameters is indicated by specific value corresponding to them.
However, from the literature it is found that there are several methods in calculation
of index value apart from AQI like VST, ORAQI etc. The qualitative value of AQI is
also varied from place to place as well as zone to zone. The literature review
corresponding to AQI is as follows.
AQI was prepared by Verma et al. (2003). They found only one site as “very
clean” where as “fairly clean” and “moderately polluted” category had covered the
entire monitoring sites in Lucknow. Mouli et al. (2004) collected data on air
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LITERATURE REVIEW
pollutants and meteorological variables for the four cities in India including Delhi for
the period July-August 2001 and proposed an air quality index.
Reddy et al. (2004) worked on indices basis on three main criteria pollutants
i.e. suspended particulate matter (SPM), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) in Visakhapatnam. They used the Oak Ridge Air Quality Index (ORAQI)
which was found to be most useful in depicting ambient air quality into single index
number and also to meet the criteria of uniform air quality index. Calculated indices
revealed that, in winter as well as in summer, most of the locations experienced poor
or bad air quality, which was mainly due to higher concentration of SPM and certain
extent of SO2 values. The overview of Visakhapatnam air quality status at different
locations of the city were in descriptive categories viz. excellent, good, fair, poor, bad
or dangerous for winter, summer and postmonsoon seasons.
Kaushik et al. (2006) assessed the ambient air quality status in the fast
growing urban centres of Haryana state, India. The samples were collected for total
suspended particulate matter (TSPM), respirable suspended particulate matter (PM10),
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) during different seasons from
eight districts of Haryana during January, 1999 to September, 2000. Air Quality Index
(AQI) prepared for these cities showed that residential, sensitive and commercial
areas were moderately to severely pollute which was a cause of concern for the
residents of these cities. The high levels of TSPM and SO2 especially in winter were
of major health concern because of their synergistic action. The ambient air
concentration of TSPM was observed more than the stipulated standard values at
almost all the sites. Gaseous pollutants (SO2 and NO2) were found below the
permissible limits at all the centres except a few sites. The levels of SO2 during the
year 2000 sampling period were well below the permissible limit at all the sites. The
SO2 concentrations in the ambient air in cities of developed countries had mostly
decreased in the last two or three decades, due to strict emission control, increased use
of low sulphur fuel and industrial restructuring. The residential, commercial and
industrial areas in all the cities exhibited lower concentration whereas sensitive
locations in few cities exhibited higher levels of NO2 compared to the prescribed
limits. The high NO2 levels and its increasing trend were observed in cities with high
vehicular activity. Seasonal comparison of SO2 and NO2 levels showed a higher value
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LITERATURE REVIEW
in winter than observed in premonsoon and postmonsoon seasons. TSPM, PM10, SO2
and NO2 level in this study had been used to calculate AQI. The higher value of an
index referred to a greater level of air pollution and consequently greater health risks.
The AQI revealed that the residential, sensitive and commercial areas were
moderately to severely polluted (AQI 50–125) whereas the industrial areas, on an
average, lie in the range of fairly clean (AQI 25–50) to moderately polluted (AQI 50–
75) except the industrial area in Yamunanagar, which was moderately to heavily
polluted.
According to results of Sing (2006) the air quality monitoring in their study
area showed that the concentration levels of SPM and PM10 exceeded the NAAQS at
most of the sampling stations while concentration levels of NOx and SO2 were found
to be much below the NAAQS. Air Quality Depreciation Index had been applied to
the observed data. This undoubtedly visualised the deterioration in the air quality in
the coal mining areas of Korba coalfields. Depreciation in air quality from the most
desired value of ‘0’ was clearly apparent as the air quality depreciation index
(AQdep) values at all the locations are less than −3.0. The highest AQdep value was
calculated at Jhagrha Village (−3.439) which was selected as reference station.
Flemming et al. (2005) had tried to demarcate air quality classification scheme
for observed ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
particulate matter (PM10) time series in Germany. Six (O3 and NO2) and five (SO2 and
PM10) different regimes were identified by means of hierarchical clustering. The
stability of the clusters in relation to variable scaling and transformation was ensured
by a cross-validation test based on re-sampling. They presented a classification of AQ
data into different regimes for O3, NO2, SO2 and PM10. The O3 classification
distinguished between ‘mountain/costal’, ‘rural’, ‘suburban’,‘urban’,‘urban-
street’and‘street’ regimes. For NO2, a particular ‘mountain’ regime did not exist, but,
in addition to the ‘street’ regime, a ‘severe-traffic’ regime was introduced to allow for
the wide range of high mean concentrations at sites that are strongly influenced by
traffic.
Giri et al. (2006) had categorized the ambient air quality in Kathmandu
according to the MOPE. In Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE)
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LITERATURE REVIEW
had categorized five different types of air quality categories based on levels of PM10.
The categories prescribed were in the range: 0 - 60 µg/m3 as “Good”, 60 - 120 µg/m3
as “Moderate”, 121 - 350 µg/m3 as “Unhealthy”, 351 - 425 µg/m3 as “Very
Unhealthy” and >425 µg/m3 as “Hazardous”. In Matsyagaon most of the observations
were under good category (< 60 µg/m3) and the PM10 level only occasionally
exceeded the national standard. Percentage of observations falling under unhealthy
category (121 -350 µg/m3) were high in Thamel (51.5 %), Patan Hospital (77.1 %)
and Putalisadak (77.7 %). In these monitoring stations a few observations even
exceeded very unhealthy category (351-425 µg/m3). It could be assumed that the
difference in the observed concentrations could mostly be attributed to the traffic. Due
to the rapid growth of industrial activities, population and traffic density, people in
Kathmandu were facing serious air pollution problems.
Mohan and Kandya (2007) had used Air Quality Index (AQI) which is an
index for reporting daily air quality in Delhi. They made an attempt to quantify the
changes in the AQI on annual and seasonal (winter, summer, monsoon and
postmonsoon) basis for 9 years. A shift in worst AQI season from winter to summer
was noted. There was also an increase in NO2 concentration at all sites from 2000
onwards.
Ali and Athar (2008) had found in Pakistan that in terms of AQI the carbon
monoxide varied from good to moderate (B to C) at three sections, and at majority of
the location it was B (Good). In terms AQI rating the air quality for NO2 at some
location was from poor to very poor, while at other location it was in the range of
good. Comparison of data with AQI levels the air quality for SO2 was in range of A–E
and at some locations while it was from moderate to poor and very good to good (A to
B) at another locations. Comparison of PM10 with AQI levels the quality of ambient
air was very poor (E) at all the locations. The extent of the increased particulate
matter was dependent upon traffic volume, length of delays and meteorological
conditions (wind direction and speed). The source of PM10 in additions to traffic
exhausts the thickly populated, loss of vegetation and soil characteristics.
In Delhi Jain and Khare (2008) had worked on the air quality management
(AQM) which included monitoring, modelling and control of air emissions to
[44]
LITERATURE REVIEW
eliminate or limit its impact on surrounding environment. The total vulnerable score
(VST) was obtained from the expression of Ghose et al. (2004). On basis of
vulnerable index seven monitoring sites in Delhi (from 1997 to 2004) revealed that
the situation of air pollution with respect to CO, NO2, SO2, RSPM, SPM, Pb was
medium to low category.
Khamdan et al. (2009) used the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis (KW) test

which showed significant spatial variations and interactions of spatial-temporal
among five mobile monitoring stations for 11 air pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, NH3,
CO, SO2, H2S, O3, benzene, toluene and p-xylene) in winter and spring in the
Kingdom of Bahrain. KW mean rank for PM10 showed a clear spatial-temporal
variation among site-season groups (χ2 = 202, df = 8, p <0.000). The MW test further
indicated significant difference between spring and winter (U = 35,537.5, Z = −11.7,
p < 0.000). KW mean rank for PM 2.5 exhibited significant spatial variation (χ2 =
184.7, df = 9, p < 0.000) and the MW test resulted significant seasonal variation
between spring and winter (U= 46,523.5, Z = −11.9, p <0.000). The KW mean rank
for Ozone and NH3 showed a clear spatial variation among sites (χ2 = 317.3, df = 8, p
<0.000) and (χ2 = 487.9, df = 8, p < 0.000) respectively. Predominant sources of NH3
were animal husbandry and fertilizer application. KW mean rank for benzene and
toluene showed a clear spatial variation among sites. KW mean rank for H2S showed
a clear spatial variation among sites (χ2 = 101.5, df = 8, p < 0.000). NO2, O3 and SO2
showed exceedance above the standards and guidelines values.
2.5 Literature review on application of GIS in mapping of air

pollution
GIS has become a useful tool in air pollution study. It helps in comprehensive
manner to understand the scenario of air pollution in city by generating a thematic
map. In this way it is evident from the literature that proper management strategies
can be taken with the help of his data base management system. A few mentionable
research works on application of GIS are as follows.
A series of extensions was built by Matejicek (2005) into the GIS to adapt its
functionality. As examples, the spatial models of a flat urban area and a street canyon
with extensive traffic polluted with NOx were constructed. The sources of air
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LITERATURE REVIEW
pollution were mapped into a few categories according to the volume of pollution.
Their locations and shapes (in case of the line and area sources) together with the
attributes were stored in separate themes. Influential sources of pollution, among
others, were represented by NOx (mostly traffic-related air pollution mapped as the
line sources) and SO2 (mostly stationary air pollution registered as the point sources).
Some other works were previously done by Jensen (1998) in mapping human
exposure to traffic air pollution by using GIS. In case of large scale air quality
modelling, more detailed spatial data were needed to include the impact of buildings
and other manmade barriers on the distribution of air pollutants (Janour, 1999).
Pummakarnchana et al. (2005) aimed to build up an easy monitoring system

using low cost portable gas sensing systems ‘solid state gas sensors’ so as to carry out
air pollution monitoring over an extensive area and to be able to report real time air
quality data through wireless internet GIS. Later all this modelling can be referred to
as an air pollution monitoring system.
Weng and Yang (2006) had investigated the relationship of local air pollution
pattern with urban land use and with urban thermal landscape using a GIS approach.
Ambient air quality measurements for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, total suspended particles and dust level were obtained for Guangzhou City
in South China between 1981 and 2000. Results showed that the spatial patterns of air
pollutants probed were positively correlated with urban built-up density and with
satellite derived land surface temperature values, particularly with measurements
taken during the summer. Because of the locations of industrial plants, high
population density, clustering of catering industry and low air flushing rates, two
urban localities (namely, Liwan and Yuanchun) became the pollution hubs of SO2,
dust and other pollutants. In case of SO2 the intra-year variation was characterized a
higher level of concentration in the winter months and a lower level in the summer
months. The level of SO2 concentration was largely related to the industrial use of
coal as a major energy source and the use of coal combustion for cooking and heating
in catering industry and households. The spatial pattern of NOx concentration was
highly correlated with the pattern of the city’s transportation network. TSP
concentration was always higher than 0.25 mg/m3, with some “spots” bearing even
higher levels of concentrations. CO concentration was found relatively stable during
[46]
LITERATURE REVIEW
3
the observed years, ranging from 2.0 to 3.16 mg/m . The study demonstrated that GIS
was effective in examining the spatial pattern of air pollution and its association with
urban built-up density. Positive correlation between the concentrations of the
pollutants probed and satellite derived land surface temperature (LST) values,
particularly with the summer LST map, indicated that both ambient air quality and
LST were associated with land use. This linkage was apparently complex, given the
fact that it involved multiple variables and varied with the environmental and socio-
economic settings of cities under investigation.
Afshar and Delavar (2007) did a GIS-based air pollution modelling in Tehran.
In this research a prediction model had been developed for air pollution in 2004 using
the data of 2002 and 2003. Additionally by using the method of local contribution to
concentration in canyon streets, the concentration of both CO and NO2 at each month
and for six highways of Tehran and for each vehicle was calculated. The prediction
model was a GIS-based model that had taken geometry of the streets and vehicle
numbers.
Song (2008) used GIS mainly for the preprocessing and postprocessing of data
to be displayed in digital map layers and visualized in 3D scenes. Moreover, for
preprocessing and post processing, deterministic and geostatistical methods (ordinary
kriging, IDW, i.e. inverse distance weight) were used for spatial interpolation,
geoprocessing and raster algebra in multi-criteria evaluation and risk assessment
methods. Digital elevation model (DEM) data processed using 3D spatial
interpolation can be a valuable tool for assessing pollutant distribution in space. It can
be used as screening methods to more closely target key areas and to develop more
detailed measuring and modelling strategies. A detailed study on variations of major
air pollutants and daily air pollution index (API) in Causeway Bay area during the
period of 1999–2003 was reported in this research work based on the statistical
analyses, the diurnal variations of SO2, NO2, CO and RSP levels. The monthly
varying processes of main pollutants presented different patterns during the study
period generally with lower levels in summer and higher levels in other seasons.
Ganguly and Broderick (2010) described an assessment of CO predictions at

an urban street canyon site in Ireland using two Gaussian based dispersion models,
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LITERATURE REVIEW
namely STREET and Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM). The monitored CO
profile displayed morning and evening peaks coinciding with periods of maximum
travel demand. The evening peak was higher than the morning peak because traffic
congestion on Pearse Street was worst at this time of day, causing average vehicle
velocities to fall and unit emissions to rise.
2.6 Literature review on meteorological effect on air pollution and

modelling of air pollution data
Air pollution is largely dependent on micrometeorology of a particular place.
As the accumulation and dispersion of air pollutants is dependent on the stability of
the ambient air as well as wind speed and direction. From the literature it is found that
high speed wind in unstable atmosphere dilute the concentration of air pollutants vice
versa. Rainfall is also playing a crucial role. Due to scavenging effect of rain lesser
quantity of air pollutants are found particularly in rainy season. On the other hand
calm and stable atmosphere in winter helps in accumulating air pollutants. A few
mentionable research works are as follows.
Wise and Comrie (2001) analysed PM and O3 data over the time period 1990–
2003 for the South western United States in five metropolitan areas. Filter method
was used by them to determine meteorological effects on PM concentrations and to
separate out those effects in order to examine underlying trends.
Patil (2003) had made a methodology to develop a GIS based air pollution
surface model by using different continuous surface generation techniques. In this
study, different interpolation techniques for mapping the variation of point data over
space had been compared. The methods of spatial prediction used for the study were
some local deterministic interpolation methods such as Thiessen Polygons, Inverse
Distance and Thin Plate Splines.
Ambient air quality data was monitored by Chelani and Devotta (2007) during
2000 to 2003 at 10 sites in Delhi. According to them after introduction of CNG the
temporal variation of air quality data showed the significant effect of shift to CNG
(Compressed Natural Gas) in vehicles.
[48]
LITERATURE REVIEW
Elminir (2005) had investigated the dependence of air pollutants on
meteorology with the aim of understanding the governing processes pollutants phase
interaction. Intensive measurements of particulate matter (PM10) and gaseous
materials (e.g. CO, NO2, SO2 and O3) were monitored regularly in 2002 at 14
measurement sites distributed over the whole territory of Great Cairo by the Egyptian
Environmental Affairs Agency to assess the characteristics of air pollutants. The
correlation coefficient between air pollutant concentrations and relative humidity was
not very high. The lower correlation coefficient for all pollutants illustrated the
competition of two mechanisms: atmospheric dispersion (particles are removed from
contaminated surface air by dry deposition and by wet deposition in precipitation) and
aerosolization from surfaces (emissions of aerosol particles by vehicles travelling on
the city’s narrow roads, industry and resuspended soil dust). The association between
primary pollutants and temperature was found to be weak or insignificant. The
temperature changes did not significantly influence SO2 and NO2 concentrations.
Positive correlation was found between ambient temperature and concentration of
NO2 in July and December. Surface ozone (O3) which is an indicator of photoxidation
processes, showed a clear trend of increasing with temperature. Higher O3
concentrations had been found during spring/summer months and lowest
concentrations were found during winter. Non-availability of sufficient solar radiation
and washout of pollutants resulted in near absence of photochemical ozone production
during this period. Further, rainfall and sky cover, which were higher during winter
showed negative correlation with temperature and surface O3 concentration.
Bahattin et al. (2007) investigated the relation between meteorological factors

and pollutants concentrations in Karabuk City. Due to the heavy industrial
foundations and the usage of low quality coal for heating purposes, air pollution had
been the primary environmental problem in Karabuk. According to the results
obtained from the multiple linear regression analysis, there was not a strong
relationship between the meteorological factors and the SO2 and PM concentrations in
urban Karabuk. The major reason for this condition was that the city was surrounded
by mountains and hills. The wind speed also was not high enough to transport the
pollution away from the city atmosphere.
[49]
LITERATURE REVIEW
Akpinar et al. (2008) studied the relationship between monitored air pollutant
concentrations such as SO2 and the total suspended particles (TSP) data and
meteorological factors such as wind speed, temperature, relative humidity, solar
radiation and atmospheric pressure. They investigated all these parameters in the
months of October, November, December, January, February and March during the
period of 3 years (2003, 2004 and 2005) for Elazıg city. It can be seen from the
findings that both SO2 and TSP concentrations were slightly decreased with
increasing wind speed. This situation showed that when wind speed was high,
pollutants diluted by dispersion. The volume and dilution of the polluted air were
mainly controlled by wind speed and its directions. It was seen that wind speed was
more effective on SO2 concentration than that of TSP concentration. Both SO2 and
TSP concentrations were decreased with increasing temperature. TSP concentrations
were increased with increasing relative humidity. According to the results of linear
and non-linear regression analysis, it was found that there was a moderate and weak
level of relation between the air pollutant concentrations and the meteorological
factors in Elazıg city. The maximum SO2 and TSP values were in January-February
months, which were the coldest months of the year in Elazıg city.
Bhaskar et al. (2008) had monitored the PM10 and Pb in Madurai. The
observed PM10 concentrations varied from 88.1 to 226.9 µg/m3 and lead
concentrations ranged between 0.21 to 1.18 µg/m3. The concentrations of the
pollutants were mostly below the Indian air quality standards and were generally
comparable with those concentrations observed in most other Indian urban areas. And
added to that AERMOD model was validated simultaneously by comparing the
predicted levels with the estimated levels of PM10. A dispersion model was used by
Venkatram et al. (2007) to estimate the impact of traffic emissions on air quality
beside highway located in Raleigh, NC.
Ilten and Selici (2008) had worked on relationship between air pollutants
particularly TSP and SO2 and meteorological parameters viz. wind speed,
temperature, relative humidity and pressure. According to their results obtained
through the analysis, higher TSP and SO2 concentrations were strongly related to
colder temperatures, lower wind speed, higher atmospheric pressure and higher
relative humidity.
[50]
LITERATURE REVIEW
Azmi et al. (2010) had monitored the trend and status of air quality and their
correlation with the meteorological factors at different air quality monitoring stations
in the Klang Valley. Five major air pollutants (PM10, CO, SO2, O3 and NO2) were
investigated. The major outcome of their findings revealed that the concentrations of
PM10 and O3 were predominantly related to regional tropical factors, such as the
influence of biomass burning and of ultra violet radiation from sunlight.
A non-steady point source of pollution at a known location in the atmosphere

was applied by Kathirgamanathan et al. (2004). Their goal was to build up an inverse
model capable of finding the release history of atmospheric pollution by using
measured gas concentration data at just one location on the ground and identify the
factors which affect the accuracy of the model predictions.
There were so many studies dealing with annual trends for couple of years
over Delhi such as the work by Aneja et al. (2001). They studied the criteria
pollutants over Delhi and compared the trends with US standards.
An ambient air quality study was undertaken by Zabalza (2007) in two cities
(Pamplona and Alsasua) of the province of Navarre in northern Spain from July 2001
to June 2004. The ambient levels of PM10, ozone, NOx and SO2 were measured. Mean
annual PM10 concentrations in Pamplona and Alsasua reached 30 and 28 µg/m3,
respectively. The mean O3 concentrations were 45 and 55 µg /m3 in Pamplona and
Alsasua, respectively which were above the values reported for the main Spanish
cities. The mean NO and NO2 levels were very similar in both sites (12 and 26 µg/m3,
respectively). Mean SO2 levels were 8 µg/m3 in Pamplona and 5 µg/m3in Alsasua.
Hourly levels of PM10, NO and NO2 showed similar variations with the typically two
coincident maximums during traffic rush hours demonstrating a major anthropogenic
origin of PM10, in spite of the sporadic dust outbreaks.
Sivaramasundaram and Muthusubramanian (2010) found that wind speed was

the most important meteorological factor affecting the concentrations of the pollutants
of interest. Higher concentrations of RSPM were observed in the summer seasons.
The TSPM concentrations were relatively lower in the postmonsoon seasons. This
was due to the fact that in the postmonsoon season, higher relative humidity prevailed
[51]
LITERATURE REVIEW
in the atmosphere which could make the particulate to coagulate and to become
heavier thereby helping in quick settling.
Criteria pollutants (NO2, SO2, CO, PM2.5 and PM10) were monitored by
Biswas et al. (2011) in Delhi. The major findings were that the annual ratios of
CO/NOx were considerably higher than SO2/NOx confirming that vehicular source
emissions were the primary contributors to air pollution in Delhi.
A brief overview of all these studies is given below in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of major review work in the said research field
SL. Author Year Journal / thesis/ book/ Focus area of the study
No. conference/ website
1 Altshuller 1976 J Air Pollut Control Transformation of sulphur

Assoc dioxide to sulphates
2 Sandberg et al. 1976 J Air Pollut Control Sulphate and nitrate

Assoc particulates
3 Lum et al. 1982 Environ Technol Lett Heavy metals in urban

particulate matter
4 Verbek et al. 1984 Atmos Environ PCA for organic air

pollutants
5 Goyal and Singh 1990 Atmos Environ Sulphur dioxide
6 Kato and 1992 Atmos Environ SO2 and NOx

Akimoto
7 Pandis et al. 1992 Atmos Environ Heterogeneous sulphate

production in an urban fog
8 Valeroso and 1992 Atmosfera Variations of gaseous and

Monteverde particulate matter
9 Dockery et al. 1993 New Eng J Med Air pollution and mortality
10 Altshuler et al. 1995 J Air Waste Manage Ambient ozone

Assoc
11 Cardelino and 1995 J Air Waste Manage Model for analysing ozone
Chameides Assoc precursor relationships
12 Negi et al. 1996 Environ Monit Assess Heavy metals and

particulate matter
[52]
LITERATURE REVIEW
13 Jiang et al. 1997 Atmos Environ Sensitivity of ozone to

VOC and NOx emissions
14 Pitts and Pitts 1997 Science Ozone and PAH pollution
15 Hlavay et al. 1998 Analyst Heavy metals in

particulate matter
16 Jensen 1998 J Haz Mat GIS application in air

pollution
17 Kulshrestha et al. 1998 J Atmos Chem Chemical characteristics

of aerosols
18 Clarke et al. 1999 Sci Total Environ Particle size and chemical
composition
19 Janour et al. 1999 Analyst Simulation of air pollution
20 Mayer 1999 Atmos Environ Air pollution in cities
21 Oh et al. 1999 Korean J Chem Eng Ozone formation in air

pollution
22 Shahgedanova et 1999 Water Air Soil Pollut CO, NO and NO2

al.
23 Vakeva et al. 1999 Atmos Environ Aerosol particles and

gaseous pollutants
24 Balachandran et 2000 Environ Int PM10, Pb, Cd, Mn, Cr,

al. PCA
25 Mondal et al. 2000 Atmos Environ NOx
26 Aneja et al. 2001 Environ Modell Criteria pollutants

software
27 Berastegi et al. 2001 Atmos Environ Long-term changes of

ozone and traffic
28 Bhugwant and 2001 Atmos Chem Black carbon, PM10, O3

Brémaud and NOx
29 Chelani et al. 2001 Bull Environ Contam Toxic metals

Toxicol
[53]
LITERATURE REVIEW
30 Dennekamp et al. 2001 Occup Environ Med Ultrafine particles and

NOx
31 Diem and Comrie 2001 Environ Manage Ozone pollution

management
32 Garg et al. 2001 Atmos Environ SO2 and NOx
33 Kulshrestha et al. 2001 Curr Sci Water-soluble elements in

atmospheric aerosols
34 Lal and Patil 2001 Environ Monit Assess The behaviour of oxides of
nitrogen
35 Mazzera et al. 2001 Chemosphere PM10 and sulphate aerosol
36 Mulaku and 2001 International Spatial distribution of TSP

Kariuki Conference on Spatial
Information for
Sustainable
Development Nairobi,
Kenya 2–5 October
2001
37 Parashar et al. 2001 Environ Monit Assess Precipitation and aerosol

studies
38 Parmar et al. 2001 Atmos Environ Size distribution of

atmospheric aerosol
39 Querol et al. 2001 Atmos Environ PM10
40 Wise and Comrie 2001 Atmos Environ PM and Ozone
41 Goyal and 2002 Atmos Environ SPM and gaseous

Sidhartha pollutant
42 Jain and Saxena 2002 Environ Monit Assess SPM and gaseous
pollutant
43 Langmann and 2002 Atmos Chem Ozone modelling

Bauer
44 Naja and Lal 2002 J Geophys Res Surface ozone
45 Rizk et al. 2002 Environ Manage Health Pesticide impact on

surface O3
46 Debaje et al. 2003 Atmos Environ Surface O3
[54]
LITERATURE REVIEW
47 Feng et al. 2003 Sci Total Environ Metallic elements of TSP,

PM2.5 and PM2.5–10
48 Gupta et al. 2003 Atmos Environ Measurement of gaseous

and particulate matter
49 Kumar et al. 2003 J Geophys Res Atmospheric dry

deposition
50 Luis et al. 2003 Atmos Environ Liquefied petroleum gas

effect on Ozone formation
51 Mouli et al. 2003 J Haz Mat Major inorganic ion

composition of
atmospheric aerosols
52 Patil 2003 http://faculty.mu.edu.sa GIS based air pollution

/public/uploads/133815 surface modelling
5574.363air-58.pdf
53 Reddy and Ruj 2003 Environ Monit Assess SPM and gaseous
pollutant
54 Sharma et al. 2003 Atmos Environ Atmospheric sulphate

under high PM10
concentration
55 Verma et al. 2003 Bull Environ Contam RSPM and gaseous

Toxicol pollutant, AQI
56 Wong et al. 2003 Atmos Environ Heavy metals
57 Adachi and 2004 Environ Int Heavy metals

Tainosho
58 Edwards et al. 2004 Environ Monit Assess O3 exposures and

implications for vegetation
59 El-Dars et al. 2004 Environ Monit Assess Sulphur dioxide
60 Ghose et al. 2004 Environ Sci Policy Impacts of vehicular

emissions on urban air
quality
61 Kathirgamanatha 2004 Environ Modell Assess Estimation of atmospheric

n et al. pollution from a non-
steady point source
[55]
LITERATURE REVIEW
62 Khillare et al. 2004 Environ Monit Assess SPM and heavy metals,
factor analysis
63 Mohanraj et al. 2004 Arch Environ Contam RSPM, NRSPM and

Toxicol heavy metals
64 Monkkonen et al. 2004 Atmos Environ PM10 and gaseous

pollutant
65 Mouli et al. 2004 Int J Environ Pollut Modelling and quality

indexing
66 Reddy et al. 2004 Environ Monit Assess SPM and gaseous

pollutant, ORAQI
67 Satsangi et al. 2004 J Atmos Chem Ozone and exceedance of

its critical levels
68 Stroud et al. 2004 Atmos Chem Ozone budget and its

dependence on oxides of
nitrogen
69 Tripathi et al. 2004 Atmos Environ Vertical distribution of

atmospheric trace metals,
factor analysis
70 Xiu et al. 2004 Atmos Environ Water soluble inorganic

ions in size fractionated
particulate matters
71 Bhanarkar et al 2005 Atmos Environ SO2 and NO2
72 Flemming et al. 2005 Atmos Environ Air quality classification

scheme
73 Han et al. 2005 Environ Monit Assess Seasonal variation of

chemical composition
74 Elminir 2005 Sci Total Environ Dependence of urban air

pollutants on meteorology
75 Kaplunovsky 2005 HAIT J Sci Eng Factor analysis in

environmental studies
76 Matejicek 2005 Adv Geosci GIS application in air

pollution
77 Pummakarnchana 2005 Sci Technol Adv Mat GIS modelling

et al.
[56]
LITERATURE REVIEW
78 Safai et al. 2005 Aer Air Qual Res Aerosols in two different
winter seasons
79 Sharma and 2005 Atmos Environ Metal composition of

Maloo PM2.5
80 Turalioglu 2005 Environ Monit Assess Sulphur dioxide and

particulate matter
81 Vardoulakis et al. 2005 Atmos Environ Traffic-related air

pollution
82 Giri et al. 2006 Int J Environ Sci PM10, AQI

Technol
83 Gupta and Kumar 2006 Atmos Environ Trend in TSP and PM10
84 Karar et al. 2006 Environ Monit Assess Chromium, zinc, lead,

cadmium, nickel,
manganese, and iron in
PM10
85 Karar and Gupta 2006 Atmos Res Seasonal variations and

chemical characterization
of ambient PM10
86 Kumar and 2006 Environ Monit Assess PM2.5, PM10 , TSP and
Joseph NO2
87 Kumar et al. 2006 Environ Sci Technol Aerosol particle
88 Kaushik et al. 2006 Environ Monit Assess AQI
89 Mouli et al. 2006 Environ Monit Assess Chemical composition of

atmospheric aerosol
90 Nair et al. 2006 Atmos Environ Metal composition of

PM10
91 Pulikesi et al. 2006 J Haz Mat RSPM, TSPM and

gaseous pollutant
92 Singh 2006 Environ Monit Assess SPM ,PM10 and gaseous

pollutant
93 Viana et al. 2006 Chemoshere Chemical characterization

of particulate matter
[57]
LITERATURE REVIEW
94 Weiwei et al. 2006 Environ Geol PM10, As, Cr, Co, Cd, Cu,
Mn, Ni, Pb, V and Zn,
factor analysis
95 Weng and Yang 2006 Environ Monit Assess GIS application in air
pollution
96 Afshar and 2007 Environ Inform Arch A GIS-based air pollution

Delavar modelling
97 Bahattin et al. 2007 GU J Sci The relation between

meteorological factors and
pollutants
98 Beig et al. 2007 J Atmos Chem Simultaneous

measurements of O3 and
its precursors
99 Chelani and 2007 Environ Monit Assess Air quality

Devotta assessment:before and
after CNG
100 Haritash and 2007 Environ Monit Assess Heavy metals in RSPM
Kaushik
101 Kumar et al. 2007 Aer Air Qual Res Characteristics of aerosols
102 Mohan and 2007 Environ Monit Assess AQI

Kandya
103 Perrino et al. 2007 Environ Monit Assess PM10 and PM2.5
104 Sharma et al. 2007 J Atmos Chem Ammonia and PM
105 Tiwari et al. 2007 Atmos Environ Modelling of monsoon

rain chemistry and source
apportionment
106 Venkatram et al. 2007 Atmos Environ Air quality data near
roadways using a
dispersion model
107 Zabalza et al. 2007 Environ Monit Assess Urban atmospheric

pollution
108 Akpinar et al. 2008 Environ Monit Assess Relationship between

meteorological parameters
and air pollutant
[58]
LITERATURE REVIEW
109 Ali and Athar 2008 Environ Monit Assess PM10 and gaseous
pollutant, AQI
110 Bhaskar et al. 2008 Air Qual Atmos Health AERMOD model of PM10
111 Castell et al. 2008 Environ Monit Assess Analysis of tropospheric

O3
112 Gupta et al. 2008 Atmos Res PM10 and gaseous

pollutant, PCA
113 Ilten and Selici 2008 Environ Monit Assess Impacts of some
meteorological parameters
on air pollution
114 Jain and Khare 2008 Environ Monit Assess Vulnerability analysis
115 Kumar et al. 2008 J Earth Syst Sci Chemical characteristics

of aerosols
116 Kuvarega and 2008 Environ Monit Assess Heavy metals in TSP,
Taru PM10 and PM2.5
117 Lal et al. 2008(a) J Atmos Chem O3, CO and NMHCs
118 Lal et al. 2008 (b) Atmos Chem Ozone related trace gases
119 Leilli et al. 2008 Air Quality Atmos TSP and heavy metal
Health
120 Mahmud et al. 2008 Pak J Anal Environ TSP, PM10 and
Chem PM2.5,heavy metals like
lead, copper, zinc and iron
121 Perrino et al. 2008 Environ Monit Assess Particulate matter
122 Reddy et al. 2008(a) J Earth Syst Sci Chemical characteristics

of aerosols
123 Reddy et al. 2008(b) Atmos Chem Surface ozone
124 Salam et al. 2008 Air Qual Atmos Health SPM and PM10, heavy
metal and gaseous
pollutant
125 Song 2008 Remote Sensing and GIS application in air

Spatial Information pollution
Sciences
[59]
LITERATURE REVIEW
126 Vecera et al. 2008 Water Air Soil Pollut Shipboard measurements
of nitrogen dioxide,
nitrous Acid, nitric acid
and O3
127 Wang et al. 2008 Air Qual Atmos Health PM10 and gaseous
pollutant
128 Wu et al. 2008 Bull Environ Contam TSP, Cd, Cr, Pb and Zn
Toxicol
129 Badarinath et al. 2009 J Atmos Chem Carbon monoxide (CO),

ozone (O3) and black
carbon (BC)
130 Castellano et al. 2009 Water Air Soil Pollut Identification of NOx and
O3
131 Khamdan et al. 2009 Environ Monit Assess Kruskal–Wallis (KW) test
for 11 air pollutants
132 Kulshrestha et al. 2009 Sci Total Environ trace metals in PM10 and
PM2.5, PCA
133 Naser et al. 2009 Atmos Environ NOx, PM2.5 and EC
134 Xie et al. 2009 Air Qual Atmos Health PM10
135 Azmi et al. 2010 Air Qual Atmos Health Trend and status of air
quality
136 Bhaskar et al. 2010 Environ Monit Assess Ionic and heavy metal
composition of PM10
137 Ganguly and 2010 Air Qual Atmos Health Estimation of CO

Broderick concentrations
138 Gupta et al. 2010 J Haz Mat Trend analyses of PM10

and heavy metals
139 Kulmatov and 2010 Air Qual Atmos Health Heavy metals in PM
Hojamberdiev
140 Hosseinibalam et 2009 Environ Monit Assess Surface O3

al.
[60]
LITERATURE REVIEW
141 Sivaramasundara 2010 Air Qual Atmos Health PM10 and TSP
m and
Muthusubramani
an
142 Biswas et al. 2011 Atmos Clim Sci Criteria pollutants (NO2,
SO2, CO, PM2.5 and PM10)
[61]
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
In this section, a description of the study area and the sampling sites
are presented. The sampling procedures, followed by a brief
description of the air quality standards and GIS methods are given.
The analytical techniques along with the statistical techniques are also
discussed.
3.1 Description of the study area
B ardhaman the alternative name of Burdwan has been a district capital since the
time of Mughals. Later on it became a district headquarters of British India.
Burdwan is an alternative name for the city, which remains in use since the British
period. The origin of this name dates back to the VI century BCE and is ascribed to
Vardhaman Swami or Mahavira (599-527 BCE), the twenty-fourth Jain Tirthankar.
So, this place is of immense importance for a long era.
3.1.1 Geography: Burdwan is located at 23°.12′ - 23°.15′’N, 87°.48′ - 87°.53′E. It

has an average elevation of 40 metres (131 ft). The city is situated 1100 km from New
Delhi and a little less than 100 km north-west of Kolkata on the Grand Trunk Road
(NH-2) and Eastern Railway. The chief rivers are the Damodar and Banka.
3.2 History the study area
During period of Jahangir this place was named Badh-e-dewan (district

headquarters). The town owes its historical importance to being the headquarters of
the Maharajas of Burdwan. Sadhak Kamalakanta as composer of devotional songs and
Kashiram Das as a poet and translator of the great Mahabharata were possibly the best
products of such an endeavour. The great rebellious poet Kazi Nazrul Islam and Kala-
azar-famed U. N. Brahmachari came of as the relatively recent illustrious sons of this
soil. The town became an important centre of North-Indian classical music as well.
3.2.1 Culture: Burdwan has a multi-cultural heritage. The deuls (temples of rekha
type) found here are reminiscent of Bengali Hindu architecture. The old temples bear
[62]
signs of Hinduism, mostly belonging to the Sakta and Vaishnava followers.
Archeological evidences suggest that this region, forming a major part of radh Bengal,
could be traced even back to 4000 BCE (Source: Wikipedia).
3.3 Burdwan town- at present
Burdwan town is the heart of the Burdwan district. This town is of immense
importance as it is rich in its culture and facilities. The chief educational institutions
are The University of Burdwan, Burdwan Raj College, MUC Womens’ college,
Vivekananda college along with two technical institutes etc. The district hospital i.e.
Burdwan medical college and hospital is also situated in this town. So many
commercial markets and shopping malls are found here. This town is also embedded
with so many modern developments like cinema hall, super markets etc. The largest
health city of Asia is also proposed to be set here. So, a rapid urbanization engulfs this
town with an increasing number of populations opting a better life style/facility day
by day. Now this town is populated by 327937 according to Literacy survey 2008.
3.4 Land use / land cover pattern of the study area
Burdwan Municipality area is divided into 35 no of wards having a total area

of 25.29 square kilometres (sq km). The main land use of the municipality is
dominated by residential area (36.88 %). Though it is a municipality area, but
agriculture is still practiced in few wards. However crop land became dominated land
use in those wards. Rice mill is the major industry of this municipality. Overall 2.51
% and 2.59 % area of Burdwan municipality (Table 3.1) is covered by rice mill
cluster and mixed urban with mill areas. Overall 2.95 % and 2.70 % area of this
municipality is covered by commercial areas and mixed urban with commercial areas
respectively which seems that more commercialization is necessary for future
development related to residential area (Gupta and Roy, 2012).
3.5 The New Burdwan- future scope
Burdwan town (Figure 3.1), the heart of the district is also given much
importance now a day. The Govt. of West Bengal is trying to bring in many new
projects to facilitate the growth of Burdwan Township. Two large developments on a
[63]
Public Private Partnership (ppp) are coming up on the NH-2 connecting Kolkata and
Delhi, on which Burdwan town lies. One of these is a Bus Terminus, with retail and
other hospitality services. The other is a Mini Township at Goda, Burdwan. Also on
the highway, this 250+ acre mini township is being developed by Bengal Shrachi
Housing Development Ltd. It will revolutionise the way people see residential units in
Burdwan. The Burdwan Development Authority is also playing a big role in these
PPP projects (Source: Wikipedia).
3.6 Reason behind selection this town as study area
Not only being a busy town but also being nearest to Durgapur, Burdwan was
given importance keeping in mind that Durgapur is not far away from this town.
Durgapur is one of the most polluted cites in India and air pollutants had the capacity
to travel a long distance. Apart from several residential projects a major public private
project “the largest heath city of Asia” was also proposed here. In the study area i.e. in
Burdwan municipality air quality related work is not reported so far. Not only that no
systematic air quality-monitoring programme with GIS approach was reported from
this town. From this point of view the quality of ambient air of this town deserved a
systematic as well as scientific investigations so that proper strategies could be taken
to mitigate in case of any pollution was found. Not only that but also the medical
report (Table 3.2), collected from the Govt. Hospital of this town, reflected that health
problem due to air pollution is increasing day by day. Hence the quality of ambient air
of this town deserved a systematic as well as scientific investigation so that proper
strategies could be taken to mitigate this problem in the grass root level.
3.7 Site selection in the study area
Altogether 25 locations encompassing all the three areas were selected

randomly for air quality monitoring (Figure 3.2). Details of the sampling locations are
represented in Table 3.3 and 3.4. Mainly the schools, colleges, university and children
parks are enlisted as sensitive zones whereas the places beside road and others
residential areas are considered as residential zones and others as per Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The place where the industries (mainly rice mills in
[64]
the study area) are aggregated is considered here as industrial zone. The locational
details are given below.
(i) Residential and other zone: There are many monitoring sites in residential
and other zone. Among them the monitoring sites of Goda, Tarabag, Bhatchala1,
Bhatchala2, Jagatber, Jilpibagan, and Bermore are surrounded by residential
complexes. But there are rice mills beside the site Bhatchala1 and Batchala 2. The
monitoring sites viz. Tinkonia bus stand, Curzongate and Golapbagmore are beside
the Grand trunk (GT) road. The residential and other zone included the places listed
as follows 1) Goda (R1) 2) Tarabag (R2) 3) Jagatber (R3) 4) Jilpibagan (R4) 5)
Bermore (R5) 6) Bhangakuti (R6) 7) Policeline1(R7) 8) Ichlabad (R8) 9)
Bhatchala1(R9) 10) Bhatchala2 (R10) 11) Tinkonia (District bus stand) (R11) 12)
Curzon gate (R12) 13) Barabazar( R13) 14) Kanchannagar (R14)15) Golapbagmore
(R15)
(ii) Industrial zone: The industrial zone of Burdwan is dominated by many

rice mills and small scale industries. The site Alamganj1 is surrounded by mainly rice
mills. But the site Alamganj2 is quite away from the rice mills. The site Tejganj2 is
situated in industrial zone. It is just beside the NH-2 whereas the site Tejganj1 is
situated in other side of NH-2. The Industrial zone included the places listed as
follows 1) Tejganj1 (I1) 2) Tejganj2 (I2) 3) Alamganj1 (I3) 4) Alamganj2 (I4)
(iii) Sensitive zone: Mainly educational institutes like school, colleges,

children park and places near by hospitals along with areas which are ecologically
sensitive are taken as sensitive zone. The educational institute is given much
importance as these places are related with the welfare of children and students.
Department of Environmental Science in The University of Burdwan (S6) and
Vidyathri School (S2) are situated just beside the Grand trunk or G.T. Road. Other
site like Kalpataru children park (S3) is beside a rice mill and Alamganj primary
school (S4) is surrounded by a group of ricemills i.e. it is situated in the ricemill
region of the town. The other sensitive sites are Raj college (S1) which is just beside
the Burdwan Medical college and hospitals and Sadhanpur Polytechnique college (S5)
which is surrounded by a main road (Kalna road) of the town and agricultural field.
[65]
3.8 Sampling (6:00 am to next day 6:00 am) and analysis of
gaseous pollutants and particulate matter
Sampling was carried out consecutively during two years viz. 2008 and 2009.
In three seasons the sampling was done for twenty-four (24) hours at each site in each
year. The seasonal classification was followed as per specification laid by Indian
meteorological department (Murty, 2004). March, April and May months were
considered as premonsoon season and June, July, August and September were
considered as postmonsoon season and Janbuary and February were considered as
winter. Air quality parameter such as respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM)
which is also known as PM10 was monitored by using Respirable Dust Sampler
(Envirotech APM 460BL) following the standard procedure by IS: 5182 [Part
4):1999]. Glass fiber filter paper, popularly known as GF/A filter paper was used for
determination of RSPM and the flow rate was kept at 1-1.5 m3/min. Then from this
filter paper collected after sampling, heavy metals and the water soluble inorganic
ions are extracted as per the standard procedure written in the section 3.11.2 and
3.11.3. The model Envirotech APM 460BL had a cyclone separator, which separated
the coarser particulate matter larger than 10 µm from air stream (drawn into the
sampler) before filtering on GF/A filter paper. Air was also allowed to pass through
two impingers having specific 50 ml absorbing reagent for SO2 and NO2. The average
flow rate through the impingers was taken for the calculation of gaseous samples.
After the sampling the impinger samples were kept in iceboxes and transferred to a
freeze until the analysis was done. Potassium tetrachloromercurate and sodium
hydroxide were used as absorbing reagents for SO2 and NO2 respectively to arrest SO2
in the form of dichlorosulfitomercurate complex measured spectrophotometrically at
560 nm and NO2 as sodium nitrite measured at 540 nm. For analysis of SO2 and NO2
by spectrophotometeric method, described in IS: 5182 [(Part 2):2001] and IS: 5182
[(Part 6 or VI):1975] were followed by two popular methods (West and Gaeke, 1956;
Jacobs and Hochcheiser, 1958). The concentration of CO and ground level O3 were
monitored for one year with CO analyzer (PPSMPL gaZguard Tx CO) and ozone
analyzer (aeroQUAL Series200).
[66]
These two parameters were monitored in a different manner from the others
parameter. For these two parameters instead of seasonal variation diurnal variation
was observed. The diurnal analysis of CO and O3 was monitored in four zones i.e.
residential, sensitive, traffic and industrial areas for conducting the research work.
At each station sampling was done with duration of 7:00 – 8:00 am (morning), 12:00
– 1:00 pm (noon) and 4:00 – 5:00 pm (afternoon). Entire monitoring was done
throughout the month of March and April in 2009. The average O3 concentrations
were determined based on the 1- hour average values recorded by the analyser. In
this study, the comparison of surface ozone with meteorological parameters along
with its main precursor CO had been analysed. All parameters were averaged over 1-
hour time period. Thereafter, in the morning and afternoon the concentrations of O3
and CO are measured at twenty five locations (as mentioned earlier) in the study
area.
3.9 National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS)
The National ambient air quality standards are presumed to generally protect
human health, agricultural productivity, commercial activities, tourism and aesthetic
value of ecosystem which might be affected due to the poor air quality. NAAQS or
other standards like WHO standards are built up in order to determine the critical
threshold of air pollution or to provide a safe dose of pollution. These guide lines
specify pollutants of interest along with their concentrations, averaging time and
assessment procedures etc. These standards are of two types viz. primary and
secondary. Primary standards set limits to protect public health, including the health
of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children and the elderly. Secondary
standards set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against decreased
visibility, damage to animals, crops, vegetation and buildings.These guidelines also
help governments in setting standards suitable to local conditions as well as take risk
management decisions in making framework of air quality management. National
ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) is represented in Table 3.5. Other standard is
given in Table 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8. Collected data of air pollutants in the study area are
compared with these standards in this research work.
[67]
3.10 Principle of operation of APM 460 BL Respirable Dust
Sampler
Ambient air laden with suspended particulates enters the system through the
Inlet pipe. As the air passes through the cyclone, coarse, non respirable dust is
separated from the air stream by centrifugal forces acting on the solid particles. These
separated particulates fall through the cyclone’s conical hooper and is collected in the
sampling bottle placed at its bottom. The fine dust forming the respirable fraction of
the total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) passes through the cyclone and is
carried by the air stream to the filter paper, clamped between the top cover and filter
adaptor assembly. The respirable dust (RSP) is retained by the filter and the carrier air
exhausted from the system through the blower. Along with particulate monitoring
facility a compartment is attached with it for gaseous sampling also.
3.11 Brief description of the procedures
Throughout the experiment the parameters which have been studied are as
follows- respiratory suspended particulate matter, total suspended particulate matter,
Pb, Cd, Mn, Cr, K+, Na+, Cl-, F-, SO42-, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide
(SO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO) and meteorological parameters like
temperature, humidity , wind speed and wind direction.
The principle and measurement about these parameters are described below.
3.11.1 High volume sampler (HVS) method for RSPM and TSPM
Principle: In HVS method the air is first drawn with certain flow rate into a cyclone
type inlet and separator, which passes only the smaller ‘respirable’ particulates with
(Stoke’s equivalent) diameter less than 10 micro metre. These are then collected on
the filter. As before, while the larger ‘non respirable’ particulates are collected on a
collector in the separator unit. RSPM is calculated by measuring the mass collected on
the filter and the volume of air sampled. TSPM is calculated by measuring also and
adding the mass collected on the collector.
Instrument used: Envirotech APM 460 BL Respirable Dust Sampler, Digital

electronic balance machine (model no SARTORIUS AG GOTTINGEN GM 312)
[68]
Analysis of samples
• Before sampling the blank filter paper is conditioned and weighted
• After sampling the filter paper is removed.
• Then it is conditioned and weighed.
• In case of the RSPM option, there is also the non-respirable (larger particles)
fraction stored cup which is handled in the same manner as above steps.
Calculations of mass of particulate matter
The following formula is used to calculate the air volume (m3) sampled
V= [(Qi+Qf)/2] × T ......................................................... Equation (3.1)
where V = STP equivalent (25 ºC, 1 atm) air volume sampled in m3.
Qi= initial air flow rate in m3/min, STP
Qf= final flow rate in m3/ min, STP
T= sampling period in minutes
RSPM (µg/m3) = (Wf -Wi) x106/ V ................................. Equation (3.2)
where V= volume of air sampled in m3
Wf = weight of exposed filter in gram
Wi= initial weight of filter in gram
To calculate the NSRPM concentration in above equation in same manner by

substituting Wp+Wf in the place Wf and Wp +Wi in place of Wi where Wp = Weight
of material that was used to collect the NRSPM in gram. The TSPM concentration is
achieved by adding the concentration of RSPM and NRSPM.
TSPM = RSPM + NRSPM ............................................. Equation (3.3)
[69]
3.11.2 Atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) method (IS 5182) [Part 22:2004]
for heavy metals
The size of the filter paper used for measurement of PM10 is usually adequate
for further analysis for trace elements. So, toxic heavy metals like Pb, Cd, Mn and Cr
are analysed by the following procedure.
Principle: This method is based on acid digestion and atomic absorption

spectrometry for the chemical analysis of lead samples collected on filters from
ambient air. The method is applicable to ambient air samples with particulate lead
contents, such that the amount of deposited particulate lead collected on the filter is
greater than 1 µg if the final determination is made by flame atomic absorption
spectrometry. Final determination by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry
allows measurement of quantities of less than 1 µg, but is only applicable after
experimental validation of detection limits.
Instrument used: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (GBC Abanta), Respirable

Dust sampler, Hot plate
Reagents used
• Distilled water
• Nitric Acid (HNO3),concentrate and dilute both
• Lead Standard Solution (1 000 µg pb/ml)
• Hydrogen peroxide (30%)
Digestion procedure for Filters: The exposed glass filters are cut into pieces by
means of clean stainless steel scissors and transferred into a 250 ml beaker. To the
beaker 6 ml of concentrated nitric acid, 4 ml of hydrogen peroxide (30 %) and 50 ml
of distilled water are added. Covering it with a watch glass is heated on a hot plate
until most of the acid has evaporated. Same procedure is repeated at least twice. This
is continued until the residue is barely dry and a white ash appears. The residue is
dissolved in 5 ml of concentrated nitric acid. The digest is filtered, with repeated
small washings of nitric acid into a 25 ml volumetric flask and made up to mark with
[70]
dilute nitric acid. A blank unexposed filter paper is similarly digested for blank
correction.
Calculations of heavy metals
The mass concentration of lead is expressed in micrograms per cubic meter in

air sample to the nearest 0.1 µg/m3 using equation
Pb (conc) = [Pb (sm) –Pb (Bl)] × V1/V .......................... Equation (3.4)
where Pb (conc) = mass concentration of particulate lead in µg/ml
Pb (Sm) = concentration of particulate lead, in µg/ml in sample solution
Pb (Bl) = concentration of particulate lead, in µg/ml in blank solution
V1= total volume of digested sample in ml and
V = volume of air sampled in m3 [as per equation (3.1)].
Cd, Mn and Cr are analysed and calculated in the same manner and procedure of Pb.
3.11.3 Methods for water soluble inorganic ions
The water soluble fraction of the filter paper collecting PM10 is extracted by
dissolving the cut pieces of the filter paper into distilled water for seven days. Then it
is filtered and the filtered solution is used for the analysis of K+, Na+, Cl-, F-, SO42-
following the standard procedure. After determination of the said parameters from the
standard procedure, their concentration is got by applying formula as per equation 3.4.
3.11.3.1 Ion selective method for Fluoride
Principle: The fluoride electrode consists of a single lanthanum fluoride crystal, the
internal portion of which is in contact with a constant concentration of fluoride ion
and an internal reference electrode. Upon contact of the external electrode surface
with the test solution (standard or unknown) a potential difference is set up across the
crystal, which is related to the fluoride ion concentrations in contact with the crystal
surfaces. An external reference electrode in the test solution completes the circuit and
allows measurement of the membrane or crystal potential The relationship between
potential and fluoride ion concentration is described by a form of the Nernst equation
(E = E° - RT ln aF-), it is the log fluoride ion activity that is related to change in
[71]
measured potential. Consequently, variations in ionic strength between samples and
standards and among samples must be prevented. Similarly, since it is the free
fluoride ion activity that yields the electrode response, formation of complex species
(Al, Fe) or undissociated hydrofluoric acid must be prevented. The procedure is
designed to maintain control of these problems.
Instruments used: Ion Selective Electrode (ISE) (Orion 4 Star), Magnetic stirrer.
Reagents
• Fluoride standard solution
• Working standard fluoride of 10 ppm should be prepared just before starting

the analysis.
• Total ionic strength adjustment buffer (TISAB)
Procedure: Electrode operation was done according to the manual. Firstly a

calibration graph was done over the appropriate concentration range, such that the
TISAB constitutes 50 per cent of the solution by volume. Linear millivolt response
versus log of concentration should be obtained from roughly 0.2 to 2,000 mg/l. In the
linear region, three standards should suffice to determine the standard curve. In non-
linear regions, i.e. low levels, more data points are necessary. Sample is mixed to be
analysed with an equal volume of TISAB in a beaker. If high levels of Al (>3 mg/ L)
or Fe (>200 mg/ L) are present, the procedure for distillation should be followed.
Fluoride concentration is determined directly from electrode. The electrodes should
be rinsed and dried between samples. Frequent recalibration should be made with an
intermediate standard. The detection limit is about 0.02 mg/ L fluoride.
3.11.3.2 Estimation of Sodium (Flame photometric method)
Principle: Trace amounts of sodium can be determined by flame emission

photometry at 589 nm. Sample is nebulized into a gas flame under carefully
controlled, reproducible excitation conditions. The sodium resonant spectral line at
589 nm is isolated by interference filter or by light dispersing devices such as prisms
or gratings. Emissions light intensity is measured by a photo tube, photomultiplier, or
photo diode. The light intensity at 589 nm is approximately proportional to the
[72]
sodium concentration. Alignment of the wavelength dispersing device and wavelength
readout may not be precise. The appropriate wavelength setting, which may be
slightly more or less than the 589 nm, can be determined from the maximum emission
intensity when aspirating a sodium standard solution, and then used for emission
measurements. The calibration curve may be linear but has a tendency to level off or
even reverse at higher concentrations; work should be done in the linear and non-
linear range.
Reagents
• Double distilled water
• Standard stock sodium solution (1000 mg/L)
• Intermediate standard sodium solution (100 mg/L)
Procedure: Different standard sodium (Na) solution of following concentrations for

calibration curve was prepared from intermediate standard sodium solution (100
mg/L): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mg/L. A blank solution was also prepared. The intensity of the
different standard solutions was measured with a flame photometer (SYSTRONICS-
128) using a Na-filter (APHA, 1998).
The intensity of the sodium in the unknown sample was measured in a similar manner
by taking 5 ml sample water in 50 ml volumetric flasks and then diluted it up to the
mark.
3.11.3.3 Estimation of Potassium (Flame photometric method)
Principle: Same procedure as Sodium determination by Flame Photometer except the

wave length is 766.5 nm.
Reagents
• Double distilled water
• Standard stock potassium solution
• Intermediate standard potassium solution (100 mg/L)
[73]
Procedure: Different standard potassium (K) solutions for calibration curve of
following strength (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 mg/L) were prepared from the intermediate standard
potassium solution. A blank solution was also prepared. Intensity of the different
standard solutions was measured with a flame photometer (SYSTRONICS-128) with
a K- filter (APHA, 1998). The sample was analysed in the same procedure.
3.11.3.4 Estimation of Chloride (Titrimetric method)
Reagents
• 0.0141 (N) AgNO3 (Silver nitrate)
• K2CrO4 (Potassium chromate) Indicator
Procedure: 5 ml sample was taken in a conical flask, then 2-3 drops of K2CrO4
indicator was added to it and solution was titrated against 0.0141 (N) AgNO3. The end
point was marked by a brick red precipitate. The titrant volume was noted and the
chloride content was calculated (APHA, 1998).
Calculation
V × N × 35.45 × 1000
mg Cl - /L = ................................... Equation (3.5)
S
where, V = volume of titrant, ml
N = normality of titrant
S = volume of sample, ml
3.11.3.5 Estimation of Sulphate (Turbidimetric method)
Reagents
• Conditioning reagent
• Barium chloride
• Standard sulphate solution (100 ppm)
Procedure: 100 ml of clear sample is taken (not containing more than 40 mg/L of
SO4) or a suitable aliquot is diluted to 100 ml in a 250 ml conical flask. 5.0 ml of
conditioning reagent is added to it. Care should be taken not to add the conditioning
[74]
reagent in all the samples simultaneously. This is to be added to each sample just prior
to the further processing. The sample is stirred on a magnetic stirrer and during
stirring; add a spoonful of BaCl2 crystals. Stirring is done only for 1 minute after
addition of BaCl2 (APHA, 1998).
After the stirring is over, the optical density is read on a spectrophotometer at

420 nm, exactly after 4 minutes. The concentration of sulphate is found out from the
standard curve. Standard curve (Figure 3.3) was prepared employing the same
procedure described above, for the sample from 0.0 to 40.0 mg/L at the interval of 5
mg/L.
3.12 Method of sampling for gaseous pollutants
The absorbing solutions of specific amount (as per standard methods) are
taken in each of the impinger tubes set in HVS. To adjust the individual flow rates
through the impinger tubes the inlet of one of the impinger tubes is connected to the
rota meter and outlet to one of the four input connections of the manifold.
Let this initial flow rate be F1 and final rate be F2.
Calculation of volume of air (m3) sampled through the absorber (impinger tube):
The volume of air sampled, v is given
v (m3) =[(F1+F2) × T × 10-3]/2 ....................................... Equation (3.6)
where, F1 = initial flow rate at start of sampling, lpm
F2 = final flow rate at end of sampling, lpm
T = sampling time period in minutes
3.12.1 Determination of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in ambient air (IS method)
Principle: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is collected by bubbling air through a sodium

hydroxide solution to form a stable solution of sodium nitrite (NaNO2). The nitrite ion
produced during sampling is reacted with phosphoric acid, sulphanilamide and N-
1(napthyl) ethylene diamine dihydrochloroide to form an azo dye and then determined
colorimetrically. The method is applicable for the collection of 4 to 24 hours samples
in the fields and subsequent analysis in the laboratory.
[75]
Reagents
• Absorbing reagent (4 gm sodium hydroxide is dissolved in distilled water and

diluted to 1000 ml with distilled water)
• Sulphanilamide solution
• NEDA Solution
• Hydrogen peroxide solution
• Standard Nitrite Solution(1000 µg/ml)
Analysis: 10 ml sample is pipetted into a conical flask. Then 1.0 ml of H2O2 is added.
It is mixed well. Then 10 ml sulphanilamide is added. After well mixing 1.4 ml
NEDA solution is added. Pink colour is developed. The intensity of the colour is
measured by taking OD of the sample at 540 nm in spectrophotometer. Following the
same procedure the colour of the standards of different concentration is developed and
measured at the same operating wavelength. The standard curve for NO2 is presented
in Figure 3.4.
Calculations of NO2
NO2 (µg /m3) = [(µg NO2/ml) × 50] / (v × 0.35) ............ Equation (3.7)
where 50 = volume of absorbing reagent used in sampling in ml
v = volume of air sampled in m3 [calculated as in equation (3.6)]
0.35 = empirical factor for collection efficiency.
3.12.2 Determination of Sulphur dioxide content of the atmosphere

(Tetrachloromercurate absorber or pararosaniline method or IS method)
Principle: Sulphur dioxide in an air sample is absorbed into a solution of potassium

tetrachloromercurate (TCM) by aspirating a measured air sample through an absorber
vessel. This procedure results in the formation of dichlorosulfitomercurate (11)
complex which resists oxidation by the oxygen in the air. Ethylenediamine-tetra acetic
acid disodium salt (EDTA) is added to this solutions to form complex heavy metals
that catalyse the oxidation of the collected sulphur dioxide. Once this
[76]
dichlorosulfitomercurate complex is formed, it is stable to strong oxidants (e.g. ozone
and oxides of nitrogen). After sampling is completed, the solution is treated first with
a solution of sulphamic acid to destroy the nitrite anion. It is then treated with
solutions of formaldehyde and pararosaniline. In this way the complex is made to
react with pararosaline and methylsulphonic acid. The absorbance of the solution is
measured by means of spectrophotometer.
Reagents
• Absorbing reagent (TCM)
• Sulphamic acid (0.6 %)
• Formaldehyde
• Stock Iodine (0.1N)
Analysis: 5 ml sample is taken into a 25ml volumetric flask and volume is brought to
10 ml with absorbing reagent. 10 ml unexposed TCM similarly is taken for reagent
blank in 25 ml volumetric flask. 1ml 0.6 % sulphamic acid is added into each. They
are left for 10 minutes. 2 ml of 0.2 % formaldehyde solution and 5 ml of
pararosaniline solution are added respectively. Violet colour is developed. Just after
30 minutes volume is made up with boiled and cooled distilled water and taken OD in
560 nm. Distilled water is used as optical reference. Same procedure is followed for
the developing colour and measurement of different strength of SO2 for standard
curve. The standard curve for SO2 is presented in Figure 3.5.
Calculations of SO2
SO2 (µg /m3) = [(A-A0) × B /v] × D ............................... Equation (3.8)
where v = air volume as per equation (3.6)
A = the sample absorbance
A0 = the reagent blank absorbance
B = calibration factor in µg / absorbance unit
D = dilution factor (for 24 hour D =10)
[77]
3.12.3 Ozone monitoring
An analyser from aeroQUAL Series200 has been used for the measurement of
ozone through the sites. The measurement unit of this instrument is ppm or mg/m3.
The low concentration ozone head 0.008 to 0.500 ppm and high concentration ozone
head 0.20 to 20.00 ppm.
3.12.3.1 GSS technology background: Aeroqual delivers very high quality products
based on a fundamental understanding of the chemistry, reaction rates and electronic
interactions between materials and gases.
Gas Sensitive Semiconductor (GSS) technology is exclusive to Aeroqual. It is

a combination of smart measurement techniques and mixed metal oxide
semiconductor sensors that exhibit an electrical resistance change in the presence of a
target gas.
This resistance change is caused by a loss or a gain of surface electrons as a

result of adsorbed oxygen reacting with the target gas. If the oxide is an n-type, there
is either a donation (reducing gas) or subtraction (oxidizing gas) of electrons from the
conduction band. The result is that n-type oxides increase their resistance when
oxidizing gases such as NO2 and O3 are present while reducing gases such as CO and
hydrocarbons lead to a reduction in resistance. The converse is true for p-type oxides
where electron exchange due to gas interaction leads either to a rise (oxidizing gas) or
a reduction (reducing gas) in electron holes in the valence band. This then translates
into corresponding changes in electrical resistance. Quantitative response from the
sensor is possible as the magnitude of change in electrical resistance is a direct
measure of the concentration of the target gas present.
Since it is the surface reaction that causes the change in electrical resistance in
the sensing oxide, it is beneficial to maximize the surface area to intensify the
response to gas. To take advantage of this effect, commercial gas sensors consist of
highly porous oxide layers, which are either printed or deposited onto alumina chips.
The electrodes are usually co-planar and located at the oxide/chip interface (Figure
3.6). A heater track is also applied to the chip to ensure the sensor runs “hot” which
[78]
minimizes interference from humidity and increases the speed of response. The
microstructure of the oxide, its thickness and its running temperature are optimised to
improve selectivity. Catalytic additives, protective coatings and activated-carbon
filters are also applied to enhance selectivity.
Aeroqual's GSS technology is the culmination of more than 25 years of

materials research perfecting material formulations and optimizing sensor driver
algorithms. Through the use of proprietary microprocessor driven code, reliable
surface amount production, rigorous calibration procedures and exhaustive testing,
Aeroqual has improved accuracy, T90 response, cross-sensitivities and sensor drift
over competing technologies. The Aeroqual range of GSS sensor-based products is
unique in the global monitoring of surface ozone and has been designed to provide
near scientific accuracy, high reliability and functionality. Aeroqual’s concept of fully
interchangeable sensor heads eliminates the need for field calibration and provides
users with unique application focused solutions.
3.12.4 CO monitoring
Principle: A small electrochemical sensor with three electrodes is used for detection
of gas. Exposure to CO (Carbon monoxide) will produce an electrical current directly
proportion to gas concentration. The signal is then amplified by the instrument to give
the corresponding reading on the display and activates alarms at present levels.
Description: PPSMPL gaZguard Tx CO (Carbon Monoxide) is small lightweight

personal portable indicator and dual level alarm designed to detect Carbon Monoxide
(CO) in the ppm range. This instrument is powered by user replaceable four standard
‘AA’ size disposable / rechargeable batteries. The digital LCD gives easily readable
accurate continuous readings. Adjustable audible and visual alarms are at two
different concentrations levels. Exposure to 50 ppm carbon monoxide gives a
pulsating audible and visual indication alarm. If exposure is more than 100 ppm of
CO gives a continuous visual indication and audible alarm. Battery indication (low
bat on LCD display) ‘BAT’ lets people know when to change the batteries in case of
disposable batteries and when to charge the batteries in case of rechargeable batteries.
Warm up time is virtually instantaneous. In the fresh air condition the instrument is
[79]
switched ON, waited for zero on the display or adjusted zero. The instrument is then
ready to monitor the gas.
3.13 Meteorology and construction of windrose diagram
According to Murty (2004) meteorological measurements of special interest in

air pollution can be classified into two categories, viz. primary meteorological
measurements and secondary meteorological measurements. Temperature, wind speed
and wind direction are example of primary meteorological measurements whereas
humidity, precipitation are representative of secondary meteorological measurements.
However, local meteorology or micrometeorology is quite different from the regional
meteorology. Temperature, wind speed and wind direction are considered as the most
critical micrometeorology parameter in controlling the dispersion of air pollutants. In
each sampling location meteorological parameters such as humidity, temperature,
wind speed, wind direction and rainfall were recorded in premonsoon, postmonsoon
and winter seasons. Humidity and temperature were measured by a portable
hygrometer (Model-HTC-1), rainfall is measured by a digital rain gauge (Model-
RGR126; Make-Oregon) meter whereas wind speed and direction is measured by a
digital anemometer along with wind vane (Model-Lutron-AM-4201). For three
seasons windrose diagrams were prepared by using windrose pro software. The total
rainfall data was also collected from the District seed and agriculture seed
multiplication farm, Burdwan.
3.14 Statistics
The statistical approaches, applied to the collected data are written below.
3.14.1 Air Quality Index (AQI): An AQI could be defined as a scheme that
transforms the (weighted) values of individual air pollution related parameters into
single number. Air quality index (Tiwari and Ali, 1987) was also measured here for
each place in each zone. The concentrations of RSPM, SO2, NO2 and Pb in the study
area are used for AQI. At first air quality rating of each parameter used for monitoring
is calculated in each zone by the formula as:
[80]
i) q =100×V/Vs ; where q =quality rating; V = observed value of parameter ;
Vs = value recommended for that parameter.
If total ‘n’ no of parameters were considered for air monitoring, then

geometric mean of these ‘n’ number of quality ratings was calculated in
the following way:
ii) g =anti log {(log a+log b+…………….logx)/n}; where g = geometric

mean; a, b, c, d, x =different values of air quality rating; and n = number of
values of air quality rating, log = logarithm. Air quality status (Mudri,
1990) on the basis of AQI is represented in Table 3.9.
3.14.2 Pearson correlation analysis and correlation coefficient: The Pearson

correlation is applied to know the degree of association among the variables. The
Pearson correlation among all the monitored parameters is calculated by using the
following formula
r=
( )(
∑ ix−1 X i − X Yi − Y )
(n − 1) Sx Sy
where X and Y are two variables, with means X and Y respectively with standard
deviations SX and SY.
3.14.3 Factor analysis: Multivariate analysis technique called principal component

analysis (PCA) has been widely used to identify possible sources of ambient
pollution. Among multivariate techniques, PCA is often used as an exploratory tool to
identify the major sources of air pollutant emissions (Bruno et al., 2001; Guo et al.,
2004). Factor analysis is a statistical technique that can be applied to a set of variables
in order to reduce their dimensionality. In factor analysis (FA), a set of variables is
first normalized as Xit as shown in equation (3.9) so that their variances are unity.
Xit = (Cit –Ci)/di ............................................................. Equation (3.9)
where Cit is the concentration of the variable i in the sample t, Ci and di are the
arithmetic mean and standard deviation of the variable i for all samples included in
the analyses. These common factors are typically characterized as pollutant source
[81]
types in air pollution studies. The factor analysis model applied in the field of air
pollution is given in equation (3.10).
N
Xit = ∑ LijSjt + Eit .................................................... Equation (3.10)
J =1
where Lij is the factor loading of the variable i in the source j with N number of
sources, Sjt is the factor score of the source j for sample t and Eit is the residual of
variable i in the sample t not accounted by the j sources or factors. In this study, FA
was carried out on gaseous pollutants, heavy metals, ions present in PM10 and
meteorological factors. The factors that have been determined are rotated to transform
the initial matrix to easily interpret. The sum of the eigen values is not affected by
rotation but it will alter the eigen values of particular factors and will change the
factor loadings. The varimax rotation of the matrix was selected which attempts to
minimize the number of parameters that have high loadings on a factor. This
enhanced the interpretation of the factors. Factor analysis determines factor F in such
a way so as to explain as much of the total variation in the data as possible with as
few of these factors as possible. In factor analysis, Fi is the i th factor calculated by
equation (3.11).
P
Fi = ∑
i =1
Wij Xj = W1X1+Wi2Xi2+……+WipXip .......... Equation (3.11)
where the w's are the factor weights (to be estimated from the data) chosen so as to
maximize the quantity and the X's are the original variables in standardized form. The
second factor F2 is such that weighted linear combination of the variables which is
uncorrelated with F1 and which accounts for the maximum amount of the remaining
total variation not already accounted for by F1. The higher the factor weight for a
given variable, the more that variable contributes to the overall factor score and the
higher the factor loading. Higher factor loadings of a particular element can help in
identifying the possible sources (Henry et al., 1984). The factors obtained are rotated
to achieve the meaningful underlying vectors with more interpretability (Gupta et al.,
2008).
[82]
3.15 RS and GIS methodology
The following RS and GIS methodologies were adopted for carrying out the
research work.
3.15.1 Supervised classification of study area: Supervised classification of the

Burdwan town was performed with the help of Resourcesat-1 satellite image and
Geomatica V.10.2 software. Map collected from Burdwan municipality was
considered as base map. Base map was georeferenced at latitude/longitude projection
system with a datum level of India-Nepal (D076) with an output pixel spacing of
0d00'00.1900". For georeferencing ground control points (GCPs) were collected from
study area by using Germin 12 GPS receiver. Burdwan municipality area was clipped
from the satellite imagery and image to image georeferencing was done by using
already georeferenced base map. Then supervised classification was run by using
maximum likelihood classifier with null class. Thereafter both landuse/landcover and
base maps were reprojected to Universal Transverse Marcater Projection (UTM)
system. Twenty five (25) air sampling locations were then downloaded to the
classified image from GPS through Mapsource software. Locational details along
with different air quality parameters and their concentrations were attached to this 25
spatial data as an attribute data.
3.15.2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM): DEM is generated on the basis of sampling
points, stored as a point layer along with attributes such as RSPM, SO2, NO2 and Pb
etc. DEM is generated by using VEDIMINT algorithm in the Geomatica V.10.1
software. The output DEM is represented as a zonation map of the said parameters.
The algorithm consists of three major steps plus an optional step for processing 2D
features. In the first step, input vector points (RSPM, SO2, NO2 and Pb) concentration
with respect to different locations) are reprojected to the raster coordinates and burned
into the raster buffer, with the elevations generated due to different concentration of
the said parameters interpolated linearly between vector nodes. 2D layers are ignored
in this stage. If multiple elevation values are scanned into a single pixel, the maximum
value is assigned the pixel, and the pixel is marked as a cliff. In the second step, the
elevation at each DEM pixel is interpolated from the source elevation data. The
[83]
interpolation process is based on an algorithm called Distance Transform.
Interpolation is made between the source elevations and elevations at equal-distance
points from source locations. If 2D vector layers are present, they are scan converted
into a flag buffer during the optional step. The 2D features are also initialized to
prepare for use in the smoothing stage. In step three, a finite difference method is used
to iteratively smooth the DEM grid. The algorithm uses over relaxation technique to
accelerate the convergence. During the iterations, the source elevation values are
never changed, while the interpolated values are updated based on the neighbourhood
values.
3.15.3 Inverse Distance Interpolation (IDINT): Inverse distance interpolation is

used to read the gray level values for an arbitrary number of pixel locations in order to
generate a raster image based upon interpolation between the specified gray levels.
This method of interpolation combines the idea of Thiessen polygon with the gradual
change of trend surface. It considers weighted moving average. Weights are computed
from a linear function of distance between sets of points and the points to be
predicted. In this method the size of the starting radius is specified, which defines the
starting search area for interpolation points around grid point. For estimation of
ambient air quality of unsampled locations, spatial interpolation is required with a
satisfying level of accuracy. Interpolation is based on the principle of spatial auto-
correlation or spatial interdependence, which measure the degree of relationship
between near and distance points. Spatial auto-correlation determines if values are
interrelated. There are many spatial interpolation algorithms for spatial data sets.
Shepard (1968) discussed in detail inverse distance weighting; Deutsch and Journel
(1998) discussed kriging. Goodman and O'Rourke (1997) discussed in detail about
splines. There are two categories of interpolation techniques, deterministic and
geostatistical. Deterministic interpolation technique creates surfaces based on the
measured points or mathematical formulas. Methods such as inverse distance
interpolation (IDINT) are based on the extent of the similarity of the cells while
geostatistics interpolation such as kriging are based on statistics and are used for more
advance prediction surface modeling that also include some measure of the accuracy
of the prediction. Kriging is similar to IDW (inverse distance weighting) in the sense
[84]
that it uses a weighting mechanism that assigns more influence to the nearer data
points to interpolate values at unknown locations. However, instead of using inverse
distance weighting approach kriging uses variograms. As a measure of spatial
variability, a variogram replaces the Euclidean distance by a structural distance that is
specific to the attribute and the field under study (Deutsch and Journel, 1998). For
special correlation, a perfect semivariogram is required for which parameters can be
determined. The geochemical data in the study area are non-stationary because many
of the closely located points have values drastically different from each other.
Because of this reason, IDINT method has been used for interpretation of data points
instead of kriging in order to generate maps of continuous maps of geochemical
parameters. IDINT interpolation determines cell values using a linearly-weighted
combination of a set of sample points. The weight is a function of inverse distance.
The farther an input point is from the output cell location, the less importance it has in
the calculation of the output value. Because the IDINT is a weighted distance average,
the average cannot be greater than the highest or less than the lowest input. Therefore,
it cannot create ridges or valleys if these extremes have not already been sampled.
Also, because of the averaging, the output surface will not pass through the sample
points. The best results from IDINT are obtained when sampling is well distributed to
represent the local variation that needs to be simulated. In IDINT the measured values
(known values) closer to prediction location will have more influence on the predicted
value (unknown value) than those farther away. More specifically, IDINT assumes that
each measured point has a local influence that diminishes with increase in distance.
Thus, points in the near neighborhood are given high weights, whereas points at a far
distance are given small weights (Lixin Li, 2004). The general formula of IDINT
interpolation (Johnston et al., 2001) is written below.
N
w (x , y ) = ∑ (λiwi ) ........................................................ Equation (3.12)
i =1
1 N
( )
λi =  p′ ∑ (1 dk ) .................................................. Equation (3.13)
p
 di  k =1
[85]
where w (x,y) is the predicted value at location (x,y), N is the number of nearest known
points surrounding (x,y),are the weights assigned to each known point value wi at
location (xi,yi), di are the Euclidean distances between each (xi,yi) and (x,y), and p is
the exponent, which influences the weighting of wi on w, in the present study p value
of 3 and starting search radius 650 m.
A brief overview of the methodology is given in Table 10.
Table 3.1: Land use/land cover of Burdwan Municipality area
Land Use/Land Cover Classes Area (sq m) % of

Area
Evergreen Vegetation Surrounding the forest area 504737.45 2.00
Spar evergreen Vegetation Along with Residential area 2990965.69 11.83
Crop Land 2111009.03 8.35
Residential area 9327609.73 36.88
Commercial area 746664.20 2.95
Mixed urban with commercial area 682345.40 2.70
Ephemeral Ponds 64287.35 0.25
Barren land 499139.04 1.97
Nonforested Wet land 181319.25 0.72
Mixed Forest 260609.08 1.03
Streams & Canals 296275.35 1.17
Perennial Fishing ponds 1537423.73 6.08
Sandy area other than beaches 260797.79 1.03
Perennial Nonfishing ponds 156724.00 0.62
Rice mill clusters 634821.83 2.51
Mixed urban with mill areas 654919.49 2.59
Herbaceous Range Land 1131224.57 4.47
Play Ground 113981.09 0.45
Institutions 72370.44 0.29
Hospital 10253.27 0.04
Services Area 47240.51 0.19
Nurseries 7202.45 0.03
Dense Evergreen Vegetation Along with residential
area 2997318.94 11.85
Total Area 25289239.67 100.00
(Source: Gupta and Roy, 2012)
[86]
Table 3.2: Medical record (2008) of respiratory disease in Burdwan municipality
Serial No Month Case Death

1 January 17 03
2 February 12 01
3 March 34 00
4 April 09 01
5 May 22 00
6 June 19 05
7 July 18 01
8 August 04 01
9 September 09 00
10 October 16 01
11 November 39 03
12 December 30 00
(Data Obtained from Medical Record Department Burdwan Medical College &
Hospital Burdwan, West Bengal)
[87]
Table 3.3: Locational details of sampling sites at a glance
Local name of the sites site label Lat/Long

Goda R1 23o 15'06.73" N. 87 o50'22.17" E
Tarabag R2 23o 15'05.38" N. 87 o50'44.79" E
Jagatber R3 23o 13'16.49" N. 87 o51'51.58" E
Jilpibagan R4 23o 13'14.60" N. 87 o51'37.13" E
Bermore R5 23o 13'23.31" N. 87 o51'35.69" E
Bhangakuti R6 23 o15'22.78" N. 87 o51'08.22" E
Policeline1 R7 23 o 13'23.13" N. 87 o 52'39.57" E
Ichlabad R8 23 o 14'02.36 "N. 87 o 52'04.69" E
Bhatchala1 R9 23o 13'45.94" N. 87 o51'29.94" E
Bhatchala2 R10 23o 14'04.87" N. 87 o51'16.12" E
Tinkonia R 11 23o 14'58.06" N. 87 o52'06.26" E
Curzongate R12 23o 14'25.48" N. 87 o52'03.57" E
Barabazar R13 23 o 14'24.04N ". 87 o 51'23.53" E
Kanchannagar R14 23 o 14'14.39" N.87 o 49'41.95" E
Golapbagmore R15 23o 15'27.42" N. 87 o50'59.15" E
Tejganj1 I1 23o 13'29.61" N. 87 o50'48.05" E
Tejganj 2 I2 23o 13'32.38" N. 87 o50'57.75" E
Alamganj1 I3 23o 13'55.76" N. 87 o50'53.54" E
Alamganj2 I4 23o 14'06.98" N. 87 o50’57.72" E
Rajcollege S1 23o 14'43.95" N. 87 o51'26.42" E
Vidyarthi School S2 23o 14'00.26" N. 87 o51'55.75" E
Kalpataru children park S3 23o 14'09.51" N. 87 o50'48.84" E
Alamganj primary school S4 23 o13'54.41"N. 87 o 50'57.01"E
SadhanpurPolytechnique college S5 23o 15'00.32" N. 87 o52'53.27" E
Department of Environmental S6 23o 15'25.28" N. 87 o50'55.87" E
Science
[88]
Table 3.4: Details characteristics about the sampling sites
Sampling Sites Description

R11, R12, R13, R15, R6,
R7 Residential area with high traffic density
R3, R4, R5, R8, R14 Residential area with moderate traffic density
R1, R2, R10 Residential area with low traffic density
R9 Residential area influenced by industrial emission
I1 and I2 Industrial area with high traffic density
I4 Industrial area with moderate traffic density
I3 Industrial area with low traffic density
S2, S5, S6 Sensitive area with high traffic density
S1 Sensitive area with moderate traffic density
Sensitive area with moderate traffic density and highly
S3 influenced by industrial emission
Sensitive area with high traffic and highly influenced
S4 by industrial emission
Table 3.5: National Ambient Air Quality Standards
All Pollutants Time Concentration in ambient air in average

(µg/m3) weighted Sensitive Industrial Residential
Only CO in mg/m3 and others
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 24h 30 120 80
Nitrogen dioxide 24h 30 120 80
(NO2)
Suspended particulate 24h 100 500 200
Matter(SPM)
Respirable Suspended 24h 75 150 100
Particulate Matter
(RSPM)
Lead (Pb) 24h 0.75 1.5 1
Carbon 1h 2 10 4
Monoxide(CO)
(Source: Central pollution control board, Delhi, 1994)
[89]
Table 3.6: Standards of heavy metals
Heavy metals Annual mean Standard (ng/m3)
Pb 500 ( European limit value)
Mn 150 (WHO)
Cd 5 (European target value 2004/ 107/CE)
(Source: Weiwei et al., 2006)
Table 3.7: Primary standards (2008) of CO and O3
Ozone (ppb) CO (ppm)

Primary Standard by NAAQS
(2008) 120 35
Table 3.8: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (2009) for CO and O3
Pollutant Time weighted Industrial, Residential, Ecologically

average Rural and other area sensitive area
CO (mg/m3) (1 h) 04 04
O3 (µg/m3) (1 h) 180 180
[90]
Table 3.9: Air quality index Table (Mudri, 1990)
Category AQI of ambient air Description of ambient air quality
I Below 10 Very clean
II Between 10-25 Clean
III Between 25-50 Fairly clean
IV Between 50-75 Moderately Polluted
V Between 75-100 Polluted
VI Between 100-125 Heavily polluted
VII Above 125 Severely polluted
[91]
Table 3.10: Summary of methodology
SL. Parameters Name of Method of Apparatus used

No. Methods Analysis
1 RSPM and HVS method Gravimetric High volume
TSPM methods sampler
(Envirotech APM
460BL)
2 Pb, Cd, Mn, Atomic absorption AAS methods Atomic absorption
Cr spectrometric spectrometer(GBC
(AAS) method (IS Avanta)
5182) Part
22:2004
3 Potassium Flamephotometric Flamephotometer
(K+) Method (Systronic-128)
4 Sodium (Na+) Flamephotometric Flamephotometer
Method (Systronic-128)
5 Fluoride (F-) Ion selective ISE Orion 4 star ISE
Method
6 Chloride (Cl-) Argentometric Titrimetric
Method methods
7 Sulphate Turbidimetric Spectrophotometric Spectrophotometer
(SO42-) Method (Systronic-169)
8 SO2 IS method (West- Spectrophotometric Spectrophotometer

Gaeke method) (Systronic-169)
9 NO2 IS method Spectrophotometric Spectrophotometer
(Jacobs- (Systronic-169)
Hochcheiser)
10 Ozone(O3) aeroQUAL
Series200
11 Carbon PPSMPL gaZguard
monoxide Tx CO
(CO)
12 i) Humidity i) Portable
and hygrometer
temperature (ModelHTC-1).
ii) Rainfall ii) Digital rain
iii) Wind gauge (Model-
speed and RGR126; Make-
direction. Oregon).
iii) Digital
anemometer along
with wind vane
(Model-Lutron-
AM-4201).
[92]
SL. Parameters Name of Method of Apparatus used
No. Methods Analysis
13 Windrose Windrose pro
diagram software
14 GIS Digital Elevation Inverse distance Geomatica
methodology Model (DEM), weightage
Inverse distance
interpolation
(IDINT)
15 Multivariate PCA Varimax rotation XLSTAT (2011)
statistical
analysis
[93]
Figure 3.1: Study area location
[94]
Figure 3.2: Land use/land cover map of Burdwan Municipality showing various
sampling locations
[95]
Figure 3.3: Calibration graph for SO4
Figure 3.4: Calibration graph for NO2
[96]
Figure 3.5: Calibration graph for SO2
Figure 3.6: Diagram of typical sensor formulation
Sensing layer
Gold electrodes Alumina substrate
[97]
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section, the results obtained from the analysis are given and
discussed. The meteorological influence and the possible implications
thereof on this study are also discussed followed by some key-
observations and discussion from the GIS mapping. A few general and
special features of the pollutants along with their spatial and seasonal
variations are also taken into account.
T he results are obtained by making average of two year’s data (2008 & 2009) and
these average data are discussed. Detail micrometeorology of each monitoring
site is given in annexure XIV. Total amount of rainfall in different season during the
study is also given in annexure XV. Spatio-temporal variation of air pollutants,
statistical analyses and Air quality index (AQI) application are represented first,
followed by GIS mapping along with windrose diagram on these average data.
4.1 Spatio-temporal distribution of particulate matter, heavy metal

fraction and inorganic ion in study area
4.1.1 Particulate matter status in ambient air in study area: In this section the
spatial and temporal variation of the respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM)
and total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) in the study area are discussed.
4.1.1.1 Respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM or PM10): It is observed

that RSPM concentration ranging from 40.200-323.100 µg/m3, 4.480-277.720 µg/m3
and 34.260-363.690 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
respectively with an average value of 126.824 µg/m3, 86.055 µg/m3 and 157.823
µg/m3 respectively (Table 4.1).
In general it is observed that the average concentration of PM10 show distinct

seasonal variations with high winter and premonsoon value in the study area than the
postmonsoon value. This drop down in the concentration of PM10 in postmonsoon
may be due to the monsoonal washout effect of particles. While during winter low
[98]
mixing heights leads to an accumulation of pollutants for longer time. Similar kind of
findings is also reported by Gupta et al. (2008). At S4 site it is observed to have a very
high concentration of PM10 (363.690 µg/m3) in winter season. S4 is situated in
industrial region of the town. So, the accumulation of such a high level of RSPM may
be endured at this site due to the emission from the surrounding rice mills,
resuspension of dusts from the paved and unpaved road etc along with the prevailing
meteorological condition. R11 site shows the maximum level (323.100 µg/m3 and
277.720 µg/m3) of PM10 in both premonsoon and postmonsoon seasons. This site is
situated just beside the district bus stand having high traffic density throughout the
day. So, emissions from automobiles may be the major source of particulate pollution
in this location. This observation is also been corroborated with the work of Ali and
Athar (2008) and Giri et al. (2006). Both of them found that high concentration of
PM10 in some selected places of Pakistan and Kathmandu which is attributed due to
traffic volume, length of days and meteorological condition.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: In Delhi from
February 1998 to May 1998 it was reported that the average PM10 concentration were
658.450±231.200 µg/m3 at Daryaganj, 454.770±106.200 µg/m3 in Jawaharlal Nehru
University and 552.800±225.700 µg/m3 at Motinagar ( Balachandran et al., 2000 ).
Giri et al. (2006) had recorded the lowest and highest average annual concentration
during their study period which was found as 47.780 µg/m3 and 199.800 µg/m3
respectively at Matsyagaon and Putalisadak air-monitoring sites in Kathmandu. Ali
and Athar (2008) had found PM10 in range of 123.000-434.000 µg/m3 in Pakistan.
Gupta et al. (2008) observed daily average PM10 concentrations were 140.100 µg/m3
and 196.600 µg/m3 respectively at residential and industrial sites, while 8 h average
concentrations of PM10 at commercial site were 131.300 µg/m3 in Kolkata.
Comparison with National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) standard:

During premonsoon season 53.33 % of the residential sites have exceeded the
prescribed standard (NAAQS) of PM10 except site R1, R2, R7, R10, R13, R14 and
R15. Compared to premonsoon in postmonsoon only 46.66 % of the residential site
viz. R5, R9, R10, R11, R12, R14 and R15 have higher level of PM10 than the
standard. But in winter almost 67 % of residential site crossed the prescribed limit.
[99]
So, in winter season maximum violence of prescribed standard is occurred in
comparison to the other two seasons. In case of industrial site only I3 has exceeded
the prescribed standard in premonsoon season. The concentration of PM10 in the entire
industrial sites lies below the NAAQS standard in postmonsoon and lies above the
said standard at the site I1, I2, and I4 in winter. Regarding sensitive site, except S2,
S5 and S6 all sites lie above the standard in premonsoon and winter season where as
all site showed the lower level of PM10 than the standard except S4 in postmonsoon.
Similar type of temporal exceedence of prescribed standard of PM10 is also reported
by Perrino et al. (2007) in Europe, Balachandran et al. (2000) in India and Ali and
Athar (2008) in Pakistan. Balachandran et al. (2000) had also found that all the
estimated concentrations of PM10 were found to exceed the Indian ambient air quality
standards in the capital of India. Not only in India but also in abroad the concentration
of PM10 shows the tendency to cross the prescribed limit. As for example, the
threshold limit set by the European legislation for PM10 is frequently exceeded in
many European urban areas (Perrino et al., 2007).
4.1.1.2 Total suspended particulate matter (TSPM): In the study area the average
concentration of TSPM is found as 278.716±191.912 µg/m3, 195.090±149.934 µg/m3
and 334.929±177.431 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
respectively (Table 4.2).
Like RSPM, total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) shows higher average
concentration in winter followed by premonsoon and postmonsoon. There is a general
tendency of decreasing TSPM level after the initial shower of monsoon. This is
supported by the findings of Ravindra et al. (2003) who found that there is a
significant decrease in TSPM level just after the initial shower of monsoon in Delhi.
Reddy and Ruj (2003) also found that the average TSPM concentration was much
higher in winter than summer and monsoon. But Jain and Saxena (2002) has found
that in Dhanbad and Jharia there is not much variation in TSPM concentration in five
monitoring stations in monsoon (351.120-411.410 µg/m3) and winter (536.880-
602.020 µg/m3).
[100]
In both premonsoon and postmonsoon season the maximum concentration of
TSPM (739.899 µg/m3 and 670.500 µg/m3) is recorded in R11 location whereas in
winter it is recorded in I2 (737.977 µg/m3) location. This high concentration of TSPM
in R11 may be explained in the same manner as explained in case of RSPM in the
previous section. I2 being located in the rice mill region burning of fossil fuels and
biomass may contribute huge amount of particulate matter. In addition to that this
place is just beside the busiest road i.e. National Highway 2 (NH-2). So, particulate
emission from traffic partially added to the particulate matter to rice mill emission.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: The ground level
TSPM in ambient air of Mumbai ranged from 200.000 to 300.000 µg/m3 in residential
areas (Suseela et al., 2000; Sadasivan and Negi, 1990), above 500.000 µg/m3 in mixed
zones of industrial and commercial areas (Sharma and Patil, 1991) and about
1000.000 µg/m3 at local hot spots like busy traffic junctions (Vinod kumar et al.,
2001). TSPM varied from 144.500 to 359.400 µg/m3 in the summer season and
ranged between 154.900 to 282.400 µg/m3 in winter season in Madurai (Kulndai,
2003). It was also found that TSPM concentration ranged from 295.800 µg/m3 to
385.700 µg/m3 by Raja Mohan (2000) in Madurai.
Comparison with National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) standard: In

premonsoon site R3, R4, R5, R6, R8, R9, R11, R12, and R15 i.e. almost 73.33 % of
residential area lie above the prescribed standard while in postmonsoon it is reduced
to 53.33 % with respect to cross the limit. In winter all residential site (73.33 %)
exceeds the standard except R3, R4, R5 and R13. This finding is very much similar to
the observation of Reddy and Ruj (2003) who had reported that the residential area in
their study field i.e. Raniganj-Asansol area is also above the standard. So, residential
wood stove, burning of fossil fuel, transportation activities (as almost all residential
sites are just beside a major or minor roads), soil resuspension may be the major
contributor of high level of TSPM in the study area.
Regarding industrial site only I2 and I4 have TSPM level above the standard
in winter only. Jain and Saxena (2002) had found that similar kind of observation in
Dhanbad and Jharia. They found that five locations in industrial areas were above the
[101]
standard in winter season. In case of sensitive sites all have the SPM level above the
standard in winter. While site S5 in premonsoon along with S1, S2 and S6 in
postmonsoon are seen to have lower level of TSPM below the standard.
4.1.2 Heavy metal concentration in PM10: In this section the spatial and temporal
variation of the heavy metals viz. Pb, Cd, Mn and Cr fractionated from the respiratory
suspended particulate matter (RSPM) in the study area are discussed.
4.1.2.1 Lead (Pb): The average value for lead (Pb) in the study area is found
0.160±0.117 µg/m3, 0.173±0.126 µg/m3 and 0.219±0.139 µg/m3 in premonsoon,
postmonsoon and winter respectively in the study area (Table 4.3). It is observed that
the average concentration of Pb shows distinct seasonal variations with high winter
and postmonsoon value in the study area than the premonsoon value. The high
concentration of Pb in winter may be attributed to relatively stable atmospheric
condition with low dispersion rate. Inspite of the wash out effect of rain high relative
humidity and high wind speed may result in high Pb concentration in postmonsoon
than premonsoon. Similar type of observation is reported by Haritash and Kaushik
(2007).
In premonsoon site R4 is seen to have a very high concentration while in

postmonsoon and winter site R15 and I2 have very high concentration respectively.
Site R15 and I2 are located just beside two main roads like Grand trunk road (GT
road) and National highway 2 (NH-2) respectively. A very high concentration of Pb is
also observed in site R1 and R13 in winter. R4 and R1 are behind a minor road while
R13 is behind the one of the busiest road i.e. Barabazar road. So, vehicle exhausts
could be a major source of this much atmospheric lead in the study area. Apart from
vehicle emission, soil resuspension along the road side may also release some short of
Pb. As in the past few decades continuous use of leaded petrol and emission of Pb
into atmosphere has led to a conservable concentration of Pb in soil along road side.
The movement of vehicles renders the dust containing Pb, resuspended in air
(Haritash and Kaushik, 2007).
A very high concentration of atmospheric Pb in comparison to other site in the

study area is also found at R1, R13, and I1 in winter and at I4, I3 site in postmonsoon.
[102]
Thus, mainly residential and industrial sites are observed to have higher concentration
of atmospheric Pb throughout the study area. This observation can be explained in this
manner. Atmospheric Pb is produced from the combustion of leaded fuel, especially
diesel and petrol, combustion of coal, incineration of wastes and fertiliser
manufacture (Noller et al., 1981; Nriagu, 1988; Melgarejo et al., 1986; Agrawal et al.,
1980; Folio et al., 1982; Pirrone et al., 1996; Van Grieken et al., 1982). So, in
residential area coal combustion may be a major source of atmospheric Pb. Apart
from coal combustion burning of garbage may also release some atmospheric lead in
residential area. Haritash and Kaushik (2007) had noticed similar type of observation
in Hisar. They noticed that higher concentration of Pb is found in commercial and
residential area.
The presence of higher concentration of lead in ambient air of industrial region

may be corroborated due to huge transportation activity (mainly from trucks carrying
goods) and combustion process in industrial region. This phenomenon is also
supported by some published works. Weiwei et al. (2006) had revealed that the high
levels of Pb registered in Wuhan, central China may be related to industrial emissions
from coal combustion and metallic based industry. Mohanraj et al. (2004) found the
highest level of Pb (2147.000 ng/m3) in industrial region in Coimbatore suggesting
the importance of industrial operations in determining the ambient concentrations of
lead.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: The average
value of atmospheric Pb is found as 96.000 ng/ m3 in Dhaka, Bangladesh by Mahmud
et al. (2008). So, the atmospheric Pb in Dhaka is much more below the value found in
the study area. Mahmud et al. (2008) also reported that the Pb concentration in Dhaka
city is considerably lower than other Southeast Asian cities. This is probably due to
the ban of the leaded gasoline and two strokes engine (locally called baby taxi) by the
Government of Bangladesh. However, not only in Dhaka but also four important
megacities of India viz. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai are reported to have the
decline trend in atmospheric Pb (Gupta et al., 2010). The lead concentration in the
study area is almost ten times higher than the value of atmospheric Pb (30.000–50.000
ng/m3) in EU cities reported so far (Weiwei et al., 2006). Tripathi (1994) had found
[103]
the average concentration of airborne lead as 0.300 µg/m3 in Varanasi which is mostly
similar with the value of atmospheric Pb found in our study area.
Comparison with National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) standard: The
atmospheric Pb does not exceed the NAAQS standard anywhere in all selected
monitoring sites. The permissible value according to WHO and EU standard is 0.500
µg/m3 which is marginally exceeded only at site R4 (0.583 µg/m3) in premonsoon.
This site is located beside the road but surrounded with many residential houses. So,
apart from vehicle emission coal combustion may contribute this much of
atmospheric Pb concentration in this particular site. However, the tendency of
remaining the Pb concentration within the permissible level in this town may be due
to ban on the use of leaded fuel. This findings of remaining the airborne Pb below the
standard is supported by the published work of Salam et al. (2008) (Bangladesh),
Tripathi (1994) (Varanasi) and Jain and Saxena (2002) (Dhanbad and Jharia).
4.1.2.2 Cadmium (Cd): The average value for cadmium (Cd) is 0.014±0.019 µg/m3,
0.011±0.015 µg/m3 and 0.013±0.015 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
season respectively in the study area (Table 4.4). Maximum Cd concentration is found
in R10 during premonsoon and in I3 site during postmonsoon and winter season. Site
R10 is located just beside a road while site I3 is located absolutely in the rice mill
zone. So, elevated level of Cd may be due to the release of it from the different
anthropogenic activities like combustion of coal and waste material in residential area
as well as by the local people (mainly the labours of rice mill) residing beside the
industrial area. Elevated level of Cd in industrial region is found in several research
works viz. the higher value of Cd in Chinese town is found due to the combustion and
smelting emission in industrial sector (Weiwei et al., 2006). Salam et al. (2008) had
also observed that the highest value of Cd is found in the industrial area in Dhaka.
Mohanraj et al. (2004) had observed the highest value of Cd (9.100 ng/m3) in
industrial region in Coimbatore. Apart from these research works Kuvarega and Taru
(2008) had revealed that burning of papers in residential and industrial areas also
contribute Cd in the atmospheric air of Harare.
[104]
value of Cd in the study area is very much similar to the total average value of Cd
(13.000 ng/m3) found in PM2.5 in Dhaka (Salam et al., 2008) and to the concentration
of Cd (14.480 ng/m3) found in total suspended particulate matter in Guiyang (Wu et
al., 2008). In Kolkata Cd concentration is varying in the range of 0.950 to 12.000
ng/m3 at residential site (Kasba) and 1.000 to 19.000 ng/m3 at industrial site
(Cossipore) (Karar et al., 2006). So, the Cd concentration Kolkata is almost same with
the Cd concentration found in the study area. The annual average concentration of Cd
for Delhi was found to be 6.760±6.320 ng/m3 (Khillare et al., 2004) and in Tehran Cd
ranged as 6.800±1.970 ng/m3(Leilli et al., 2008). Thus, the value of Cd concentration
in Delhi and Tehran are far below the value of Cd found in the study area.
Comparison with EU standard (According to 2004/107/CE): The EU target value

for Cd is 0.005 µg/m3. Six monitoring site among the fifteen residential monitoring
sites have exceeded this standard of Cd in premonsoon and winter and five stations
showed the same tendency in postmonsoon. All industrial sites exceed the prescribed
standard in winter and in postmonsoon (except I4 site). Among the sensitive sites five
monitoring station exceed the EU limit of Cd in premonsoon. Four monitoring sites
exceed the same in postmonsoon and three sensitive sites stay within the limit in
winter.
4.1.2.3 Manganese (Mn): The average value for manganese (Mn) in the study area is
0.087±0.062 µg/m3, 0.208±0.292 µg/m3 and 0.214±0.210 µg/m3 respectively in
premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season (Table 4.5). The maximum
concentration of Mn is found at site R3 (0.220 µg/m3) and S1 (0.822 µg/m3) in
premonsoon and winter season respectively. Both of these two sites are situated
beside road. So, vehicle emission may be a major source of Mn at these sites in the
study area. The exceptionally higher level (1.424 µg/m3) is found at site R11, the
district bus stand of the city in postmonsoon. So, automobile exhaust is the main
source of pollution here. Manganese tricarbinyl compound which being an additive is
used in unleaded petrol to enhance automobile performance (Kulshrestha et al., 2009).
This could be the most probable reason to have such a high level of Mn concentration
here. Apart from that the higher concentration of Mn in the study area also may
[105]
happen due to various anthropogenic activities like transportation activities, ferrous
and nonferrous casting, construction activities and resuspension of soil dust. It is also
an established fact that the rain washes the suspended dust but high wind speed,
direction and congested traffic due to rain may help in accumulation of Mn in air
negating the effect of rain. The same phenomenon was also reported by Haritash and
Kaushik (2007). They found that the average concentration Mn in Hisar was high in
monsoon.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: comparing the
value of Mn with urban areas reported so far it is found that the lower range of Mn
(0.012 µg/m3, 0.014 µg/m3 and 0.012 µg/m3) in the study area is very much similar to
the value of Mn in EU cities (10.000-30.000 ng/m3) and the higher range (0.220
µg/m3,1.424 µg/m3and 0.822 µg/m3) remain quite close to the value of Mn (110.000-
195.000 ng/m3) in Chinese town as reported by Weiwei et al. (2006). The Mn
concentration in Agra (0.900 µg/m3) as per the report of Kulshrestha et al. (2009) is
very much similar to value of Mn in the study area.
Comparison with WHO standard: According to WHO guidelines recommended

level of Mn is 0.150 µg/m3. Out of fifteen residential sites almost 26.4 % and 40 % of
the monitoring site lie above the WHO standard in premonsoon and winter whereas
only 20 % has crossed the limit in postmonsoon. Regarding industrial area all sites lie
below the standard in premonsoon whereas lie above the standard in all site in both
postmonsoon and winter season except I1. All the monitoring sites falling in the
sensitive category have lower concentration of Mn than the standard except S3 in
premonsoon. Three sensitive sites viz. S4, S5 and S6 lie above the standard in
postmonsoon. Almost all the sensitive sites (S1, S2, S3, S4 and S6) are above the
standard in winter season except S5. Thus, the maximum violence of the prescribed
standard has occurred in winter season in all the monitoring sites. The stable
atmospheric condition in winter favouring less dispersion of pollutants may help in
more accumulation of Mn in all sites.
4.1.2.4 Chromium (Cr): The average value of Cr in study area is 0.012±0.047 µg/m3,
0.044±0.209 µg/m3 and 0.014±.0.059 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
[106]
season respectively (Table 4.6). Except a few sites all the monitoring sites have no Cr
in ambient air in the study area. The concentration of Cr is found very high in S1
(1.025 µg/m3). Cycle repairing shops beside this site, dealing with rubber works to
engineering works and grill works, electroplating, chrome Ni plating may be a major
contributor of Cr in this location. However, apart from these sources Cr is mostly
emitted to the atmosphere from coal combustion, the metal industry and waste
incineration (Hlavay et al., 1998). Not only that emission and abrasion from auto
mobiles may also be the source of Cr in the study area. The anomalous concentration
of Cr in the study area is validated by a similar work by Vertika and Upreti (2007).
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: Leilli et al.
(2008) had found that average concentration of Cr as 9.120±2.140 ng/m3 in Tehran.
Bhaskar et al. (2010) had found Cr concentration as 0.110 to 0.800 µg/m3 as a mean
in Madurai. Mohanraj et al. (2004) in Coimbatore found the range of Cr as BDL to
87.000 ng/m3 and mean as 14.200±14.100 ng/m3. The amount of Cr found in the
above mentioned cities are quite comparable with the ambient Cr present in the study
area. Weiwei et al. (2006) had reported that the range of Cr in European cities as
1.000 to 10.000 ng/m3 in general but 20.000 to 30.000 ng/m3 in the place near some
steel hot spot. So, in general the European cities are having less Cr in air than the
study area. Kulshestha et al. (2009) had reported Cr concentration as 0.300 µg/m3 in
Agra. So, in Agra comparatively, more Cr concentration is found in ambient air than
the study area.
4.1.3 Status of inorganic ions in ambient air in study area: In this section the
spatial and temporal variation of the inorganic ions viz. K+, Na+, F-, Cl-, SO42-
extracted from the respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM) in the study area
are discussed.
4.1.3.1 Potassium (K+): The average concentration of K+ found in the study area is
postmonsoon and winter season respectively (Table 4.7). It is observed that the K+ has
the highest average value at winter when PM10 also has the same. Normally, soil is
considered to be the main source of K+. The fine particles of K+ may be released into
[107]
the atmosphere by burning of plant material (Cooper, 1980). The maximum
concentration of K+ is found in industrial region i.e. 5.495 µg/m3 in I3 site, 39.200
µg/m3and16.533 µg/m3 in I2 site premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
respectively. Industrial area is dominated by rice mills and in the process of boiling
rice dried plant materials are used as fuel. These burnt plant material could be a major
source of K+ in the study area. Cooper (1980) had found that the burning of plant
material may release fine particles congaing K+.
value of K+ found in Tirupati by Mouli et al. (2003) and Mouli et al. (2006) were
214.578 ng/m3 and 0.410 µg/m3 respectively. Tripathi et al. (2004) had reported the
average value as 0.600 µg/m3 in Mumbai. All these reported values are much lower
than the average value of K+ in the study area.
4.1.3.2 Sodium (Na+): The average concentration of Na+ is found to be 5.023±3.673

µg/m3, 4.484±3.617 µg/m3and 5.754±5.300 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and
winter season respectively in the study area (Table 4.8). The maximum concentration
of Na+ is found in industrial region at site I1 (12.885 µg/m3) and I2 (22.667 µg/m3)
during premonsoon and winter season. Site R12 (11.000 µg/m3) is showing maximum
level of Na+ in postmonsoon season. Resuspension of soil derived particles from the
road side could be the possible reason of Na+ in the ambient air in the study area.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: Like K+ average
value of Na+ in Tirupati (751.497 ng/m3) [Mouli et al., 2003] is much lower than
study area but it can be comparable to the level of Na+ found in Mumbai (12.540
µg/m3) [Tripathi et al., 2004] and in Tirupati during 2006 (3.370 µg/m3) [ Mouli et al.,
2006].
4.1.3.3 Fluoride (F-): The average concentration of fluoride is seen to be 0.232±0.232

µg/m3, 0.340±0.401 µg/m3 and 0.431±0.633 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and
winter season respectively (Table 4.9). The maximum concentration is found in I2 site
during postmonsoon and winter season and in R12 during premonsoon. Maximum
concentration of F- at site R12 may be contributed from combustion of coal in that
particular place. According to Xiu et al. (2004) burning of coal and decomposition of
[108]
biomass may release F- in air. Apart from burning of coal from the surrounding area
of the rice mill zone, husk which is widely used in boiler operation in rice mill sector,
may also add F- in the air in site I2 both during postmonsoon and winter.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: The F-

concentration found in Tirupati were 20.090 ng/m3 in 2003 (Mouli et al., 2003) and
0.080 µg/m3 in 2006 ( Mouli et al., 2006) which were much less than the F- found in
the study area. Only the fluoride found in size fraction part in Shanghai (0.440 µg/m3
and 0.670 µg/m3 during spring and winter at industrial site; 0.310 µg/m3 at
miscellaneous site during both spring and winter season) by Xiu et al. (2004) is
comparable with the ambient fluoride concentration in the study area.
4.1.3.4 Chloride (Cl-): The average chloride concentrations found as

1.663±1.651µg/m3, 1.797±1.320 µg/m3 and 1.916±1.935 µg/m3 in this town in
premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively (Table 4.10). Cl- in coarser
particle might have two formation mechanisms. One was sea salt transformation and
the other might come from the photochemical reactions. Not only that waste
incinerator also gives birth to Cl- in air. As study area is far away from sea the other
two reasons may play the major contributors for Cl- concentration. Coal combustion is
also could be a possible source of Cl- in the study area. Xiu et al. (2004) found that
during the combustion chlorine in coal can be emitted in the form of chloride and
condensed into fine particle or through photochemical reactions on the fine particle
surface in Shanghai.
Chloride is also produced by gaseous HCl through reaction
HCl + NH3 (g) → NH4Cl (Spurny, 2000).
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: This average
value of Cl- is 231.188 ng/ m3 in Tirupati (Mouli et al., 2003) whereas 2.440 and
3.150 µg/m3 in PM2.5 fraction of particulate matter in Shanghai (Xiu et al., 2004).
Mouli et al. (2006) had found average Cl- value as 1.059 µg/m3 in the semi urban site
near Tirupati. The average value of Cl- found in the study area found is mostly similar
to the value of Cl- in Tirupati (2006) whereas almost half to the average value of Cl-
in Shanghai.
[109]
4.1.3.5 Sulphate (SO42-): The average concentration of SO42- in the study area is
10.734±6.921 µg/m3, 14.928±20.115 µg/m3 and 14.709±21.131 µg/m3 in
premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively (Table 4.11). The ionic
composition of the aerosol shows a trend SO42- >Cl- >F- for anions and Na+> K+ for
cations. This finding of array is also supported by Mouli et al. (2003). Chemical
conversion of SO2 to sulphate is the major reason for the elevated level of SO4 in the
study area. This finding is also very much similar to research work of Bhaskar et al.
(2010) in Kochaidai where the overall SO42- concentration ranges from 1.010 to
14.220 µg/m3. The average SO42- concentration in the study area is very high in
postmonsoon season. A possible mechanism of formation of SO42- is aqueous phase
oxidation of SO2 in cloud droplets (Hegg and Hobbs, 1982; Seigneur and Saxena,
1988; Pandis et al., 1992). Not only that, micro meteorology like wind velocity,
temperature, solar radiation also play a key role in gas phase reaction involving OH
radicals which should have more contribution to the formation of SO42-. The
maximum SO42- concentration is found in site R4 (29.227 µg/m3) in premonsoon and
I2 (99.736 µg/m3) in postmonsoon and in R13 (88.884 µg/m3) during winter. Site I2 is
located in industrial region and conventional fuels like coal, furnace oils are used for
industrial activities emitting SO2. Therefore, the emitted SO2 may be converted to
SO42- depending upon prevailing meteorological condition. Site R4 and R13 are
beside a major road of the town. There is no industrial activity but emission from
diesel driven auto mobiles may be the major contributor of SO42- concentration in
these two sites. It is also noticed that SO2 concentration is very less in these sites. So,
it can be concluded that emitted SO2 may be converted completely to SO42- in
favourable conditions.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: Mouli et al.
(2003) reported that the average SO42- concentration in Tirupati is 2484.715 ng/m3.
Mouli et al. (2006) also found that the average concentration of SO42- is 5.72 µg/m3.
These values are almost half of the average value of SO4 concentration in the study
area.
[110]
4.2 Spatio-temporal variation of gaseous pollutant in the study
area
In this section the spatial and temporal variation of the gaseous pollutants like
SO2, NO2, other gases viz. CO and O3 in the study area are discussed.
4.2.1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2): The average value of SO2 in the study area is
postmonsoon and winter season respectively (Table 4.12).
Among industrial, residential and sensitive sites maximum SO2 level is

observed in (site I2) industrial site where SO2 is found as 23.490 µg/m3, 21.300 µg/m3
and 30.800 µg/m3 during premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively.
This might be possibly due to emission from industrial boiler, heating and cooking
sources. The finding of the study area is similar to the findings by Gupta et al. (2008).
It is generally found that all the sites have high winter concentration of SO2 than
premonsoon and low value in postmonsoon season. Precipitation driven wash out may
lower down the postmonsoon value of SO2. Reddy and Ruj (2003) also found the
value of SO2 were high in winter followed by summer and monsoon. Sometimes a
few sites viz. R1, R3, R6 and I3 have higher level of SO2 concentration during
postmonsoon like in comparison to other season. Burning of coal by local people may
be responsible factor for the elevated concentration of SO2. This type of observation is
also reported by Valeroso and Monteverde (1992) in Manila where monsoonal value
of SO2 sometimes become higher negating the effect of rain.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: The overall
average value of SO2 in Dhaka is 48 µg/m3 (Salam et al., 2008). But the highest
concentration of SO2 is found in commercial and heavy traffic zone (76.8µg/m3) in
Dhaka by Salam et al. (2008). Verma et al. (2003) found the concentration of SO2 as
41.92 µg/m3 at Lucknow. The concentration of sulphur dioxide was found in Pakistan
in the range 0.02-0.007 ppm (Ali and Athar, 2008). In Haryana SO2 ranged from 9.85
µg/m3 to 37.0 µg/m3 ( Kaushik et al., 2006). The daily average of SO2 in Kolkata is
12.3±9.2 µg/m3 in residential site, 21.3±15.7 µg/m3 in industrial and 8 h value of SO2
[111]
was 15.5±11.9 µg/m3 (Gupta et al., 2008). Among these findings Kolkata’s scenario
with respect to SO2 is mostly similar to our study area.
Comparison with National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) standard: The
concentration of SO2 is comparatively lower in all the seasons than the prescribed
standard of NAAQS in all the monitoring sites. Similar kind of SO2 status was also
high lighted by other research workers such as Reddy and Ruj (2003), Ali and Athar
(2008) and Gupta et al. (2008). Reddy and Ruj (2003) had reported that the all the
monitoring sites in their study field i.e. Raniganj-Asansol area are below the standard
of SO2. Jain and Saxena (2002) in Dhanbad and Jharia also observe the SO2
concentration to be below the prescribed standards. Apart from NAAQS standard the
average value of SO2 is much more below the World Health Organization’s (WHO)
guide line (WHO, 2000: 50 µg/m3) and for the European Union.
4.2.2 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): The average concentration of NO2 for premonsoon,
postmonsoon and winter are 97.645±79.034 µg/m3, 95.126±52.355 µg/m3 and
126.557±83.245 µg/m3 respectively in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
respectively in the study area (Table 4.13). Through out the study area NO2 level is
very high. The maximum concentration is observed in R5 site which is in the tune of
368.170 µg/m3 in winter season and 202.430 µg/m3 in postmonsoon. The maximum
concentration is found during premonsoon at R6 (363.800 µg/m3). Site R6 is just
beside a major road (Grand Trunk road i.e. GT road) of the town. So, this elevated
level might be attributed to the high traffic density of the town. Similar findings are
also reported by a published work of Weng and Yang (2006). Site R5 is not just
beside the major road of the town. This site is beside a narrow road of the town. So,
the possible cause of the maximum concentration of NO2 at R6 may be due to
influence of road geometry on NO2 level. This finding is supported by the published
work of Khamdan et al. (2009) who found the highest NO2 concentration beside the
roads characterized by being narrow and confined, with many traffic lights and
roundabouts.
Generally, the winter with stable atmospheric condition and less precipitation
helps in accumulation of higher concentration of NO2 in comparison to the other two
[112]
seasons in the study area. In Dhanbad and Jharia more concentration of NOx is found
in winter by Jain and Saxena (2002). However still some deviations in this
observation are found in the study area. Site R8, R13, I1, I2, I4 have higher
postmonsoon value than the other two seasons. This might be explained by over
crowded condition in the town of Burdwan, which was also the centre of commercial
activities in the district. The building structures were constructed literally wall to wall
with very narrow streets separating one block from the other. Even the vehicular
traffic was at most times bumper to bumper and sometimes at a stand still every time
it rained. Hence, the increased amount of exhaust gases in the air has negated the
effect of the monsoon rains. This type of anomaly is again supported by Valeroso and
Monteverde (1992) in Manila where monsoonal value of NO2 sometimes become
higher negating the effect of rain.
Comparison with measurements of other urban areas and cities: Average

concentration of NO2 in Lucknow is 38.240 µg/m3 (Verma et al., 2003). Whereas in
Kolkata the average value of NO2 is 32.500±14.200 µg/m3in residential areas and
49.900±9.800 µg/m3in industrial areas (Gupta et al., 2008) which is much lower than
the average value found in the study area. The NO2 levels in Haryana were between
10.600 µg/m3 (Hisar) to 83.600 µg/m3 (Gurgaon) and 17.700 µg/m3 (Bhiwani) to
117.100 µg/m3 (Yamunanagar) in sensitive site and industrial areas respectively
(Kaushik et al., 2006). This value is very much similar to the observed value in the
study area. The increasing trend of NO2, observed in these cities along with our study
area may be due to high vehicular activity. However, the concentration of NO2 was
found in Pakistan in the range as 0.020-0.080 ppm by Ali and Athar (2008) and as
21.000 µg/m3 which is half of WHO guideline value 2005 [(40.000 µg/m3) (WHO,
2005)] in Dhaka by Salam et al. (2008).
Comparison with National ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) standard:

Within industrial sites, I1 exceeds the standard of NO2 in postmonsoon season only.
To explain the later it could be said NO2 was not only dependent on rainfall but also
dependent on vehicle density and the distance of the monitoring site from road (Lal
and Patil, 2001). Site I3 has the higher-level of NO2 than the standard in winter
season. All the sensitive sites have exceeded its standard of 30 µg/m3 in all seasons.
[113]
The residential sites also have a tendency to exceed the prescribed limit of NO2
almost in all seasons except a few sites like R1, R3, R12, R14, R9 in postmonsoon
and R1, R4, R5 R7, R10, R12, R13, R14 in premonsoon and R9, R10, R11and R13 in
winter. Lal and Patil (2001) also observed that the concentration of NOx exceeded the
CPCB standard for the residential area ( 80 µg/m3) at all sites in Mumbai. According
to their report that even at the distance of 48 m from the source, the concentration of
NOx was high and more than the specified value. Weng and Yang (2006) had also
observed that the Chinese NAQS for NOx (0.1 mg/m3) for residential areas was
exceeded by the city as a whole from 1986 to 1999. Same observation is reported by
Ali and Athar (2008) in Pakistan where the sampling locations were higher than the
USEPA limit of 0.05 ppm.
4.2.3 Other gaseous pollutants: Ozone (O3) and Carbon monoxide (CO)
4.2.3.1 Diurnal variation of O3 and CO in March and April: Both surface Ozone
(O3) and Carbon monoxide (CO) is monitored during the month of March and April
over three times a day for one hour duration at four sampling sites being
representatives of four zones viz. residential zone, industrial zone, sensitive zone and
traffic zone. Meteorological conditions are also taken into account to know its
influence in these criteria pollutants in the study area. In the month of March the
concentration of O3, CO, temperature, humidity and wind speed ranges from 9.70-
33.50 ppb, 0.33-10.25 ppm, 30.7-42.7°C, 17.4-80.1 % and calm-14.1 Km/hr
respectively; while in the month of April the variation of O3, CO, temperature,
humidity and wind speed are 3-33 ppb, 0.35-11.95 ppm, 30.6-50.3°C, 26-84.6 % and
calm-16.3 Km/hr respectively [Table 4.14 (a) & (b)]. The predominant wind direction
is South West, South East and North East in the March while in April it is in the
direction of South West, South and South East direction. It is found that the
concentration of O3 is not only function of its precursor viz. CO but also a function of
prevailing meteorological conditions. It is observed that the concentrations of O3 are
increased with the decreasing concentration of its precursor and vice versa.
The peak amplitude of O3 is generally in the noon (12:00-1:00 pm) time

whereas CO is observed to have the same in the morning hours between 7:00 am to
[114]
8:00 am. In the study area during both the monitoring months i.e. March and April
minimum concentration of O3 is found in morning whereas CO level has reached to
maximum. However, in the noon or afternoon the same observation becomes reverse
i.e. O3 reached its maximum value and CO reached to its minimum value. This
finding might be explained in this manner. The amounts of precursor in the morning
play a major role on after noon O3 peak levels. This phenomenon has been
investigated using the lag correlation study by Beig et al. (2007). They reveal that a
time lag of 5-7 hour is required for most of these precursor gases to photo chemically
produce O3 to its maximum potential. From the diurnal study it can be interpreted that
the precursor pollutants of O3 is built up in early morning hours along with its
maximum concentration in noon or afternoon.
value of O3 and CO are 22.78 ppb and 2.46 ppm in March; 16.62 ppb and 2.73 ppm in
April. This amount of O3 is quite less than the maximum concentration of ground
level O3 found by Beig et al. (2007)(43.02±16.47 ppbv) at Pune. Debaje et al. (2003)
at Tranquebar had found the maximum concentration of O3 (23.00±9.00 ppbv) in
summer. It is also reported that on the diurnal scale, O3 shows maximum
concentration in afternoon (2:00 pm-4:00 pm) and minimum (7:00 am-8:00 am local
time) at Pune (Tiwari and Peshin, 1995). Pulikeshi et al. (2006) reported that the
concentration of O3 varies between 2.00 to 53.00 ppb in Chennai. Salam et al. (2008)
had measured CO and O3 at five locations in Dhaka. Their sampling time was 8 hour
for O3 and 1 hour for CO. CO was observed to have the maximum concentration as
334.00 µg/m3 in industrial site. But in the study area the maximum concentration is
associated in traffic area (14.69 mg/ m3). Total average concentration of O3 was 28
µg/m3 in Dhaka which is lower than the daily maximum value of 100 µg/m3 (WHO,
2005). The same scenario is observed in study area. In Pakistan CO is found within
the range of 1.50 to 5.30 ppm, 2.80 to 6.10 ppm and 2.70 to 5.60 ppm (Ali and Athar,
2008) which are very much similar to the concentration of CO in the study area.
Comparison with NAAQS (1994) standard: According to NAAQS (1994) the limit
value of 1 hour average CO are 2.0 mg/m3 (sensitive area), 10.0 mg/m3(for industrial
area ) and 4.0 mg/m3(residential, rural and other areas). Comparing with this standard
[115]
it is noticed that all sensitive sites have exceeded its standard in both morning and
afternoon session except S4 in morning and S6 at afternoon session. The opposite
scenario is observed in industrial site. It is observed that the entire industrial site does
not exceed its standard. Among the residential sites R3, R8, R10, R11, R12, R13 and
R15 have crossed the said limit of 1 hour CO (Table 4.15).
Comparison with primary standard: The NAAQS primary standard is 35 ppm for
CO. Primary standards are set as threshold limit to protect public health, including the
health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly. So,
with respect to primary standard CO is quite safe in this town. Average value of 1
hour CO and O3 are 3.44±2.58 ppm (range: 0.80-12.95 ppm) and 23.17±8.70 ppb
(range: 7.00-45.00 ppb) respectively (Table 4.15). The NAAQS primary standard is
0.12 ppm (120.00 ppb) for O3. Therefore, with respect to primary standard O3 shows
no more danger right now to this town.
Comparison with NAAQS (2009) standard: The recent NAAQS standard (2009)
has limited the 1 hour CO value as 4 mg/m3 and for O3 180 µg/m3 for industrial,
residential, rural and other areas along with ecological sensitive area. The average
value found in this town for CO and O3 are 4.24±3.17 mg/m3 (range: 0.98-15.19
mg/m3) and 48.89±17.53 µg/m3 (14.77-94.95 µg/m3) (Table 4.15). So, the average
CO value in the study area has crossed the prescribed limit. On the other hand O3 is
again far below the standard. This phenomenon is supported by the findings of Verma
et al. (2003) as they had found that the concentration of ground level O3 in sensitive
sites of Lucknow was not exceeded its standard.
4.2.3.2 Meteorological influence on diurnal variation of O3 and CO in the study

area
Micrometeorology plays a significant role in distribution of the secondary

pollutant. In the following section micrometeorological influence with respect to
different zones i.e. industrial, residential, sensitive and traffic area has been discussed.
Industrial Area: In the morning wind speed is initially low i.e. 4.5 Km/hr and
thereafter is increased to 7.2 Km/hr in the noon in March. The increased wind speed
may add some precursor from the surrounding to the measurement site which may
[116]
result the higher O3 concentrations (33.40 ppb) at noon [Table 4.14 (a) & (b)]. O3
again is showing a significant positive correlation with wind speed (Satsangi et al.,
2004) at this site. So, wind helps to accumulate the precursors of O3. The maximum
O3 concentration was found at noon (30.40 ppb), when the temperature is also
maximum i.e. 42.7 ºC. In this time relative humidity is minimum (17.4 %). The
humidity reached maximum 80.1 % in the early morning. The maximum CO
concentration (2.46 ppm) was found in the morning in March. Other than vehicle
emission from rice mill also add some of CO in this site. The situation of O3 is quite
different in the month of April. The minimum ozone concentration is reported as
11.50 ppb in morning and the maximum O3 concentration (33.00 ppb) is found at
noon, when the temperature is high (43.9°C) (Bhugwant and Brémaud, 2001). Early
morning, as the vehicular density has increased, the CO concentration is also
increased. So, in both March and April the maximum concentration of CO is found in
the morning in this site. Apart from different anthropogenic emission of CO early
morning inversion could also be a probable reason for it.
Residential Area: In the month of March the hourly O3 concentrations of the three
sessions of the day of monitoring are seen as a function of relative humidity, wind
speed and temperature. In early morning, O3 concentration is lower than noon and
afternoon [Table 4.14 (a) & (b)]. The average value O3 concentration increases
gradually as the temperature increases and relative humidity decreases. O3
concentration has reached its first peak (33.50 ppb) in 12:00 pm -1:00 pm. This type
of behaviour is also recorded by National Research Council (1991). Meteorology for
this particular observation is in this manner: temperature - 35.9 ºC, relative humidity-
27 % and wind speed-0.8 Km/hr. The O3 concentration was decreased slightly in the
afternoon i.e. 31.30 ppb when the wind speed was calm. The maximum O3
concentration of this station is 33.5 ppb at noon. The temporal variation of O3 in the
month of April was little bit different from March. In early morning O3 concentration
is 17.00 ppb when the temperature is very high (50.3 ºC), relative humidity is low
(31.6 %) and wind speed is 2.5 Km /hr on that day. High temperature always favours
the photochemical process of O3 formation. Some researchers had reported the same
observation in Chennai where high concentration of O3 is found with high
[117]
temperature and low humidity (Pulikeshi et al., 2006). Apart from this work Jain et al.
(2005) had also found higher levels of O3 at Delhi due to warm and sunny days along
with low humidity. The average O3 concentration is decreased gradually as the
temperature is also decreased. In the noon the temperature is 45 ºC and the
concentration of O3 becomes 14.00 ppb when wind speed is 3.6 km/hr. O3 has showed
a significant positive correlation with wind speed (Satsangi et al., 2004). So, inspite of
low temperature this much of concentration of O3 is found in the noon. The CO
concentration is also low at this time. In case of afternoon the ozone concentration is
decreased following the fall of the temperature. But in the afternoon the CO
concentration (4.85 ppm) becomes higher. It might be due to combustion from
domestic sources. Sometime it is also observed that inspite of increase in the
precursor of tropospheric O3 the fall in O3 concentration was recorded as due to the
temperature fall (Narumi, et al., 2009).
Sensitive area: In the month of March the highest concentration of O3 (29.50 ppb) is
observed in the afternoon [Table 4.14 (a) & (b)] when temperature was 33.3 ºC and
relative humidity is 57 %. It is clearly noticed that in morning O3 concentration is
18.50 ppb when CO concentration was 1.53 ppm. CO concentration is decreased
when O3 concentration is increased in afternoon. The scenario of these pollutants in
the month of April in the same spot is reflecting that in the morning, the minimum
concentration of O3 is found as 13.50 ppb when the temperature is 30.6 ºC and CO
concentrations is also high. The cause of high CO concentration in the morning may
be due to the combustion of domestic sources (combustion of coke from the domestic
area surrounding the agricultural land). In the contrary O3 concentration has reached
its first peak at afternoon. Beig et al. (2007) had revealed that a time lag of 5-7 hour is
required for most of these precursor gases to produce O3 photo chemically to its
maximum potential. It may be one of the causes for the increasing O3 concentration in
the afternoon with the decreasing value of CO concentration.
Traffic area: This sampling site is the most traffically congested area of the town. In
the month of March it was found that the maximum O3 concentration is recorded as
18.00 ppb at noon [Table 4.14 (a) & (b)]. It is seen that relative humidity reached
maximum in the early morning and gradually it is decreased. On the other hand
[118]
relative humidity decreased its value as the ambient air temperature increased. As this
site is a traffically congested area CO concentration is increased in the morning with
the increasing number of the vehicular density. The same findings were replicated in
the afternoon. In April at this sampling spot it is found that the O3 concentration
reached its maximum (15.00 ppb) at noon when the temperature also has reached its
peak (43.4 ºC) and at this time humidity is 42.8 % and the wind speed is 6.4 Km/hr. It
was seen that CO concentration is found very high in the morning when the traffic
activity / vehicular density is also very high.
4.3 Statistical interpretation of analytical parameters
4.3.1 Pearson correlations among variables
4.3.1.1 Premonsoon: From the correlation analysis it is observed that RSPM has
positive correlation with TSPM (r value is 0.994) at 0.01 levels. Not only that RSPM
has also good positive correlation with Mn (r = 0.567), SO42- (r = 0.523) and F (r =
0.635). In the same manner TSPM has again positive correlation with Mn (r = 0.598),
SO42- (r = 0.572) and F- (r = 0.589). Positive correlation also exists between rainfall
and SO42- (r = 0.598) at 0.01 significant level (Table 4.16). Mn is originated mainly
from vehicle and industry. Whereas F- may come from the coal combustion and
biomass burning. SO42-, the secondary pollutant mainly comes in ambient air from
photochemical oxidation of sulphur containing precursors such as SO2, H2S and CS2
etc. Amongst them SO2 which is originated from burning of biomass, is the largest
contributor of SO42-. So, indirectly biomass burning is the possible cause of SO42- in
ambient air. Thus, vehicle emission and biomass burning could be the possible
sources for particulate matter, Mn, F- and SO2 in the study area. Aqueous phase
oxidation of SO2 gives birth to atmospheric SO42-. Rather this emitted SO2 is
converted to SO42- by aqueous phase reaction. So, a positive correlation is found
between SO42- and rainfall.
4.3.1.2 Postmonsoon: Like premonsoon in postmonsoon TSPM and RSPM is highly

correlated (r = 0.968) in a positive manner. RSPM and TSPM also have strong
positive correlation with Mn (r = 0.519 and r = 0.587) and Na+ (r = 0.613 and r =
0.536). K+ is noticed to be significantly (0.01 level) correlated with SO2 (r = 0.537),
[119]
SO42- (r = 0.859), F- (r = 0.615) positively whereas with temperature (r =-0.764)
negatively. Mn is having a relation with F- (r = 0.581) in this season. This may happen
due to emission from vehicles used in industrial sector where mainly the high F-
concentration originated from burning of husk is found. Temperature is showing a
negative correlation with both SO42- (r =-0.633) and F- (r =-0.511). Humidity and
rainfall is showing positive correlation (Table 4.17). This finding is supported partly
by the published work of Mouli et al. (2006) who found that a relatively good
correlation between aerosol mass and SO42-, K+ and Na+ as well as SO42- and K+.
Potassium, F- and SO42- are related to the burning procedure. But only Na is of soil
origin. So, majority of particulate matter either originate from soil dust or from
burning of biomass. Temperature has a negative relation with the SO42- or F-. This
may happen because when the temperature falls the local people may use more
biomass for burning to generate heat. It is an established fact that when humidity
increases rainfall occurs. That’s why humidity and rainfall have a positive relationship
between them. Han et al. (2005) found a very well correlation between K+ and SO42-
which were suggested as tracer of bio mass burning.
4.3.1.3 Winter: In winter RSPM and TSPM both have significant positive relation (r
= 0.955). A significant positive relation also exits between RSPM and K+ (r = 0.509).
RSPM is also positively related to Na+ (r = 0.661), Cl- (r = 0.540) and F- (r = 0.541).
Just like RSPM, TSPM has also a 0.01 level significant positive relation with K (r =
0.550), Na+ (r = 0.663), Cl- (r = 0.564) and F- (r = 0.634). Mn is positively related
with K+ (r = 0.779) and F- (r = 0.623) whereas Na+ is correlated with K+ (r = 0.676),
Cl- (r = 0.748) and F- (r = 0.641). F- is associated with SO2 (r =0.574), K+ (r = 0.825)
and Cl- (r = 0.654) (Table 4.18). In explanation of this positive correlation the
following assumption may be taken into consideration. As discussed earlier
particulate matter containing K+, Cl- and F- are mainly of biomass burning origin. Mn
is related to K+ and F-. So, industrial origin (where biomass burning occurs frequently
and traffic density is also high) is the common source of them. As Na+, Cl- and F- may
be of natural origin that is why they again are correlated. F- and SO2 may come from
combustion of coal. Again Na+, K+ and Cl- are of natural origin, so they are
correlated.
[120]
4.3.2 Factor analysis
Several factor rotation techniques such as varimax, quartimax, direct oblimin,

equamax etc are available in literature. In this study varimax rotation, which is most
commonly used has been adopted. Varimax rotated factor analysis was carried out
using XLSTAT (2011) with particulate matter, trace elements present in it and
gaseous pollutant s along with meteorological parameters. Thus six/five factors are
selected on the criteria of cumulative percentage variance > 70 % and eigen value >
1.0 (Table 4.19 to 4.24). The following assumptions are considered in this analysis.
The higher the absolute value of the loading, the more the chemical elements are
considered as fingerprints of the emission source, allowing for the identification of
specific emission sources. If two variables in factor are of same algebraic sign, a
direct relationship exists between the variables and the factor vice versa.
4.3.2.1 Premonsoon: In premonsoon season six factors are extracted based on the
said criteria. This factor accounts for 22.28 % of the variance with high load value of
RSPM, TSPM and Mn (factor loadings 0.76-0.94) in the observations. SO42- and F-
are also observed to be moderately loaded (0.65-0.66) in this factor. So, the source of
SO42- and F- may be included. However, TSPM, RSPM are clustered with Mn which
denotes mainly vehicle origin. So, emission from vehicle could be a major source
contributor of pollutant source in the study area.
In second factor which accounts 12.23 % of the variance, potassium is

principal component with high load value of 0.80. It is a major tracer of vegetative
burning (Tripathy et al., 2004). A medium load value of Pb and rainfall (- 0.59 to -
0.64) is also observed in this factor. Pb and rainfall is found to be positively related as
they both are of same sign. So, it can be said that during heavy rain scavenges out the
resuspended soil containing Pb in it.
The third factor represents high load value of temperature (- 0.85) and medium
load value of SO2 (0.66) which accounts for only 9.77 % of the total variance. For
space heating in colder temperature local people burnt more coal. So, SO2 and
temperature is inversely related. This finding is supported by the published work of
[121]
Bridgman et al. (2002) revealed that SO2 concentrations were strongly related to
colder temperature.
The fourth factor (10.21 %) is mainly attributed to Cr (0.80) and NO2 (0.80).
Cr is of industrial origin. But vehicle tier made of rubber etc may release Cr in
atmosphere. So, resuspended dust due to vehicular movements as well as vehicle
emission is found from this factor.
The fifth factor (8.91 %) is contributed by Cd (0.67) and humidity (0.68)

mainly. The high relative humidity may result in higher concentration of trace metals
(Haritash and Kaushik, 2007). So, emitted Cd from coal combustion and waste
incineration may accumulate more in humid atmospheric condition.
The sixth (12.05 %) factor is highly loaded by Na+ (0.86) and Cl- (0.72). Cl- is
of mainly originated from coal burning. So, soil resuspension and coal combustion
may cause it.
In premonsoon one natural source of pollution i.e. soil resuspension and two
anthropogenic sources viz. vehicle emission, coal combustion or biomass burning is
identified as major source of air pollution.
4.3.2.2 Postmonsoon: The first factor accounts for 16.77 % of the variance, with a
high load value of RSPM (0.81), TSPM (0.86) and Mn (0.87) just like premonsoon.
So, vehicle emission along with resuspended road dust is the common source of these
pollutants in the study area. A medium load value (0.56) of F-is also observed in this
factor.
The second factor represents 20.15 % of the variance of the samples in the
dataset. It is made up with high load value of K+ (0.95), SO42- (0.85) and temperature
(-0.86) whereas medium load value of SO2 (0.63) and F- (0.61). K+ is usually related
to biomass combustion (Weiwei et al., 2006) presents a high load value along with
SO42- and temperature (- 0.86) in this factor. Similarly SO2 and F- are also originated
from biomass burning. SO42- in ambient air is mainly originated from photochemical
oxidation of sulphur containing precursors like SO2. Biomass burning is the principal
source of SO2 in the atmosphere. Therefore, conversion of SO2 to sulphate was the
[122]
major reason in this city. And temperature and SO2 are inversely related (Bridgman et
al., 2002).
The third factor (11.30 %) is attributed by Pb (0.90) and medium load value of
Cd(0.69) and NO2 (- 0.57). Coal combustion and incineration of wastes are the
common source of Pb and Cd. So, combustion of coal and wastes along with vehicle
emission could be the possible source of them in the study area.
The fourth factor is mainly attributed to humidity with 12.99 % variance. A

high load value of humidity (0.85) and medium load value of rainfall (0.69) are also
observed in this factor. Gupta et al. (2008) also found humidity as the representative
of a factor in Kolkata. In this factor humidity is not correlating with other pollutants.
The fifth factor (8.73 %) is accounted by Cr (0.88). Solid waste incineration

and vehicle tier also may release it.
The sixth factor (10.40 %) is corroborated by Na (- 0.69). Na+ is of soil origin.

So, road soil resuspension may be one factor in postmonsoon.
So, in postmonsoon one geogenic source i.e. soil resuspension and other
anthropogenic source like vehicle emission along with combustion of biomass and
waste material are identified as major source of air pollution in the study area.
4.3.2.3 Winter: In winter five factors are extracted. The first factor (30.91 %) is by
RSPM (0.84), TSPM (0.86), Mn (0.73), K+ (0.82), Na+ (0.82), F- (0.81) and Cl-
(0.71). In this factor particulate matter is clustered together with metals and ions
which are of anthropogenic origin as well as geogenic origin. So, this factor
represents contribution from vehicle emission and resuspended road dust due to
vehicle movements along with burning of biomass. SO2 also has a medium (0.55)
load value. Biomass burning could be the possible anthropogenic source.
The second factor (10.52 %) is accounted by Cd (0.75) and temperature (-

0.87). The major sources of Cd in the study area are far found as the combustion of
coal and waste material. So, it can be concluded that in colder temperature
combustion procedure releasing Cd in air is increased by the local people.
[123]
The third factor accounts 10.33 % variance with a high load value of rainfall (-
0.83) which is not related with any other pollutants.
The fourth factor accounts for 10.59 % with high load value of NO2 (- 0.69)
and SO4 (0.72). This factor is also attributed to winds peed in medium load value (-
0.57). So, vehicle and biomass burning could be traced as source of air pollution from
this factor. Wind speed has no direct impact on SO42- concentration where as direct
impact on NO2 concentration. This may happen due to location of pollution source.
Perhaps wind from particular direction is helping in accumulation of the emitted NO2.
The fifth factor (9.97 %) is attributed to high load value of humidity (0.80) and
Cr (0.64) and moderate load value of SO2 (- 0.57) with moderate loading. Just like
other heavy metal Cr a tracer of solid waste incineration is also positively influenced
by humidity. Moderate load value of negative sign indicates its different origin.
Besides combustion procedure auto mobiles, especially diesel driven vehicles also
emit SO2 in considerable quantity (Bhaskar et al., 2010).
So, in winter like other two seasons, one geogenic pollution source i.e. soil
resuspension along with anthropogenic sources viz. vehicle emission and combustion
of coal and waste are identified.
4.3.3 Air Quality Index (AQI)
Table 4.25 to 4.27 represent air quality index and air quality category
corresponding to the index calculated on basis of four criteria pollutants viz. PM10,
NO2, SO2 and Pb. The seasonal variation of AQI for each site in each zone are
achieved to reflect the town’s status in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season.
4.3.3.1 Premonsoon: In premonsoon the residential sites R1, R2, R3, R14 and
industrial sites I1, I2 are found as “Clean” in premonsoon season. R5, R6, R7, R8,
R10, R12, R13, R15, I3, I4 are found to fall in “Fairly clean” category whereas R4,
R9 and R11 are found as “Moderately Polluted” category. So, mainly three categories
are observed amongst the residential and industrial zone in premonsoon season. In the
same season a little bit more pollution is observed amongst the sensitive sites. The
AQI value reflects that except S5 and S6 (falling under “Fairly clean” category), the
rest is under “Moderately polluted” zone to “Polluted” zone (Table 4.25).
[124]
4.3.3.2 Postmonsoon: In postmonsoon season R1, R2, R13, I1, I2 and I3 are
represented as “Clean” while all other residential site and industrial site are
represented as “Fairly clean” category except R5. So, the air quality status becomes
quite better in the premonsoon season. Regarding sensitive zone S1 falls in “very
clean” category and S2, S6 are in “fairly clean” and the rest sensitive sites are found
as “Moderately polluted”. As the monsoon approaches to the town it is observed that
due to scavenging effect of rain the situation becomes quite clear with respect to AQI
value (Table 4.26).
4.3.3.3 Winter: The Winter AQI reflects that R1, R9, R15, I2 are “Moderately”
polluted and R3. R13, I3 are “Clean” category and the rest is of “Fairly clean”
category. The sensitive sites are found as the most polluted in this season in
comparison to the other two seasons. S4 is severely polluted while S5, S6 are
moderately polluted and S1, S2, S3 are found to lie in “Polluted” category. So, the
pollution level with respect to AQI again increased due to less circulation for stable
and stagnant condition of winter in the study area (Table 4.27).
4.3.3.4 Percent (%) wise distribution in each category of AQI: About 53 %, 73 %

and 66 % of residential area falls under “fairly clean” category in premonsoon,
postmonsoon and winter season respectively while 26 %, 20 % and 13 % of the said
area comes under “clean” category. “Moderately polluted” category is found lowest
(6.66 %) in postmonsoon and found highest (20 %) in premonsoon and winter season.
In postmonsoon 75 % of the industrial area comes under ‘Clean” category

while it becomes 25 % in winter and 50 % in premonsoon. In winter an additional
polluted category apart from “Clean and “Fairly clean” category is observed i.e.
“Moderately polluted” category, covering 25 % of industrial site in winter season.
In case of sensitive zone a “very clean” category (16 %) is observed through

out postmonsoon season, while 33 % of each category i.e. “Clean”, moderately
polluted and “polluted” is observed in premonsoon season. During postmonsoon
season 33 % and 50 % of the monitoring sites comes under “Fairly clean” and
“moderately polluted” category. But the pollution level has increased in winter season
[125]
as the AQI status is found as 33 % of “Moderately polluted” category, 50 % of
“Polluted” category and 16 % of “Severely polluted” category.
4.4 Overall interpretation of spatio-temporal variation of

particulate matter, gaseous pollutants by means of GIS
In this section overall air quality status of the study area is interpreted by
means of thematic distribution of particulate matter and gaseous pollutant aided by
windrose diagram. Areal coverage (sq km) of the study area with respect to different
categories of AQI is also represented by means of inverse distance interpolation
technique (IDINT) in a GIS environment.
Spatio-temporal variation of RSPM, SO2, NO2, Pb are represented by Figure

4.4, 4.5 & 4.6; Figure 4.7, 4.8 & 4.9; Figure 4.10, 4.11 & 4.12; Figure 4.13, 4.14 &
4.15. Windrose diagrams are represented by Figure 4.1 (a) & (b); Figure 4.2 (a) & (b)
and Figure 4.3 (a) & (b). Projected areas under different areas under the different
categories of AQI are represented in Figure 4.16, Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18.
4.4.1 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of RSPM: In premonsoon

three highly concentric zones of PM10 (i.e. the zone is having RSPM value greater
than 150 µg/m3 and covering 8.148 sq km area (Table 4.28) is found in Burdwan
municipality area. One of these zones is seen in between north to east, other is in
between south to east and the third one is in south west (Figure 4.4). The mechanism
of accumulation and dispersion of pollutants is quite complex in nature. As pollutant’s
fate is also affected by local land use pattern and domestic behaviour of local people
sometime negating the effect of season. Not only those other meteorological factors
viz. wind direction and speed is also a major factor in determining the pollution level
in an urban area. Wind speed is important in flushing out of pollutants as strong winds
flush out the pollutants of the system while low winds allow pollution level to rise
(Gupta et al., 2008).
The premonsoon windrose of the study area is reflecting that the predominant
wind direction in this season was from N, NE, SE, S, SSW, SW and W. However,
high speed wind mainly from SE, SW and S [Figure 4.1(a) & (b)]. This high speed
wind in the particular direction might have carried the RSPM from the industrial area
[126]
and traffic area and helped in their accumulation in the three zones in the north to
east, south to east and south west part of the town. Figure 4.4 also represents that from
this highly concentric zone RSPM seems to be diluted and spread out in different
concentration zone of RSPM like a zone having RSPM value in between 100-150
µg/m3 (6.783 sq km), 75- 100 µg/m3 (3.921 sq km) and less than 75 µg/m3 (6.448 sq
km).
In postmonsoon the region between north east to east and southwest part of the
town are seen to have highly concentrated zone (> 150 µg/m3 and covering 4.028 sq
km) of RSPM (Figure 4.5). Predominant wind direction in this season is in the
direction of N, NE, S, SSW and SW. It is observed that a very high velocity wind
blows from the direction of ESE, S, SSW and W [Figure 4.2 (a) & (b)]. Accumulation
of particulate matter and wind speed are inversely related. So, a comparatively a
lower concentration of RSPM is found in the area of the town affected by the high
speed wind blew from these said direction. Concentric zone having RSPM value in
between 100-150 µg/m3 are covering 5.621 sq km, between 75- 100 µg/m3 are of
5.105 sq km ) and less than 75 µg/m3are of 10.546 sq km).
In winter the north western, northern, south eastern, north to north western,
south to south western and western part of the town are dominated by highly
concentrated zone of (> 150 µg/m3 covering 14.413 sq km) RSPM (Figure 4.6). Wind
direction is from N, NW, NNW, NE, SW and S. high speed wind is from N, NW,
NNW and S [Figure 4.3 (a) & (b)]. Apart from wind speed, less rainfall in this season
favoured the accumulation of such a high level of RSPM in the said part of the town.
Another zone having RSPM value in between 100-150 µg/m3 are of 8.063 sq km
whereas in between 75- 100 µg/m3 are of 1.202 sq km and less than 75 µg/m3is
covering 1.622 sq km area.
Apart from these observations of meteorological influence on RSPM in the

three seasons the windrose diagram is also reflecting that the calm condition is
prevailed as whereas only 3 and 11 % in premonsoon; 11 and 12 % in postmonsoon;
12 and 27 % in winter. An elevated pollutant concentration is contributed with the
increase of calm condition favouring stable atmospheric condition and less dispersion
[127]
of pollutants vice versa (Gupta et al., 2008). The total rainfall is 236.4 mm and 393.8
mm in premonsoon; 1296.8 and 900.4 mm in postmonsoon; 29.9 and 474.3 mm in
winter season during two monitoring years. The scrubbing effect of particulate
pollution is also a function of total rainfall in that season. So, a low level of particulate
matter is found in postmonsoon instead the calm condition being very much similar
with winter and premonsoon. Thus, due to the influence of micro as well as
macrometeorology, more pollution is found in winter followed by premonsoon and
postmonsoon.
4.4.2 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of SO2: The study area is

covered under only one concentric zone of less than 30 µg/m3 in three seasons (Table
4.29). So, the scenario is same in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter (Figure 4.7,
Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9).
4.4.3 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of NO2: In premonsoon two

highly concentrated zones of NO2 i.e. the zone is having NO2 value greater than 120
µg/m3 (4.836 sq km) (Table 4.30) are found in the study area. One of these zones is
seen in mainly northern part, other is in south to east. Then just like RSPM, NO2 also
seems to be diluted and spread out in different concentric zone of NO2 like a zone
having NO2 value in between 80-120 µg/m3 (6.113 sq km), 30- 80 µg/m3 (14.003 sq
km) and less than 30 µg/m3 (0.530 sq km) [Figure 4.10].
Premonsoon windrose diagram reflects that N, NE, SE, S, SSW, SW and W

are the predominant wind direction in this season in the study area. However, winds
having high speed come mainly from SE, SW and S. This high speed wind of wind
pattern might have carried the NO2 from traffic emission along the major road in the
southern part of the town and helped in their accumulation in the northern zone and
also in south eastern zone of the town. Whereas wind speed ranging from low to
moderate particularly from N and NE portion helps in building a very high
concentration of NO2 in northern part after the emission of NO2 from the major road
in the northern part of the town. N and NE part is also a dominant agriculture area of
the town. So, NOx emission from this agricultural area may be the major contributor
in this portion.
[128]
In postmonsoon the situation becomes more polluted as it is seen that three
concentric zone of greater than 120 µg/m3 (4.973 sq km) in northern part, south
eastern part and southern part of the town (Figure 4.11). A concentric zone of 80-120
µg/m3 (9.748 sq km) is covering almost half portion of the total area of the town in
the north eastern portion. Rest half of the total town area is covered by the concentric
zone of 30-80 µg/m3 (10.297 sq km) except a smaller portion of the town in the south
having concentric zone of 80-120 µg/m3. An area of 0.398 sq km is covered by less
than 30 µg/m3 in the study area. Predominant wind direction in this season is from N,
NE, S, SSW and SW. A very high velocity wind speed blew from ESE, S, SSW and
W. So, high velocity wind from south may disperse the accumulated NO2 in the south
portion of the study area whereas more accumulation of NO2 has occurred in the same
direction of prevailing wind pattern.
In winter more pollution with respect to NO2 is seen as the whole north
western part and south eastern part of the town are having greater than 120 µg/m3
(12.269 sq km) NO2. Only the middle portion between these zone (north western part
and south eastern part having greater than 120 µg/m3 NO2) are covered by the
concentric zone of 80-120 µg/m3 (8.446 sq km) and by the concentric zone of 30-80
µg/m3 (4.304 sq km) [Figure 4.12]. Again just like postmonsoon only 0.396 sq km
area is covered by less than 30 µg/m3 in the study area. Wind direction was from N,
NW, NNW, NE, SW and S. So, it can be said that more accumulation of NO2 is
occurring with the prevailing wind pattern particularly in north western portion of the
study area. High speed wind blew from the same direction i.e. N, NW and NNW. As
discussed earlier that in winter calm condition (12 and 27 %) prevails more than the
other two seasons. Thus, it may concluded that stable atmosphere and low mixing
height have trapped the pollutant in particularly in those area affected by these
direction. High speed wind blew also from S which might have carried the NO2 and
helped in accumulation in south eastern part.
4.4.4 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of Pb: The scenario of Pb is

just same as SO2. The whole study area is covered under the concentric zone of less
than 0.75 µg/m3 (Table 4.31) (Figure 4.13, Figure 4.14 and Figure 4.15).
[129]
4.4.5 Overall scenario of spatio-temporal variation of AQI: Premonsoon
Thematic map reveals that the western part of the town mainly covered by clean area
(2.957 sq km) (Table 4.32) while the minor part of northern portion, south western
part and south eastern part of the town represent the moderately polluted (3.290 sq
km) region. A very small portion of the town (beside S2) is seen to be polluted (0.031
sq km) while majority of the town is covered by fairly clean area (18.753 sq km)
(Figure 4.16).
The premonsoon windrose of the study area is reflecting that the predominant
wind direction in this season was from N, NE, SE, S, SSW, SW and W. However,
high speed wind mainly comes from SE, SW and S.
After the offset of monsoon same scenario is observed. Fairly clean area
(22.262 sq km) is covering the whole town except a few portions in the middle to
north and north western part. This portion is found as clean (2.744 sq km) while a
little patch of very clean (0.298 sq km) category is seen beside S1. Moderately
polluted (0.019 sq km) patch is seen behind S5 (Figure 4.17). It seems that the clean
area is shifted towards the north western part of the town in compassion to
premonsoon. This phenomenon was also influenced by meteorological phenomenon
which might be supported by wind rose diagram. The predominant wind direction in
this season is from N, NE, S, SSW and SW. A very high velocity wind speed blew
from ESE, S, SSW and W.
In winter fairly clean (13.326 sq km) and moderately polluted region (11.260
sq km) cover the major portion of the town. Severely polluted (0.001 sq km), heavily
polluted (0.012 sq km) are found beside S4. Southern portion S4 and small region
behind S1 is polluted (0.426 sq km) while the rest under clean (0.007 sq km) (Figure
4.18). It looks that the pollutants were seemed to be dispersed more in these direction
from the polluted region which is also supported by the windrose diagram. As it is
observed that in winter the predominant wind direction was from N, NW, NNW, NE,
SW and S. high speed wind is from N, NW, NNW and S.
[130]
Table 4.1: Spatial and temporal variation of respiratory suspended particulate matter
(RSPM) in the study area (average of data obtained in 2008 & 2009)
Site Premonsoon Postmonsoon Winter

RSPM (µg/m3) RSPM (µg/m3) RSPM (µg/m3)
R1 42.500 22.800 203.900
R2 40.900 15.020 174.700
R3 230.000 93.300 34.260
R4 303.300 35.900 41.180
R5 267.920 174.400 78.800
R6 111.400 16.300 281.080
R7 99.660 77.500 153.410
R8 135.000 34.500 237.500
R9 100.000 109.980 142.600
R10 71.620 137.970 175.690
R11 323.100 277.720 114.230
R12 268.400 203.330 102.460
R13 69.510 100.000 47.160
R14 60.110 161.900 153.410
R15 98.100 141.000 98.000
I1 134.000 92.980 178.900
I2 54.100 50.100 316.200
I3 175.800 71.110 55.800
I4 60.410 80.950 231.100
S1 123.600 10.950 216.280
S2 44.870 29.910 190.700
S3 131.200 51.580 166.400
S4 88.500 97.610 363.690
S5 40.200 60.080 133.170
S6 96.400 4.480 54.950
Minimum 40.200 4.480 34.260

Maximum 323.100 277.720 363.690
Average 126.824 86.055 157.823
Standard deviation 85.859 67.322 86.578
[131]
Table 4.2: Spatial and temporal variation of total suspended particulate matter
(TSPM) in the study area (average of data obtained in 2008 & 2009)
TSPM (µg/m3) TSPM (µg/m3) TSPM (µg/m3)
R1 97.325 52.285 466.828
R2 93.661 35.013 400.640
R3 526.700 213.956 78.568
R4 694.557 82.326 91.515
R5 612.737 399.934 171.659
R6 255.462 40.500 563.050
R7 197.728 177.475 206.384
R8 268.191 134.800 404.330
R9 229.000 264.078 240.210
R10 161.4298 316.134 337.990
R11 739.899 670.500 254.480
R12 529.257 293.020 234.941
R13 138.187 229.000 108.138
R14 119.415 379.781 351.769
R15 224.649 323.341 252.800
I1 266.204 212.924 403.753
I2 123.545 99.529 737.977
I3 349.244 162.842 127.174
I4 138.532 211.040 529.912
S1 283.440 31.950 404.910
S2 103.840 59.419 438.568
S3 299.898 119.430 320.704
S4 201.202 239.810 722.418
S5 92.730 119.276 264.556
S6 221.064 8.900 259.950
Minimum 92.730 8.900 78.568

Maximum 739.899 670.500 737.977
Average 278.716 195.090 334.929
[132]
Table 4.3: Spatial and temporal variation of Pb in the study area (average of data

Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3)
R1 0.084 0.264 0.423
R2 0.119 0.094 0.281
R3 0.030 0.161 0.101
R4 0.583 0.122 0.286
R5 0.077 0.058 0.050
R6 0.086 0.135 0.349
R7 0.162 0.121 0.026
R8 0.211 0.053 0.058
R9 0.179 0.268 0.226
R10 0.245 0.264 0.099
R11 0.240 0.160 0.279
R12 0.213 0.103 0.121
R13 0.136 0.031 0.449
R14 0.076 0.034 0.120
R15 0.173 0.451 0.163
I1 0.183 0.205 0.461
I2 0.026 0.103 0.481
I3 0.097 0.423 0.156
I4 0.249 0.443 0.318
S1 0.138 0.030 0.192
S2 0.293 0.114 0.157
S3 0.198 0.098 0.200
S4 0.026 0.102 0.314
S5 0.140 0.310 0.100
S6 0.026 0.176 0.053
Minimum 0.026 0.030 0.026

Maximum 0.583 0.451 0.481
Average 0.160 0.173 0.219
[133]
Table 4.4: Spatial and temporal variation of Cd in the study area (average of data
Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3)
R1 0.005 0.034 0.020
R2 0.001 0.009 0.002
R3 0.001 0.001 0.014
R4 0.013 0.001 0.008
R5 0.005 0.001 0.004
R6 0.001 0.004 0.006
R7 0.005 0.001 0.002
R8 0.018 0.001 0.002
R9 0.024 0.001 0.002
R10 0.082 0.031 0.002
R11 0.005 0.010 0.025
R12 0.005 0.001 0.001
R13 0.005 0.001 0.016
R14 0.016 0.001 0.002
R15 0.049 0.013 0.011
I1 0.001 0.021 0.032
I2 0.001 0.028 0.036
I3 0.002 0.064 0.067
I4 0.002 0.001 0.010
S1 0.013 0.006 0.002
S2 0.007 0.002 0.002
S3 0.014 0.020 0.014
S4 0.001 0.001 0.024
S5 0.018 0.008 0.002
S6 0.045 0.019 0.009
Minimum 0.001 0.001 0.001

Maximum 0.082 0.064 0.067
Average 0.014 0.011 0.013
[134]
Table 4.5: Spatial and temporal variation of Mn in the study area (average of data
Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3)
R1 0.012 0.141 0.048
R2 0.031 0.071 0.026
R3 0.220 0.073 0.077
R4 0.196 0.200 0.115
R5 0.204 0.119 0.059
R6 0.098 0.042 0.281
R7 0.044 0.092 0.012
R8 0.075 0.014 0.088
R9 0.108 0.076 0.277
R10 0.169 0.019 0.457
R11 0.083 1.424 0.210
R12 0.123 0.085 0.368
R13 0.069 0.143 0.130
R14 0.030 0.241 0.169
R15 0.049 0.125 0.055
I1 0.025 0.058 0.026
I2 0.075 0.278 0.739
I3 0.043 0.176 0.188
I4 0.120 0.567 0.391
S1 0.043 0.019 0.822
S2 0.074 0.014 0.158
S3 0.167 0.076 0.193
S4 0.068 0.383 0.254
S5 0.028 0.470 0.012
S6 0.021 0.287 0.196
Minimum 0.012 0.014 0.012

Maximum 0.220 1.424 0.822
Average 0.087 0.208 0.214
[135]
Table 4.6: Spatial and temporal variation of Cr in the study area (average of data
Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3)
R1 n.a n.a n.a
R2 n.a n.a n.a
R3 n.a n.a n.a
R4 n.a n.a n.a
R5 n.a n.a n.a
R6 n.a 0.005 0.047
R7 n.a n.a n.a
R8 n.a n.a n.a
R9 0.081 n.a n.a
R10 n.a n.a n.a
R11 n.a n.a n.a
R12 n.a 0.037 0.294
R13 n.a n.a n.a
R14 n.a n.a 0.001
R15 n.a n.a n.a
I1 n.a n.a n.a
I2 n.a n.a n.a
I3 n.a n.a n.a
I4 n.a n.a n.a
S1 n.a 1.025 n.a
S2 n.a n.a n.a
S3 n.a n.a n.a
S4 0.226 n.a 0.005
S5 n.a n.a n.a
S6 n.a n.a n.a
Minimum n.a n.a n.a

Maximum 0.226 1.025 0.294
Average 0.012 0.044 0.014
( n.a stands for not available)
[136]
Table 4.7: Spatial and temporal variation of K+ in the study area (average of data
K+ (µg/m3) K+ (µg/m3) K (µg/m3)
+
R1 1.524 1.184 2.917

R2 0.892 0.395 0.333
R3 4.667 5.889 1.480
R4 0.792 0.395 1.645
R5 0.792 0.409 2.467
R6 3.417 1.708 4.917
R7 0.792 0.395 1.292
R8 1.083 1.292 4.541
R9 2.895 0.395 0.111
R10 3.783 2.083 4.702
R11 3.867 5.096 4.474
R12 0.812 0.415 1.313
R13 1.184 0.395 1.250
R14 1.086 2.909 3.590
R15 0.792 0.778 1.583
I1 0.792 2.750 0.461
I2 5.300 39.200 16.533
I3 5.495 6.333 2.533
I4 1.217 4.196 5.333
S1 4.500 0.711 8.864
S2 1.086 0.395 0.111
S3 1.513 1.250 3.750
S4 1.349 0.395 2.250
S5 1.184 0.415 1.875
S6 0.792 0.425 1.938
Minimum 0.792 0.395 0.111

Maximum 5.495 39.200 16.533
Average 2.064 3.192 3.210
[137]
Table 4.8: Spatial and temporal variation of Na+ in the study area (average of data
Na+ (µg/m3) Na+ (µg/m3) Na+ (µg/m3)
R1 4.857 0.099 10.833
R2 6.400 0.132 5.917
R3 5.500 0.778 0.164
R4 6.917 2.138 2.763
R5 5.769 8.667 0.625
R6 7.833 4.917 8.917
R7 1.083 5.750 0.125
R8 1.583 1.083 10.459
R9 0.033 5.250 3.889
R10 1.086 2.583 6.845
R11 8.400 8.846 0.658
R12 11.434 11.000 2.219
R13 1.184 4.667 8.500
R14 0.559 10.667 7.885
R15 9.667 1.333 0.167
I1 12.885 3.583 5.592
I2 5.500 5.067 22.667
I3 7.033 7.111 1.020
I4 6.833 0.395 0.230
S1 2.833 0.044 9.773
S2 6.110 2.813 5.833
S3 0.493 6.429 11.583
S4 2.566 9.286 9.583
S5 0.592 9.067 6.971
S6 8.417 0.395 0.625
Minimum 0.033 0.044 0.125

Maximum 12.885 11.000 22.667
Average 5.023 4.484 5.754
[138]
Table 4.9: Spatial and temporal variation of F- in the study area (average of data
F- (µg/m3) F- (µg/m3) F (µg/m3)
-
R1 0.208 0.127 0.427

R2 0.140 0.016 0.168
R3 0.562 0.110 0.055
R4 0.130 0.186 0.205
R5 0.414 0.201 0.075
R6 0.298 0.020 0.081
R7 0.083 0.088 0.143
R8 0.335 0.174 0.279
R9 0.137 0.325 0.197
R10 0.132 0.202 0.299
R11 0.508 1.324 0.225
R12 1.148 0.386 0.273
R13 0.100 0.046 0.367
R14 0.084 0.350 0.381
R15 0.101 0.314 0.148
I1 0.127 0.578 0.286
I2 0.118 1.371 3.104
I3 0.193 1.029 0.168
I4 0.092 0.042 1.528
S1 0.217 0.097 0.517
S2 0.202 0.050 0.290
S3 0.079 0.132 0.620
S4 0.163 0.244 0.712
S5 0.080 0.979 0.100
S6 0.151 0.118 0.131
Minimum 0.079 0.016 0.055

Maximum 1.148 1.371 3.104
Average 0.232 0.340 0.431
[139]
Table 4.10: Spatial and temporal variation of Cl- in the study area (average of data
Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3)
R1 2.846 0.164 3.324
R2 3.101 0.118 1.241
R3 1.658 1.655 0.193
R4 0.423 3.321 1.312
R5 2.874 3.321 0.221
R6 3.324 0.829 2.907
R7 2.907 2.491 0.038
R8 3.740 1.662 2.290
R9 0.223 2.071 5.534
R10 0.234 2.491 2.672
R11 4.651 1.677 0.365
R12 0.118 0.164 0.031
R13 0.030 2.370 1.241
R14 0.027 4.229 2.877
R15 2.766 2.766 0.224
I1 4.780 0.900 1.966
I2 1.989 0.333 7.970
I3 2.735 4.987 0.228
I4 0.023 0.437 2.074
S1 0.118 0.141 0.164
S2 0.023 1.334 3.324
S3 0.023 1.779 4.157
S4 0.035 2.222 1.658
S5 0.025 2.652 1.677
S6 2.907 0.819 0.202
Minimum 0.023 0.118 0.031

Maximum 4.780 4.987 7.970
Average 1.663 1.797 1.916
[140]
Table 4.11: Spatial and temporal variation of SO42- in the study area (average of data
SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3)
R1 10.564 8.653 2.172
R2 8.886 6.670 0.574
R3 10.043 27.706 8.157
R4 29.227 40.630 10.095
R5 28.323 28.923 11.086
R6 8.559 5.820 0.003
R7 9.586 2.394 11.988
R8 9.472 15.470 18.523
R9 10.996 7.760 15.369
R10 12.528 7.645 7.830
R11 13.511 5.135 14.691
R12 10.231 1.118 0.983
R13 4.733 24.639 88.884
R14 4.733 8.298 4.481
R15 14.456 11.259 7.593
I1 1.858 14.272 3.873
I2 0.270 99.736 20.082
I3 2.340 9.128 13.429
I4 7.436 10.393 70.208
S1 9.472 6.760 1.405
S2 8.428 4.035 33.907
S3 11.266 3.015 3.650
S4 12.393 4.767 2.394
S5 8.157 15.155 5.205
S6 20.893 3.829 11.131
Minimum 0.270 1.118 0.003

Maximum 29.227 99.736 88.884
Average 10.734 14.928 14.709
[141]
Table 4.12: Spatial and temporal variation of SO2 in the study area (average of data
SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3)
R1 3.670 7.060 5.100
R2 2.280 1.470 2.880
R3 2.130 4.240 2.290
R4 10.340 7.960 10.600
R5 2.210 8.480 16.950
R6 4.470 12.530 3.180
R7 13.200 12.720 19.110
R8 3.940 6.800 12.720
R9 20.340 3.180 20.400
R10 16.950 4.370 12.130
R11 6.930 3.410 5.450
R12 3.210 19.090 5.600
R13 22.850 2.006 1.320
R14 4.550 9.750 6.360
R15 14.300 2.700 16.490
I1 20.340 5.060 22.800
I2 23.490 21.300 30.800
I3 4.000 10.600 10.000
I4 7.510 12.720 18.200
S1 2.680 0.120 20.250
S2 14.320 7.300 3.640
S3 14.940 12.850 12.010
S4 21.960 6.360 22.790
S5 5.800 3.180 9.750
S6 7.500 4.480 5.300
Minimum 2.130 0.120 1.320

Maximum 23.490 21.300 30.800
Average 10.156 7.589 11.845
[142]
Table 4.13: Spatial and temporal variation of NO2 in the study area (average of data
NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3)
R1 50.410 44.050 238.120
R2 110.490 90.730 161.870
R3 109.740 72.280 230.510
R4 29.190 141.110 163.690
R5 63.150 202.430 368.170
R6 363.800 168.950 87.960
R7 36.760 90.040 129.660
R8 85.200 196.000 85.460
R9 207.120 63.040 78.170
R10 42.280 22.860 70.840
R11 140.430 130.000 79.050
R12 30.790 67.950 166.700
R13 16.100 113.120 30.340
R14 45.970 54.710 80.400
R15 133.410 97.990 158.820
I1 67.980 125.780 25.800
I2 60.890 100.200 84.000
I3 93.940 23.600 120.890
I4 29.910 90.440 54.900
S1 77.500 39.940 54.510
S2 207.130 50.270 158.580
S3 52.300 60.290 62.620
S4 209.280 80.520 101.460
S5 67.000 59.980 80.670
S6 110.350 191.870 290.740
Minimum 16.100 22.860 25.800

Maximum 363.800 202.430 368.170
Average 97.645 95.126 126.557
[143]
Table 4.14: Zone wise spatial and diurnal variation of O3 and CO in the study area (a) in the month of March (b) in the month of April
March
O3 O3 Ozone CO CO Temperature Humidity Wind speed
(ppb) (ppm) (µg/m3) (ppm) (mg/m3) (°C) (%) (Km/hr)
Industrial Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 9.70 0.010 20.47 2.46 3.03 31.1 80.1 4.5
area Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 30.40 0.030 64.14 1.23 1.51 42.7 17.4 7.2
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 25.60 0.026 54.02 0.70 0.86 40.2 30.4 3.0
Residential Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 25.60 0.026 54.02 1.63 2.01 33.3 34.0 1.0
area Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 33.50 0.034 70.69 0.45 0.55 35.9 27.0 0.8
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 31.30 0.031 66.04 0.52 0.64 30.7 34.0 calm
Sensitive Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 18.50 0.019 39.04 1.53 1.88 31.4 53.0 9.5
area
Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 27.30 0.027 57.60 0.48 0.58 34.3 55.0 14.1
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 29.50 0.030 62.25 0.33 0.39 33.3 57.0 6.8
Traffic Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 13.50 0.014 28.49 7.18 8.83 32.6 47.5 1.8
area
Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 18.00 0.018 37.98 2.85 3.50 33.6 45.27 1.0
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 10.50 0.011 22.16 10.25 12.60 36.7 40.66 2.3
(a)
[144]
April
O3 O3 Ozone CO CO Temperature Humidity Wind speed
(ppb) (ppm) (µg/m3) (ppm) (mg/m3) (°C) (%) (Km/hr)
Industrial Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 11.50 0.012 24.27 1.41 1.73 37.2 55.5 16.3
area Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 33.00 0.033 69.63 0.91 1.12 43.9 41.2 6.5
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 25.70 0.026 54.23 0.95 1.17 42.7 43.2 12.2
Residential Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 17.00 0.017 35.87 1.77 2.18 50.3 31.6 2.5
area Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 14.00 0.014 29.54 0.84 1.03 45.0 26.0 3.6
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 3.00 0.003 6.33 4.85 5.96 44.2 27.0 0.1
Sensitive Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 13.50 0.014 28.49 1.62 1.99 30.6 84.6 calm
area
Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 23.00 0.023 48.53 1.18 1.45 35.2 76.8 3.9
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 26.00 0.026 54.86 0.35 0.43 34.0 82.3 calm
Traffic Morning (7:00-8:00 am) 4.00 0.004 8.44 11.95 14.69 32.9 81.9 calm
area
Noon (12:00-1:00 pm) 15.00 0.015 31.65 4.50 5.53 43.4 42.8 6.4
Afternoon (4:00-5:00 pm) 13.70 0.014 28.91 2.39 2.94 40.5 48.6 6.4
(b)
[145]
Table 4.15: Spatial and diurnal variation of O3 and CO (site wise) in the study area
Site Time O3 O3 CO CO
(ppb) (µg/m3) (ppm) (mg/m3)
R1 morning 23.00 48.53 2.05 2.52
afternoon 32.00 67.52 2.75 3.38
R2 morning 22.00 46.42 1.00 1.23
afternoon 32.00 67.52 0.80 0.98
R3 morning 45.00 94.95 3.50 4.31
afternoon 30.00 63.3 1.50 1.85
R4 morning 24.00 50.64 1.90 2.34
afternoon 35.00 73.85 0.80 0.98
R5 morning 22.00 46.42 1.28 1.57
afternoon 11.00 23.21 1.50 1.85
R6 morning 27.00 56.97 2.10 2.58
afternoon 34.00 71.74 1.20 1.48
R7 morning 12.60 26.59 0.89 1.10
afternoon 18.00 37.98 3.03 3.73
R8 morning 15.00 31.65 6.00 7.38
afternoon 28.00 59.08 4.55 5.60
R9 morning 22.00 46.42 2.10 2.58
afternoon 30.00 63.3 2.28 2.81
R10 morning 18.00 37.98 6.40 7.87
afternoon 32.00 67.52 4.48 5.51
R11 morning 11.00 23.21 4.65 5.72
afternoon 16.00 33.76 7.90 9.72
R12 morning 16.00 33.76 5.03 6.19
afternoon 21.00 44.31 6.58 8.09
R13 morning 12.00 25.32 3.67 4.51
afternoon 18.00 37.98 12.35 15.19
R14 morning 21.00 44.31 3.18 3.91
afternoon 34.00 71.74 2.33 2.86
R15 morning 11.00 23.21 5.02 6.17
afternoon 12.00 25.32 10.03 12.33
I1 morning 12.00 25.32 2.10 2.58
afternoon 31.00 65.41 0.96 1.17
I2 morning 22.00 46.42 1.22 1.50
afternoon 31.00 65.41 0.84 1.03
I3 morning 25.00 52.75 5.26 6.47
afternoon 30.00 63.3 3.26 4.01
I4 morning 26.00 54.86 1.58 1.94
afternoon 28.00 59.08 1.48 1.81
S1 morning 12.00 25.32 7.34 9.03
afternoon 16.00 33.76 9.20 11.32
S2 morning 21.00 44.31 3.85 4.74
afternoon 30.00 63.3 3.60 4.43
[146]
Site Time O3 O3 CO CO
(ppb) (µg/m3) (ppm) (mg/m3)
S3 morning 23.00 48.53 2.46 3.02
afternoon 29.00 61.19 2.52 3.10
S4 morning 19.00 40.09 1.55 1.91
afternoon 30.00 63.3 2.93 3.60
S5 morning 7.00 14.77 4.53 5.57
afternoon 35.00 73.85 4.14 5.09
S6 morning 19.00 40.09 1.80 2.21
afternoon 28.00 59.08 1.00 1.23
Average 23.17 48.89 3.44 4.24

Maximum 45.00 94.95 12.95 15.19
Minimum 7.00 14.77 0.80 0.98
Standard deviation 8.70 17.53 2.58 3.17
[147]
Table 4.16: Premonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, gaseous pollutants and meteorological parameter
Correlation matrix (Pearson (n)):

Temp- Wind
Variables RSPM TSPM Pb Cd Mn Cr SO2 NO2 K+ Na+ SO42- Cl- F- Rainfall Humidity
erature speed
RSPM 1
TSPM 0.994 1
Pb 0.360 0.364 1
Cd -0.185 -0.167 0.137 1
Mn 0.567 0.598 0.346 0.075 1
Cr -0.111 -0.099 -0.215 -0.092 -0.037 1
SO2 -0.314 -0.308 0.069 0.164 -0.040 0.414 1
NO2 -0.083 -0.051 -0.204 -0.090 -0.070 0.379 0.031 1
+
K 0.126 0.141 -0.261 -0.020 0.144 -0.051 -0.023 0.202 1
+
Na 0.396 0.374 0.105 -0.180 -0.045 -0.230 -0.174 0.129 -0.057 1
SO42- 0.523 0.572 0.377 0.271 0.496 0.050 -0.227 -0.025 -0.343 0.090 1
-
Cl 0.235 0.227 -0.202 -0.145 -0.267 -0.258 -0.212 0.182 0.056 0.502 0.008 1
F- 0.635 0.589 -0.007 -0.213 0.331 -0.088 -0.428 0.014 0.077 0.424 0.125 0.080 1
Rainfall 0.284 0.307 0.470 0.190 0.144 -0.087 -0.072 -0.164 -0.257 0.141 0.598 -0.091 -0.147 1
Humidity -0.072 -0.050 -0.150 0.126 -0.221 -0.041 -0.191 0.193 0.088 0.311 0.029 0.029 -0.109 0.173 1
Temperature 0.005 -0.024 -0.247 -0.085 -0.254 0.061 -0.352 0.047 -0.258 0.045 0.053 0.257 0.092 -0.078 0.115 1
Wind speed -0.430 -0.428 0.136 -0.065 -0.229 0.212 0.222 0.335 -0.353 0.025 -0.165 -0.109 -0.383 0.084 0.113 0.309 1
Values in bold are different from 0 with a significance level alpha=0.01
[148]
Table 4.17: Postmonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, gaseous pollutants and meteorological parameter

Temp- Wind
erature speed
RSPM 1
TSPM 0.968 1
Pb 0.050 0.070 1
Cd -0.140 -0.138 0.468 1
Mn 0.519 0.587 0.168 -0.0281
Cr -0.221 -0.223 -0.240 -0.077 -0.139 1
SO2 0.048 -0.068 -0.066 0.123 -0.060 -0.275 1
NO2 -0.019 0.040 -0.293 -0.344 0.117 -0.222 0.012 1
+ -0.039 -0.044 -0.023 0.320 0.142 -0.070 0.537 -0.026 1
K
+ 0.613 0.536 -0.189 -0.075 0.314 -0.242 0.368 -0.085 0.039
1
Na
SO42- -0.105 -0.103 -0.148 0.107 0.000 -0.090 0.381 0.185
0.859 -0.044 1
- 0.301 0.365 0.165 0.174 0.025 -0.272 -0.095 -0.084 -0.172 0.441 -0.039 1
Cl
- 0.375 0.372 0.222 0.443 0.581 -0.127 0.225 -0.099 0.615 0.459 0.439 0.182
1
F
Rainfall -0.309 -0.306 0.016 0.172 0.027 -0.061 -0.123 0.353 -0.094 -0.307 -0.133 -0.209 -0.153 1
Humidity -0.484 -0.455 -0.028 0.490 -0.187 0.256 -0.335 0.149 -0.056 -0.377 -0.068 -0.133 -0.008 0.550 1
Temperature -0.130 -0.088 0.221 -0.297 -0.103 -0.100 -0.448 0.111 -0.764 -0.238 -0.633 0.055 -0.511 0.104 0.087 1
Wind speed -0.096 -0.033 -0.221 0.007 0.049 -0.176 -0.165 0.218 -0.233 0.050 -0.195 0.032 -0.014 0.119 0.197 0.399 1
[149]
Table 4.18: Winter correlation analysis between particulate matter, gaseous pollutants and meteorological parameter

Temp- Wind
erature speed
RSPM 1
TSPM 0.955 1
Pb 0.380 0.465 1
Cd -0.005 0.068 0.409 1
Mn 0.428 0.448 0.197 0.056 1
Cr -0.077 -0.066 -0.113 -0.170 0.163 1
SO2 0.480 0.427 0.178 0.202 0.424 -0.195 1
NO2 -0.394 -0.294 -0.396 -0.131 -0.331 0.083 -0.252 1
+
K 0.509 0.550 0.299 0.223 0.779 -0.099 0.480 -0.253 1
+
Na 0.661 0.663 0.494 0.114 0.461 -0.116 0.300 -0.382 0.676 1
SO42- -0.117 -0.080 0.292 0.049 0.044 -0.160 -0.079 -0.260 0.020 -0.042 1
-
Cl 0.540 0.564 0.453 0.073 0.347 -0.185 0.359 -0.334 0.503 0.748 0.060 1
F- 0.541 0.634 0.493 0.296 0.623 -0.069 0.574 -0.271 0.825 0.641 0.270 0.654 1
Rainfall 0.111 0.155 0.307 0.101 -0.165 -0.049 -0.177 0.279 -0.018 0.200 -0.124 0.152 -0.001 1
Humidity -0.134 -0.144 -0.135 -0.326 -0.116 0.199 -0.501 0.251 -0.257 -0.223 -0.211 -0.209 -0.424 -0.015 1
Temperature 0.314 0.222 -0.246 -0.430 0.116 -0.044 0.106 -0.238 0.032 0.274 0.012 0.155 0.063 0.088 -0.198 1
Wind speed -0.102 -0.122 -0.440 -0.014 -0.152 0.263 0.004 0.371 -0.157 -0.294 -0.060 -0.161 -0.132 -0.268 0.024 -0.367 1
[150]
Table 4.19: Factor loadings along with its contribution (%) after varimax rotation in premonsoon
Factor loadings after Varimax rotation: Contributions of the variables (%) after Varimax rotation:
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
RSPM 0.93 -0.05 -0.02 -0.07 -0.07 0.26 22.59 0.12 0.02 0.27 0.28 3.38
TSPM 0.94 -0.05 0.00 -0.04 -0.01 0.24 23.15 0.12 0.00 0.09 0.01 2.93
Pb 0.34 -0.64 0.43 -0.22 0.05 0.02 2.98 19.70 11.09 2.74 0.19 0.02
Cd -0.07 -0.04 0.10 -0.15 0.67 -0.32 0.15 0.06 0.64 1.38 29.77 4.98
Mn 0.76 -0.03 0.23 0.01 0.01 -0.30 15.11 0.05 3.28 0.00 0.01 4.36
Cr 0.00 -0.02 0.00 0.80 -0.12 -0.36 0.00 0.03 0.00 37.17 0.99 6.21
SO2 -0.31 -0.13 0.66 0.31 -0.13 -0.23 2.61 0.76 26.20 5.40 1.12 2.54
NO2 -0.03 0.18 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.25 0.03 1.52 0.00 36.72 0.58 3.10
+
K 0.14 0.80 0.29 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.51 30.54 4.92 0.22 0.79 0.28
+
Na 0.23 -0.11 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.86 1.36 0.63 0.03 0.04 0.02 36.12
SO42- 0.65 -0.46 -0.16 0.04 0.42 -0.14 11.04 10.04 1.48 0.11 11.48 0.91
Cl- 0.01 0.11 -0.22 -0.06 -0.07 0.72 0.01 0.53 2.89 0.23 0.32 25.02
-
F 0.66 0.22 -0.26 -0.05 -0.31 0.22 11.35 2.29 4.06 0.16 6.20 2.28
Rainfall 0.28 -0.59 0.12 -0.09 0.51 0.06 2.02 16.98 0.81 0.49 16.94 0.17
Humidity -0.14 0.12 -0.16 0.18 0.68 0.37 0.55 0.65 1.45 1.97 30.79 6.86
Temperature -0.10 -0.19 -0.85 0.14 -0.07 0.08 0.28 1.67 43.04 1.05 0.32 0.35
Wind speed -0.49 -0.55 -0.03 0.46 -0.05 0.10 6.27 14.33 0.06 11.96 0.18 0.48
[151]
Table 4.20: Eigenvalues of factors in premonsoon
Eigenvalues
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
Eigenvalue 4.10 2.52 2.05 1.60 1.36 1.20
% variance 24.11 14.80 12.08 9.40 8.01 7.07
Cumulative % 24.11 38.91 50.99 60.39 68.39 75.47
% variance (after Varimax rotation)
% variance 22.28 12.23 9.77 10.21 8.91 12.05
Cumulative % 22.28 34.52 44.29 54.50 63.42 75.47
[152]
Table 4.21: Factor loadings along with its contribution (%) after varimax rotation in postmonsoon
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
RSPM 0.81 -0.04 -0.03 -0.35 -0.05 -0.28 23.18 0.04 0.06 5.60 0.19 4.58
TSPM 0.86 -0.08 -0.03 -0.28 -0.06 -0.27 25.81 0.18 0.05 3.58 0.23 4.03
Pb 0.13 -0.15 0.90 -0.02 -0.24 0.11 0.63 0.62 42.06 0.02 3.92 0.71
Cd -0.10 0.33 0.69 0.46 0.08 -0.29 0.37 3.15 24.77 9.74 0.42 4.91
Mn 0.87 0.09 0.06 0.12 -0.07 0.09 26.84 0.23 0.17 0.65 0.29 0.46
Cr -0.12 -0.04 -0.13 0.03 0.88 0.22 0.48 0.05 0.87 0.04 52.12 2.78
SO2 -0.17 0.63 -0.04 -0.31 -0.38 -0.14 1.01 11.53 0.10 4.39 9.95 1.12
NO2 0.15 0.01 -0.57 0.34 -0.48 0.28 0.84 0.00 16.77 5.34 15.61 4.40
+
K 0.05 0.95 0.09 0.01 -0.04 0.10 0.07 26.51 0.45 0.00 0.08 0.60
+
Na 0.42 0.17 -0.20 -0.26 -0.08 -0.69 6.21 0.84 2.10 3.02 0.43 27.12
SO42- -0.05 0.85 -0.10 -0.02 -0.11 0.12 0.10 21.17 0.51 0.01 0.85 0.80
Cl- 0.14 -0.13 0.18 -0.07 -0.14 -0.72 0.65 0.49 1.76 0.19 1.36 29.14
-
F 0.56 0.61 0.27 0.19 0.04 -0.29 10.94 10.95 3.67 1.61 0.13 4.64
Rainfall -0.06 -0.09 -0.01 0.69 -0.21 0.34 0.12 0.25 0.01 21.40 2.98 6.53
Humidity -0.25 -0.03 0.10 0.85 0.26 0.05 2.26 0.04 0.50 32.89 4.57 0.17
Temperature -0.11 -0.86 0.01 0.09 -0.24 0.05 0.46 21.84 0.01 0.40 3.88 0.12
Wind speed -0.03 -0.27 -0.34 0.50 -0.21 -0.37 0.03 2.12 6.13 11.11 2.99 7.88
[153]
Table 4.22: Eigenvalues of factors in postmonsoon
Eigenvalues
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
Eigenvalue 4.11 3.18 2.05 1.77 1.37 1.17
% variance 24.20 18.69 12.04 10.44 8.06 6.91
Cumulative % 24.20 42.89 54.93 65.37 73.43 80.34
% variance 16.77 20.15 11.30 12.99 8.73 10.40
Cumulative % 16.77 36.92 48.22 61.21 69.94 80.34
[154]
Table 4.23: Factor loadings along with its contribution (%) after varimax rotation in winter
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
RSPM 0.84 -0.22 -0.14 -0.06 -0.07 13.38 2.76 1.14 0.20 0.27
TSPM 0.86 -0.09 -0.19 -0.06 -0.04 14.12 0.49 2.03 0.19 0.09
Pb 0.46 0.45 -0.46 0.49 0.01 4.01 11.15 12.06 13.42 0.01
Cd 0.12 0.75 -0.11 0.09 -0.35 0.26 31.03 0.72 0.44 7.17
Mn 0.73 0.01 0.38 0.18 0.14 10.11 0.01 8.08 1.78 1.11
Cr 0.05 0.02 0.30 -0.16 0.64 0.05 0.03 5.14 1.42 24.25
SO2 0.55 0.03 0.29 -0.11 -0.57 5.84 0.04 4.79 0.64 19.45
NO2 -0.36 0.16 -0.13 -0.69 0.11 2.43 1.48 0.93 26.79 0.71
+
K 0.82 0.16 0.16 0.08 -0.10 12.88 1.38 1.55 0.37 0.65
+
Na 0.82 -0.08 -0.27 0.15 -0.07 12.71 0.37 4.22 1.20 0.27
SO42- -0.10 0.15 0.14 0.72 -0.14 0.20 1.33 1.15 28.61 1.08
-
Cl 0.71 -0.01 -0.22 0.14 -0.15 9.63 0.00 2.76 1.07 1.32
-
F 0.81 0.23 0.11 0.20 -0.25 12.63 3.04 0.70 2.24 3.66
Rainfall 0.07 0.07 -0.83 -0.20 0.00 0.11 0.24 39.02 2.18 0.00
Humidity -0.19 -0.06 -0.13 -0.12 0.80 0.71 0.20 0.92 0.77 37.49
Temperature 0.17 -0.87 -0.09 0.12 -0.20 0.56 42.59 0.42 0.83 2.35
Wind speed -0.14 0.26 0.50 -0.57 0.04 0.36 3.87 14.36 17.83 0.11
[155]
Table 4.24: Eigenvalues of factors in winter
Eigenvalues
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Eigenvalue 5.80 1.89 1.78 1.57 1.26
% variance 34.10 11.11 10.46 9.22 7.43
Cumulative % 34.10 45.21 55.68 64.90 72.33
% variance 30.91 10.52 10.33 10.59 9.97
Cumulative % 30.91 41.44 51.77 62.36 72.33
[156]
4.25: Premonsoon AQI status of study area
Place RSPM SO2 NO2 Pb AQI Status

(µg/m3) ( µg/m3) ( µg/m3) (µg/m3)
Residential
R1 42.50 3.67 50.41 0.084 17.78 Clean
R2 40.90 2.28 110.49 0.119 20.89 Clean
R3 230.00 2.13 109.74 0.03 22.39 Clean
R4 303.30 10.34 29.19 0.583 53.70 Moderately
polluted
R5 267.92 2.21 63.15 0.077 25.70 Fairly clean
R6 111.40 4.47 363.8 0.086 39.81 Fairly clean
R7 99.66 13.20 36.76 0.162 33.11 Fairly clean
R8 135.00 3.94 85.20 0.211 34.67 Fairly clean
R9 100.00 20.34 207.12 0.179 58.88 Moderately
polluted
R10 71.62 16.95 42.28 0.245 37.15 Fairly clean
R11 323.10 6.93 140.43 0.24 58.88 Moderately
polluted
R12 268.40 3.21 30.79 0.213 30.90 Fairly clean
R13 69.51 22.85 16.10 0.136 26.92 Fairly clean
R14 60.11 4.55 45.97 0.076 19.50 Clean
R15 98.10 14.30 133.41 0.173 47.86 Fairly clean
Industrial
I1 134.00 20.34 67.98 0.183 16.98 Clean
I2 54.10 23.49 60.89 0.026 13.80 Clean
I3 175.80 4.00 93.94 0.097 35.48 Fairly clean
I4 60.41 7.51 29.91 0.249 27.54 Fairly clean
Sensitive
S1 123.60 2.68 77.50 0.138 51.29 Moderately
polluted
S2 44.87 14.32 207.13 0.293 93.33 Polluted
S3 131.20 14.94 52.30 0.198 79.43 Polluted
S4 88.50 21.96 209.28 0.026 67.61 Moderately
polluted
S5 40.20 5.80 67.00 0.140 45.71 Fairly clean
S6 96.40 7.50 110.35 0.026 44.67 Fairly clean
[157]
Table 4.26: Postmonsoon AQI status of study area

(µg/m3) ( µg/m3) ( µg/m3) (µg/m3)
Residential
R1 22.80 7.06 44.05 0.264 23.44 Clean
R2 15.02 1.47 90.73 0.094 13.18 Clean
R3 93.30 4.24 72.28 0.161 29.51 Fairly clean
R4 35.90 7.96 141.11 0.122 29.51 Fairly clean
R5 174.40 8.48 202.43 0.058 40.74 Moderately
polluted
R6 16.30 12.53 168.95 0.135 29.51 Fairly clean
R7 77.50 12.72 90.04 0.121 36.31 Fairly clean
R8 34.50 6.80 196 0.053 25.12 Fairly clean
R9 109.98 3.18 63.04 0.268 30.90 Fairly clean
R10 137.97 4.37 22.86 0.264 27.54 Fairly clean
R11 277.72 3.41 130 0.16 41.69 Fairly clean
R12 203.33 19.09 67.95 0.103 45.71 Fairly clean
R13 100.00 2.006 113.12 0.031 18.20 Clean
R14 161.90 9.75 54.71 0.034 26.30 Fairly clean
R15 141.00 2.70 97.99 0.451 39.81 Fairly clean
Industrial
I1 92.98 5.06 125.78 0.205 24.55 Clean
I2 50.10 21.30 100.2 0.103 23.99 Clean
I3 71.11 10.60 23.6 0.423 21.88 Clean
I4 80.95 12.72 90.44 0.443 33.88 Fairly clean
Sensitive
S1 10.95 0.12 39.94 0.03 7.41 Very clean
S2 29.91 7.30 50.27 0.114 39.81 Fairly clean
S3 51.58 12.85 60.29 0.098 52.48 Moderately
polluted
S4 97.61 6.36 80.52 0.102 56.23 Moderately
polluted
S5 60.08 3.18 59.98 0.31 51.29 Moderately
polluted
S6 4.48 4.48 191.87 0.176 33.88 Fairly clean
[158]
Table 4.27: Winter AQI status of study area

(µg/m3) ( µg/m3) ( µg/m3) (µg/m3)
Residential
R1 203.90 5.10 238.12 0.423 63.10 Moderately
polluted
R2 174.70 2.88 161.87 0.281 43.65 Fairly clean
R3 34.26 2.29 230.51 0.101 22.91 Clean
R4 41.18 10.60 163.69 0.286 42.66 Fairly clean
R5 78.80 16.95 368.17 0.05 44.67 Fairly clean
R6 281.08 3.18 87.96 0.349 45.71 Fairly clean
R7 153.41 19.11 129.66 0.026 35.48 Fairly clean
R8 237.50 12.72 85.46 0.058 38.90 Fairly clean
R9 142.60 20.40 78.17 0.226 53.70 Moderately
polluted
R10 175.69 12.13 70.84 0.099 38.90 Fairly clean
R11 114.23 5.45 79.05 0.279 38.02 Fairly clean
R12 102.46 5.60 166.70 0.121 36.31 Fairly clean
R13 47.16 1.32 30.34 0.449 19.05 Clean
R14 153.41 6.36 80.40 0.12 34.67 Fairly clean
R15 98.00 16.49 158.82 0.163 50.12 Moderately
polluted
Industrial
I1 178.90 22.80 25.80 0.461 34.67 Fairly clean
I2 316.20 30.80 84.0 0.481 58.88 Moderately
polluted
I3 55.80 10.00 120.89 0.156 23.99 Clean
I4 231.10 18.20 54.90 0.318 38.90 Fairly clean
Sensitive
S1 216.28 20.25 54.51 0.192 97.72 Polluted
S2 190.70 3.64 158.58 0.157 75.86 Polluted
S3 166.40 12.01 62.62 0.200 83.18 Polluted
S4 363.69 22.79 101.46 0.314 151.36 Severely
polluted
S5 133.17 9.75 80.67 0.100 67.61 Moderately
polluted
S6 54.95 5.30 290.74 0.053 54.95 Moderately
polluted
[159]
Table 4.28: Projected areal coverage of the study area with respect to the standard of
respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM)
Range RSPM (area in sq km)
Premonsoon Postmonsoon Winter
<75 6.448 10.546 1.622
75 - 100 3.921 5.105 1.202
100 - 150 6.783 5.621 8.063
> 150 8.148 4.028 14.413
SO2
Range SO2 (area in sq km)
<30 25. 300 25. 300 25. 300
NO2
Range NO2 (area in sq km)
<30 0.530 0.398 0.396
30 - 80 14.003 10.297 4.304
80 -120 6.113 9.748 8.446
>120 4.836 4.973 12.269
[160]
Pb
Range Pb (area in sq km)
< 0.75 25. 300 25. 300 25. 300
Table 4.32: Projected areal coverage of the study area on basis Air quality
index(AQI)
Status AQI (area in sq km)
Very clean Nil 0.298 Nil
Clean 2.957 2.744 0.007
Fairly clean 18.753 22.262 13.326
Moderately Polluted 3.290 0.019 11.260
Polluted 0.031 Nil 0.426
Heavily polluted Nil Nil 0.012
Severely polluted Nil Nil 0.001
[161]
Windrose diagram of Premonsoon Season Windrose diagram of Premonsoon Season
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1(a & b): Windrose diagram (Premonsoon) [a) 2008 b) 2009]
Windrose diagram of Postmonsoon Season Windrose diagram of Postmonsoon Season
(a) (b)
Figure 4.2(a & b): Windrose diagram (Postmonsoon) [a) 20008 b) 2009]
[162]
Windrose diagram of Winter Season Windrose diagram of Winter Season
(a) (b)
Figure 4.3(a & b): Windrose diagram (Winter) [a) 20008 b) 2009]
Area Boundary
Figure 4.4: Spatial interpolation of respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM)

(Premonsoon)
[163]

(Postmonsoon)

(Winter)
[164]
Figure 4.7: Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Premonsoon)
Figure 4.8: Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Postmonsoon)
[165]
Figure 4.9: Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Winter)
Figure 4.10: Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Premonsoon)
[166]
Figure 4.11: Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Postmonsoon)
Figure 4.12: Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Winter)
[167]
Figure 4.13: Spatial interpolation of Pb (Premonsoon)
Figure 4.14: Spatial interpolation of Pb (Postmonsoon)
[168]
Figure 4.15: Spatial interpolation of Pb (Winter)
Figure 4.16: Zonation of Air Quality Index (AQI) with the help of inverse distance
interpolation technique (IDINT) (Premonsoon)
[169]
interpolation technique (IDINT) (Postmonsoon)
interpolation technique (IDINT) (Winter)
[170]
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This section briefly highlights the overall summary of major findings

along with the suggestion of probable management strategies
regarding the reduction of pollution load in the study area.
5.1 Summary of results
R espiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM) in the study area is found to

have higher winter concentration (157.823±86.578 µg/m3) in comparison to
premonsoon (126.824±85.859 µg/m3) and postmonsoon (86.055±67.322 µg/m3). The
maximum concentration of RSPM is 323.100 µg/m3, 277.720 µg/m3, 363.690 µg/m3
during premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season respectively. The minimum
value of RSPM is found as 40.200 µg/m3, 4.480 µg/m3 and 34.260 µg/m3 in
premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter respectively.
The average concentration of TSPM is found as 278.716±191.912 µg/m3,

195.090±149.934 µg/m3 and 334.929±177.431 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon
and winter season respectively. TSPM is found to have 739.899 µg/m3, 670.500
µg/m3 and 737.977 µg/m3 as maximum concentration in premonsoon, postmonsoon
and winter season respectively whereas 92.730 µg/m3, 8.900 µg/m3 and 78.568 µg/m3
as minimum value respectively in the above mentioned seasons.
The average value for Pb in the study area is found 0.160±0.117 µg/m3,
0.173±0.126 µg/m3, 0.219±0.139 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
respectively with its maximum value as 0.583 µg/m3,0.451 µg/m3,0.481 µg/m3 and
minimum value as 0.026 µg/m3,0.030 µg/m3 and 0.026 µg/m3.
The average value for Cd is 0.014±0.019 µg/m3, 0.011±0.015 µg/m3 and

0.013±0.015 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season with the range of
0.001 to 0.082 µg/m3, 0.001 to 0.064 µg/m3 and 0.001 to 0.067 µg/m3 in the study
area.
[171]
The average value for Mn is 0.087±0.062 µg/m3, 0.208±0.292 µg/m3,
0.214±0.210 µg/m3 with the range of 0.012 to 0.220 µg/m3, 0.014 to 1.424 µg/m3 and
0.012 to 0.822 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter respectively the study
area.
The average value of Cr in study area is found 0.012±0.047 µg/m3,

0.044±0.209 µg/m3 and 0.014 ±.0.059 µg/m3 with the range of n.a to 0.226 µg/m3, n.a
to 1.025 µg/m3 and n.a to 0.294 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
season respectively.
Among the water soluble cations and anions in aerosol, the average
concentration of K+ found in study area is 2.064±1.615 µg/m3, 3.192±7.722 µg/m3,
and 3.210±3.431 µg/m3 with the range of 0.792 to 5.495 µg/m3, 0.395 to 39.200
µg/m3 and 0.111 to 16.533 µg/m3 during premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter
season respectively.
The average value of Na+ is found to be 5.023±3.673 µg/m3, 4.484±3.617

µg/m3and 5.754±5.300 µg/m3 with the range of 0.033 to 12.885 µg/m3, 0.044 to
11.000 µg/m3 and 0.125 to 22.667 µg/m3 during premonsoon, postmonsoon and
winter season respectively.
Fluoride has an average concentration of 0.232±0.232 µg/m3, 0.340±0.401

µg/m3 and 0.431±0.633 µg/m3 with the range of 0.079 to 1.148 µg/m3, 0.016 to 1.371
µg/m3 and 0.055 to 3.104 µg/m3 in pre, post and winter season respectively.
Whereas Cl- concentration is found as 1.663±1.651µg/m3, 1.797±1.320 µg/m3

and 1.916±1.935 µg/m3 with the range of 0.023 to 4.780 µg/m3, 0.118 to 4.987 µg/m3
and 0.031 to 7.970 µg/m3 in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
respectively.
The average concentration of SO42- is 10.734±6.921 µg/m3 (range: 0.270 to

29.227 µg/m3), 14.928±20.115 µg/m3 (range: 1.118 to 99.736 µg/m3) and
14.709±21.131 µg/m3 (range: 0.003 to 88.884 µg/m3) in premonsoon, postmonsoon
and winter season respectively.
[172]
Regarding the gaseous pollutants, the average value of SO2 is 10.156±7.411
µg/m3 (range: 2.130 to 23.490 µg/m3), 7.589±5.340 µg/m3 (range: 0.120 to 21.300
µg/m3) and 11.845±7.951 µg/m3 (range: 1.320 to 30.800 µg/m3) in premonsoon,
postmonsoon and winter season respectively.
The average concentration of NO2 for premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter

are 97.645±79.034 µg/m3 (range: 16.100 to 363.800 µg/m3), 95.126±52.355 µg/m3
(range: 22.860 to 202.430 µg/m3) and 126.557±83.245 µg/m3 (range: 25.800 to
368.170 µg/m3) respectively in the study area.
The average value for CO and O3 found in this town are 4.24±3.18 mg/m3
(range: 0.98 – 15.19 mg/m3) and 48.89±17.53 µg/m3 (range: 14.77 - 94.95 µg/m3).
From the correlation analysis it is observed that RSPM has positive correlation
with TSPM (r value is 0.994), Mn (r = 0.567), SO42- (r = 0.523) and F- (r = 0.635) at
0.01 significant levels. TSPM has again positive correlation with Mn ( r= 0.598),
SO42- (r = 0.572) and F- (r = 0.589). Positive correlation also exists between rainfall
and SO42- (r=0.598) at 0.01 significant level.
In postmonsoon TSPM and RSPM is highly correlated (r = 0.968) in a positive

manner. RSPM and TSPM also have strong positive correlation with Mn (r = 0.519
and r = 0.587) and Na+ (r = 0.613 and r = 0.536). K+ is noticed to be significantly
(0.01 level) correlated with SO2 (r = 0.537), SO42-(r = 0.859), F -(r = 0.615) positively
whereas with temperature (r = - 0.764) negatively. Mn is having a relation with F- (r =
0.581) in this season.
In winter RSPM and TSPM both have significant positive relation (r = 0.955).
RSPM is positively related to K+ (r = 0.509), Na+ (r = 0.661), Cl- (r = 0.540), and F- (r
= 0.541). Just like RSPM, TSPM has also a 0.01 level significant positive relation
with K+ (r = 0.550), Na+ (r = 0.663), Cl- (r = 0.564) and F- (r = 0.634). Mn is
positively related with K+ (r = 0.779) and F- (r = 0.623) whereas Na+ is correlated
with K+ (r = 0.676), Cl- (r = 0.748) and F- (r = 0.641). F- is associated with SO2 (r
=0.574), K+ (r = 0.825) and Cl- (r = 0.654).
From factor analysis few sources of air pollution are identified. In premonsoon
one natural source of pollution i.e. soil resuspension and two anthropogenic sources
[173]
viz. vehicle emission, coal combustion or biomass burning is identified as major
source of air pollution. In postmonsoon one geogenic source i.e. soil resuspension and
other anthropogenic source like vehicle emission along with combustion of biomass
and waste material are identified as major source of air pollution in the study area
whereas in winter like other two seasons, one geogenic pollution source i.e. soil
resuspension along with anthropogenic sources viz. vehicle emission and combustion
of coal and waste are identified.
5.2 Conclusion
The average concentration of PM10 showed distinct seasonal variations with

high winter and premonsoon value in the study area than the postmonsoon value. This
postmonsoon fall down in PM10 may be attributed to the monsoonal washout effect of
particles, whereas during winter low mixing heights leads to an accumulation of
pollutants for long time. The accumulation of such a high level of RSPM in winter
may also be attributed to the emission from the vehicles, local rice mills, resuspension
of dusts from the paved and unpaved road etc. The prevailing micrometeorological
condition also is the inducing factor for accumulation of RSPM. Among the above
mentioned sources, emissions from automobiles are assumed to be the major source
of particulate pollution in the study area. In general some sites always remain above
the prescribed standard of RSPM in all the season but in winter season maximum
violence of prescribed standard are occurred in comparison to the other two seasons.
Like RSPM, TSPM also has the higher average concentration in winter followed by
premonsoon and postmonsoon. The maximum violence of prescribed standard of
TSPM is occurred during premonsoon and winter season both.
The scenario of Pb shows quite better picture in the study area as the
atmospheric Pb is not exceeded the NAAQS standard anywhere in all selected
monitoring sites. The tendency of remaining the Pb concentration within the
permissible level may be due to restriction on the use of leaded fuel. Vehicle exhausts
may be a major source of this much atmospheric lead in the study area. Apart from
vehicle emission, road side soil may also release some Pb. Road side soil is taken into
consideration as a source of Pb because in the past few decades continuous use of
[174]
leaded petrol and emission of Pb into atmosphere has led to a conservable
concentration of Pb in soil along road side and the movement of vehicles renders
these dust containing Pb, resuspended in air.
A considerable amount of Cd concentration is also found in the study area.

Few sites also remain above the standard. The release of Cd may be from the different
anthropogenic activities like combustion of coal and waste material in residential as
well as industrial area and transportation process.
In case of Mn violence of prescribed standard is occurred at many sites but

exceptionally high concentration of Mn is found in a traffically congested area.
Manganese tricarbinyl compound is used as additive in unleaded petrol to enhance
automobile performance. This could be a most probable reason to have such a high
level of Mn concentration at that place. Apart from that, the violence of prescribed
standard of Mn may happen due to various anthropogenic activities like transportation
activities, ferrous and nonferrous casting, construction activities and resuspension of
soil dust etc. Trace amount of Cr is found in the study area in general. An
exceptionally high concentration of Cr is found at a sensitive site. This anomaly is
attributed to small scale cycle repairing shops which are present just behind the site.
The industrial region is mainly dominated by rice mills in the study area. The
maximum concentration of K+ is found in industrial region in all season. In the
process of boiling rice in these rice mills dried plant materials are used as fuel which
may be the major contributor of K+ in the industrial site. Normally, soil is considered
to be the main source of K+. But the fine particles of K+ may be released into the
atmosphere by burning of plant material. So, soil and burning of plant material are
detected as the source of ambient K+ in the study area. Soil resuspension beside the
road could the possible reason for Na+ in the study area as in general soil derived
particles are mainly considered as the source of Na+. Fluoride (F-) may be contributed
by emissions from biomass burning in industrial sector and coal burning in Burdwan
Municipality as the maximum concentration is found in an industrial site in
postmonsoon and winter season except a residential site where it is seen to be
maximum in premonsoon. The concentration of soluble fluoride was so low that a
[175]
little research had focused on fluoride in PM10 in India. It is found that biomass
burning and coal burning may contribute to this much of fluoride in the ambient air of
the study area. Coal combustion is also could be a possible source of Cl- in the study
area.
It is noticed that in Burdwan Municipality area the average SO42- is very high
in postmonsoon season. A possible mechanism of formation of SO42- is aqueous phase
oxidation of SO2 in cloud droplets. Not only that micro meteorology like wind
velocity, temperature, solar radiation also play a key role in gas phase reaction
involving OH radicals which should have more contribution to the formation of SO42-.
Therefore, SO2 may be converted to SO42- depending upon prevailing meteorological
condition.
All the monitoring sites are observed to have high winter value of SO2 than
premonsoon and low value in postmonsoon season. Precipitation driven wash out may
lower down the postmonsoon value of SO2. The concentration of SO2 was
comparatively lower in all the seasons than the prescribed standard of NAAQS in all
the monitoring sites. So, this scenario is quite safe to this town.
The NO2 level was very high through out the study area. All the sensitive sites
have exceeded its standard of 30 µg/m3 in all season. The residential site is also having
a tendency to cross the set limit of NO2 almost in all season excerpt a few sites. High
vehicle density may cause such elevated level of NO2 in the study area. One industrial
site is seen to exceed the standard of NO2 concentration in postmonsoon season only.
To explain the finding it could be said NO2 was not only dependent on rainfall but
also dependent on vehicle density and the distance of the monitoring site from road.
Ultimately it is concluded that the scenario of NO2 is not good in the study area.
The concentration of O3 is not only function of its precursor viz. CO but also a
function of prevailing meteorological conditions. It is observed that the concentrations
of O3 are increased with the decreasing concentration of its precursors and vice versa.
A time lag of 5-7 hour is required for most of these precursor gases to photo
chemically produce O3 to its maximum potential. This is also found that on diurnal
scale, these precursor pollutants of O3 is built up in early morning hours along with a
[176]
maximum in noon or afternoon. Comparing with its latest standard (NAAQS, 2009)
so far average CO value has crossed the limit. On the other hand O3 is again far below
the standard. CO being a threat to the study area needs proper management strategies
to check down its value and O3 is quite safe so far.
From the above observations it may be said that proper management strategies
should be taken in case of RSPM, Cd, Mn, NO2 and CO. These particular pollutants
are showing tendency to cross their prescribed limit in the study area. So, immediately
their value should be checked down.
From statistical analysis the five major sources of ambient air pollution are
identified throughout the year in the study area. They are soil resuspension, vehicle
emission, coal combustion, biomass burning and waste incineration.
Regarding meteorological influence on ambient air pollution in the study area

it can be said that wind speed and wind direction are the key factors in dispersion of
pollutants. The GIS picture reveals that spread of air pollutants occurs in the same
direction of mild wind speed whereas dilution of pollutant is occurred in the direction
of high wind speed. The predominant wind direction in the study area is N, NE, NW,
NNW SE, S, SSW, SW and W throughout the year. The temporal modelling AQI
reflects that more pollution is found in winter followed by premonsoon and
postmonsoon. Thematic map (Premonsoon) reveals that the western part of the town
mainly covered by clean area (2.957 sq km) while the minor part of northern portion,
south western part and south eastern part of the town represent the moderately
polluted (3.290 sq km) region. A very small portion of the town is seen to be polluted
(0.031 sq km) while majority of the town is covered by fairly clean area (18.753 sq
km). After the offset of monsoon same scenario is observed. Fairly clean area (22.262
sq km) is covering the whole town except a few portions in the middle to north and
north western part in post monsoon. This portion is found as clean (2.744 sq km)while
a little patch of very clean (0.298 sq km) category and moderately polluted (0.019 sq
km) patch is seen. In winter fairly clean (13.326 sq km) and moderately polluted
region (11.260 sq km) covers the major portion of the town. Severely polluted (0.001
[177]
sq km), heavily polluted (0.012 sq km) and polluted region (0.426 sq km) along with
fairly clean region cover the town in this season also.
5.3 Management strategy
A few management strategies can be taken for the study area which is
discussed below for reducing the pollution load in the town in making a cleaner, safer
and sustainable habitat for all.
5.3.1 Pollution management strategies
• Technological measures such as use of clean fuels/environmentally benign

fuels like CNG which may reduce the emission of CO and NO2 in the ambient
air of the town. As CNG powered vehicles emit 85 % less NOX, 70 % less
reactive HC’s, and 74 % less CO than similar gasoline powered vehicles
(http://daq.state.nc.us/motor/cng/).
• Regular monitoring, servicing and replacement of engines of Bus Taxi, Tracks

or any other four wheelers are to be done to maintain the vehicle health as well
as environmental health. As old engine do much pollution.
• Use of catalytic converter may also helps in reducing the pollution load.
• Dilution of pollutants may also be done by increasing chimney height of rice

mills in the study area.
• Control of pollution at source can be done by using Cyclone separator, Bag

filter, Electrostatic precipitator, Spray tower beside the rice mill industry to
scavenge out the emitted particulate matter.
• Collaborative work should be needed with Burdwan municipality in order

particularly in zonation of industry, sensitive and residential places.
[178]
5.3.2 Zoning strategies
• Proper location of projects may help in reducing pollution load.
• Preparation of windrose pattern along with micrometeorological detailing in

the study area to detect the most prevailing high speed and medium speed
wind is a crying need. As accumulation of pollutants and wind speed are
inversely related. So, projects may be done that particular site of the town
having high wins speed whereas opposite site of the medium wind speed
region.
• Location of industries may be also laid out as per environmental guidelines
• Priority should be given to compatible industries so that, wastes from one

could be used as raw materials for the other, thus minimizing the net pollution
• Development of green belts around the town may increase the aesthetics value
as well as filtering the ambient air of the town.
5.3.3 Command and control approach
• Enforcement of pollution control norms in various types of industrial unit

depending on their production processes may help in reducing the pollution
load.
• Introduction of Environmental Audit in the small scale industry may help in

checking and maintaining the surrounding air clean.
• Environmental Impact Assessment from the planning stage and selection of

sites for location of industries may also be effective in reducing pollution load.
• Clearance by MOEF of all projects above a certain size and fragile areas is
also needed in this town.
5.4 Future scope of the work
• Mainly the inorganic pollutants are monitored in this study area. So, the
organic gaseous pollutant like volatile organic compounds (VOCs), Poly
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) etc can be monitored.
[179]
• TSPM and PM10 are monitored. So, in future PM2.5 can be monitored.
• Apart from GIS, AERMOD modeling and other model based on Gaussian
prediction model can be applied in prediction of a particulate pollutant of
major concern as well as proper zonation of the town.
• Black carbon in particulate matter also can be monitored in future.
• The aeromicrobial study also can be done in future.
• A health related survey due to air pollution along with systematic monitoring
can be useful in demarcating the hazard prone area.
[180]
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[203]
Annexure I: Detail scenario of respiratory suspended particulate matter (RSPM) in the study area (during 2008 &2009)
Premonsoon Postmonsoon Winter Premonsoon Postmonsoon Winter
RSPM RSPM RSPM
3 3 3 3
Site RSPM (µg/m ) RSPM (µg/m ) RSPM (µg/m ) (µg/m ) (µg/m3) (µg/m3)
R1 30.400 28.900 189.500 54.600 16.700 218.300
R2 34.000 19.400 156.800 47.800 10.640 192.600
R3 189.000 78.450 26.450 271.000 108.150 42.070
R4 248.900 41.200 29.800 357.700 30.600 52.560
R5 204.000 156.800 57.000 331.840 192.000 100.600
R6 112.800 14.800 292.460 110.000 17.800 269.700
R7 85.400 58.900 34.800 113.920 96.100 47.140
R8 160.000 68.700 228.600 110.000 0.300 246.400
R9 72.900 118.200 156.600 127.100 101.760 128.600
R10 56.000 102.800 189.400 87.240 173.140 161.980
R11 174.000 278.500 100.900 472.200 276.940 127.560
R12 245.700 197.600 125.600 291.100 209.060 79.320
R13 51.800 89.900 49.400 87.220 110.100 44.920
R14 56.700 159.000 147.800 63.520 164.800 159.020
R15 49.000 123.000 86.800 147.200 159.000 109.200
I1 121.000 34.890 156.840 147.000 151.070 200.960
I2 46.800 42.700 356.000 61.400 57.500 276.400
I3 195.500 58.900 59.180 156.100 83.320 52.420
I4 68.700 68.900 198.470 52.120 93.000 263.730
S1 128.000 12.400 207.890 119.200 9.500 224.670
S2 44.800 34.500 204.800 44.940 25.320 176.600
S3 85.400 55.400 150.700 177.000 47.760 182.100
S4 89.300 89.500 350.480 87.700 105.720 376.900
S5 25.900 59.700 132.400 54.500 60.460 133.940
S6 93.200 5.290 71.300 99.600 3.670 38.600
xiv
Annexure II: Detail scenario of total suspended particulate matter (TSPM) in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
TSPM TSPM TSPM
3 3 3 3
Site TSPM (µg/m ) TSPM (µg/m ) TSPM (µg/m ) (µg/m ) (µg/m3) (µg/m3)
R1 69.421 60.160 491.680 125.229 44.410 441.976
R2 71.820 45.080 422.280 115.502 24.946 378.999
R3 468.640 181.390 75.510 584.760 246.521 81.627
R4 650.158 90.260 78.960 738.956 74.392 104.071
R5 382.095 381.689 159.160 843.379 418.179 184.158
R6 255.030 39.890 581.670 255.895 41.110 544.431
R7 187.740 183.060 82.990 207.716 171.890 104.898
R8 294.240 188.570 365.080 242.142 81.030 443.580
R9 193.360 266.470 265.570 264.640 261.685 214.850
R10 134.720 282.250 349.680 188.140 350.018 326.300
R11 525.240 558.980 225.380 954.558 782.020 283.580
R12 449.930 292.760 254.090 608.584 293.280 215.792
R13 111.780 250.350 80.590 164.594 207.650 135.686
R14 116.450 376.340 272.440 122.379 383.222 431.098
R15 175.085 316.064 243.980 274.213 330.6184 261.620
I1 272.640 155.340 358.18 259.769 270.508 449.325
I2 105.834 95.480 781.180 141.256 103.577 694.773
I3 373.820 148.540 137.370 324.669 177.144 116.977
I4 154.190 203.650 419.660 122.874 218.430 640.165
S1 277.058 42.520 429.230 289.821 21.380 380.590
S2 116.860 66.370 467.980 90.820 52.468 409.156
S3 206.860 133.610 310.180 392.936 105.250 331.229
S4 191.760 213.810 753.660 210.645 265.810 691.176
S5 82.180 125.190 252.750 103.280 113.362 276.361
S6 223.440 10.450 316.360 218.689 7.350 203.540
xv
Annexure III: Detail scenario of Pb in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3) Pb (µg/m3)
R1 0.078 0.294 0.525 0.089 0.235 0.321
R2 0.099 0.119 0.301 0.139 0.069 0.260
R3 0.010 0.200 0.098 0.050 0.123 0.104
R4 0.725 0.076 0.260 0.440 0.167 0.312
R5 0.053 0.044 0.058 0.101 0.071 0.041
R6 0.060 0.109 0.365 0.112 0.160 0.332
R7 0.173 0.118 0.035 0.152 0.123 0.018
R8 0.201 0.055 0.048 0.221 0.052 0.068
R9 0.192 0.278 0.202 0.166 0.258 0.250
R10 0.213 0.279 0.088 0.277 0.249 0.110
R11 0.264 0.172 0.285 0.217 0.148 0.273
R12 0.196 0.116 0.131 0.231 0.091 0.110
R13 0.114 0.014 0.591 0.159 0.048 0.307
R14 0.122 0.039 0.116 0.030 0.029 0.124
R15 0.152 0.377 0.154 0.194 0.524 0.172
I1 0.199 0.194 0.478 0.167 0.216 0.444
I2 0.025 0.102 0.509 0.028 0.104 0.453
I3 0.085 0.415 0.165 0.110 0.431 0.147
I4 0.255 0.430 0.272 0.243 0.456 0.364
S1 0.154 0.040 0.201 0.122 0.020 0.183
S2 0.320 0.130 0.134 0.266 0.097 0.180
S3 0.213 0.113 0.254 0.183 0.084 0.146
S4 0.011 0.080 0.302 0.042 0.125 0.327
S5 0.143 0.331 0.110 0.137 0.289 0.089
S6 0.019 0.199 0.063 0.034 0.152 0.043
xvi
Annexure IV: Detail scenario of Cd in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3) Cd (µg/m3)
R1 0.005 0.036 0.019 0.005 0.031 0.022
R2 0.002 0.010 0.002 0.000 0.008 0.002
R3 0.001 0.002 0.014 0.001 0.000 0.013
R4 0.014 0.001 0.008 0.011 0.001 0.009
R5 0.005 0.001 0.004 0.004 0.001 0.003
R6 0.001 0.004 0.005 0.002 0.004 0.006
R7 0.005 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.001 0.002
R8 0.018 0.001 0.001 0.017 0.001 0.002
R9 0.024 0.001 0.002 0.023 0.001 0.001
R10 0.079 0.031 0.002 0.085 0.031 0.002
R11 0.005 0.010 0.024 0.004 0.011 0.026
R12 0.007 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001
R13 0.005 0.001 0.016 0.004 0.001 0.017
R14 0.018 0.001 0.002 0.015 0.001 0.001
R15 0.052 0.011 0.010 0.046 0.014 0.011
I1 0.001 0.024 0.041 0.001 0.018 0.023
I2 0.001 0.026 0.034 0.001 0.029 0.039
I3 0.002 0.069 0.059 0.001 0.060 0.075
I4 0.002 0.002 0.011 0.003 0.001 0.010
S1 0.015 0.005 0.002 0.011 0.006 0.002
S2 0.006 0.002 0.002 0.008 0.002 0.002
S3 0.016 0.020 0.015 0.012 0.021 0.013
S4 0.002 0.002 0.025 0.000 0.000 0.023
S5 0.020 0.010 0.002 0.017 0.006 0.002
S6 0.044 0.018 0.006 0.047 0.021 0.011
xvii
Annexure V: Detail scenario of Mn in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3) Mn (µg/m3)
R1 0.014 0.156 0.050 0.011 0.126 0.045
R2 0.030 0.097 0.028 0.032 0.044 0.024
R3 0.255 0.082 0.093 0.186 0.065 0.061
R4 0.202 0.194 0.010 0.191 0.206 0.221
R5 0.189 0.128 0.064 0.219 0.110 0.054
R6 0.102 0.045 0.215 0.095 0.040 0.348
R7 0.046 0.101 0.015 0.043 0.083 0.009
R8 0.078 0.012 0.091 0.073 0.016 0.085
R9 0.105 0.083 0.287 0.110 0.069 0.268
R10 0.019 0.017 0.521 0.318 0.021 0.392
R11 0.081 1.590 0.201 0.085 1.257 0.218
R12 0.143 0.094 0.395 0.104 0.076 0.340
R13 0.068 0.132 0.120 0.070 0.155 0.140
R14 0.029 0.201 0.185 0.031 0.281 0.154
R15 0.053 0.142 0.055 0.044 0.108 0.056
I1 0.029 0.062 0.028 0.022 0.054 0.023
I2 0.084 0.289 0.947 0.065 0.267 0.530
I3 0.045 0.197 0.195 0.042 0.155 0.181
I4 0.135 0.572 0.403 0.104 0.561 0.379
S1 0.051 0.020 0.902 0.035 0.019 0.743
S2 0.075 0.015 0.128 0.073 0.012 0.188
S3 0.188 0.082 0.206 0.147 0.071 0.179
S4 0.072 0.402 0.305 0.064 0.364 0.202
S5 0.030 0.500 0.014 0.026 0.440 0.010
S6 0.022 0.246 0.030 0.021 0.328 0.361
xviii
Annexure VI: Detail scenario of Cr in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3) Cr (µg/m3)
R1 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
R6 n.a 0.003 0.086 n.a 0.006 0.008
R9 0.052 n.a n.a 0.110 n.a n.a
R12 n.a 0.027 0.507 n.a 0.047 0.082
R14 n.a n.a 0.001 n.a n.a 0.001
I1 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
S1 n.a 1.025 n.a n.a 1.025 n.a
S2 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
S4 0.191 n.a 0.008 0.262 n.a 0.002
( n.a stands for not available)
xix
Annexure VII: Detail scenario of K+ in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
+ 3 + 3
Site K (µg/m ) K (µg/m ) K (µg/m3)
+
K+ (µg/m3) K+ (µg/m3) K (µg/m3)
+
R1 2.021 0.073 1.451 1.027 2.296 4.382

R2 1.098 0.203 0.394 0.687 0.586 0.272
R3 5.064 0.872 0.098 4.269 10.905 2.862
R4 1.215 0.701 1.457 0.370 0.088 1.833
R5 0.542 0.042 0.855 1.043 0.777 4.080
R6 2.021 1.106 8.024 4.812 2.311 1.809
R7 1.025 0.145 0.125 0.560 0.644 2.458
R8 1.506 1.085 3.015 0.660 1.498 6.066
R9 0.025 0.502 0.112 5.764 0.287 0.110
R10 1.023 3.045 8.125 6.543 1.122 1.280
R11 5.250 9.025 0.246 2.483 1.168 8.702
R12 1.087 0.809 0.021 0.538 0.020 2.604
R13 2.036 0.202 1.014 0.332 0.588 1.486
R14 0.876 3.561 2.643 1.295 2.257 4.537
R15 0.846 1.025 0.165 0.739 0.531 3.002
I1 1.502 3.458 0.802 0.083 2.042 0.119
I2 4.087 34.089 28.015 6.513 44.311 5.051
I3 9.025 0.050 1.025 1.964 12.617 4.040
I4 2.055 0.512 0.251 0.380 7.881 10.415
S1 2.955 0.025 10.254 6.045 1.398 7.473
S2 0.515 0.602 0.121 1.656 0.187 0.101
S3 0.502 2.025 4.025 2.524 0.475 3.476
S4 0.055 0.215 2.240 2.643 0.575 2.260
S5 0.459 0.458 2.032 1.910 0.371 1.719
S6 0.815 0.298 0.862 0.770 0.551 3.013
xx
Annexure VIII: Detail scenario of Na+ in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
+ 3 + 3
Site Na (µg/m ) Na (µg/m ) Na+ (µg/m3) Na+ (µg/m3) Na+ (µg/m3) Na+ (µg/m3)
R1 4.021 0.073 6.451 5.693 0.125 15.215
R2 4.098 0.203 5.943 8.702 0.060 5.891
R3 5.064 0.872 0.098 5.936 0.683 0.230
R4 7.215 2.015 3.457 6.619 2.262 2.070
R5 3.542 9.042 0.855 7.996 8.291 0.395
R6 8.021 4.106 8.024 7.645 5.728 9.809
R7 1.025 5.145 0.125 1.141 6.355 0.125
R8 1.506 1.085 3.015 1.660 1.082 17.903
R9 0.025 6.023 5.125 0.040 4.477 2.653
R10 1.023 3.045 8.125 1.148 2.122 5.566
R11 10.250 9.025 0.246 6.550 8.668 1.070
R12 11.087 12.890 3.021 11.781 9.110 1.417
R13 2.036 4.202 9.014 0.332 5.132 7.986
R14 0.876 9.561 8.643 0.243 11.772 7.127
R15 9.846 1.025 0.165 9.488 1.642 0.169
I1 16.023 3.458 6.021 9.746 3.709 5.163
I2 4.087 4.089 28.015 6.913 6.044 17.318
I3 9.025 0.050 1.025 5.040 14.172 1.014
I4 8.055 0.512 0.251 5.612 0.277 0.209
S1 2.955 0.025 10.254 2.712 0.064 9.291
S2 6.215 3.025 5.021 6.005 2.600 6.645
S3 0.502 5.025 9.025 0.485 7.832 14.142
S4 3.055 0.215 9.240 2.077 18.357 9.927
S5 0.459 12.458 9.032 0.726 5.675 4.911
S6 9.215 0.298 0.862 7.618 0.491 0.388
xxi
Annexure IX: Detail scenario of F- in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
- 3 - 3
Site F (µg/m ) F (µg/m ) F (µg/m3)
-
F- (µg/m3) F- (µg/m3) F (µg/m3)
-
R1 0.194 0.143 0.398 0.221 0.111 0.455

R2 0.102 0.008 0.165 0.178 0.023 0.172
R3 0.587 0.120 0.055 0.536 0.100 0.055
R4 0.131 0.196 0.214 0.129 0.175 0.197
R5 0.594 0.210 0.085 0.235 0.192 0.066
R6 0.022 0.020 0.015 0.574 0.020 0.146
R7 0.075 0.065 0.125 0.091 0.111 0.161
R8 0.312 0.185 0.235 0.358 0.164 0.323
R9 0.106 0.346 0.201 0.167 0.304 0.192
R10 0.107 0.202 0.301 0.157 0.202 0.296
R11 0.502 1.548 0.235 0.514 1.100 0.215
R12 0.851 0.413 0.289 1.444 0.360 0.257
R13 0.125 0.051 0.502 0.076 0.040 0.231
R14 0.015 0.361 0.403 0.153 0.339 0.359
R15 0.098 0.415 0.158 0.104 0.214 0.138
I1 0.145 0.655 0.154 0.109 0.502 0.417
I2 0.114 2.100 4.025 0.122 0.641 2.183
I3 0.223 1.940 0.152 0.163 0.118 0.185
I4 0.073 0.021 1.025 0.112 0.063 2.032
S1 0.241 0.085 0.521 0.192 0.109 0.513
S2 0.212 0.032 0.182 0.192 0.068 0.398
S3 0.069 0.102 0.671 0.088 0.162 0.569
S4 0.120 0.268 0.615 0.205 0.219 0.808
S5 0.021 0.822 0.199 0.139 1.136 0.001
S6 0.147 0.008 0.152 0.155 0.228 0.110
xxii
Annexure X: Detail scenario of Cl- in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3) Cl- (µg/m3)
R1 3.124 0.155 3.548 2.569 0.174 3.099
R2 3.127 0.214 1.252 3.075 0.023 1.230
R3 1.949 0.810 0.203 1.367 2.500 0.183
R4 0.524 3.564 1.603 0.321 3.078 1.021
R5 2.154 3.854 0.304 3.594 2.788 0.138
R6 4.026 0.902 3.348 2.622 0.755 2.466
R7 3.516 2.140 0.043 2.299 2.841 0.033
R8 3.625 1.545 2.015 3.855 1.779 2.565
R9 0.098 1.586 5.908 0.348 2.557 5.160
R10 0.102 1.649 4.624 0.365 3.333 0.719
R11 3.315 1.605 0.123 5.988 1.750 0.607
R12 0.102 0.095 0.031 0.135 0.233 0.031
R13 0.025 1.847 1.540 0.034 2.894 0.942
R14 0.023 2.849 3.450 0.031 5.608 2.304
R15 2.815 2.146 0.213 2.717 3.385 0.235
I1 5.825 1.205 2.130 3.734 0.595 1.803
I2 0.206 0.614 8.549 3.773 0.053 7.391
I3 3.562 5.231 0.213 1.908 4.743 0.243
I4 0.001 0.500 2.546 0.045 0.375 1.602
S1 0.099 0.184 0.099 0.138 0.098 0.230
S2 0.000 0.987 3.894 0.046 1.682 2.753
S3 0.019 1.864 4.528 0.028 1.694 3.785
S4 0.037 2.630 1.745 0.032 1.815 1.570
S5 0.001 2.514 1.745 0.050 2.791 1.609
S6 3.021 1.205 0.203 2.793 0.433 0.201
xxiii
Annexure XI: Detail scenario of SO42- in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3) SO42- (µg/m3)
R1 10.132 10.245 3.021 10.996 7.061 1.322
R2 8.912 11.246 0.055 8.859 2.095 1.093
R3 11.025 18.255 10.458 9.060 37.157 5.857
R4 24.598 38.200 10.025 33.855 43.060 10.165
R5 18.947 28.457 12.458 37.698 29.390 9.714
R6 8.542 5.085 0.002 8.575 6.556 0.004
R7 8.459 2.041 12.045 10.713 2.748 11.931
R8 8.457 16.255 19.240 10.487 14.684 17.806
R9 12.346 10.245 16.255 9.647 5.274 14.483
R10 12.548 11.245 8.025 12.508 4.046 7.635
R11 16.489 4.980 15.254 10.533 5.291 14.128
R12 10.457 0.985 1.054 10.006 1.250 0.913
R13 8.542 19.320 90.470 0.923 29.418 87.288
R14 3.025 15.185 5.021 6.441 1.411 3.940
R15 15.849 10.250 8.259 13.062 12.269 6.926
I1 0.894 15.248 5.031 2.822 13.297 2.715
I2 0.246 120.000 32.142 0.295 79.471 8.022
I3 3.456 10.254 15.780 1.224 8.003 11.079
I4 7.146 10.254 85.147 7.727 10.532 55.270
S1 9.025 6.485 1.045 9.918 7.034 1.765
S2 0.325 7.210 34.780 16.531 0.859 33.034
S3 14.025 3.250 4.580 8.508 2.780 2.720
S4 18.155 4.252 4.050 6.631 5.282 0.739
S5 12.030 16.025 6.254 4.285 14.285 4.155
S6 31.025 3.485 12.354 10.762 4.173 9.909
xxiv
Annexure XII: Detail scenario of SO2 in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3) SO2 (µg/m3)
R1 5.020 8.200 3.260 2.320 5.920 6.940
R2 2.860 1.840 1.100 1.700 1.100 4.660
R3 3.420 3.200 0.100 0.840 5.280 0.480
R4 13.480 8.200 10.400 7.200 7.720 10.800
R5 2.950 7.800 12.800 1.470 9.160 21.100
R6 5.700 13.800 1.250 3.240 11.260 5.110
R7 14.940 13.200 20.450 11.460 12.240 17.770
R8 5.200 4.850 12.840 2.680 8.750 12.600
R9 18.920 3.800 26.400 21.760 2.560 14.400
R10 19.400 4.200 19.700 14.500 4.540 4.559
R11 7.200 3.100 7.500 6.660 3.720 3.400
R12 4.500 24.500 8.400 1.920 13.680 2.800
R13 24.500 2.008 1.020 21.200 2.005 1.620
R14 6.200 5.890 6.900 2.900 13.610 5.820
R15 19.000 2.100 14.020 9.600 3.300 18.960
I1 15.840 3.820 20.850 24.840 6.300 24.750
I2 7.290 22.800 34.800 39.690 19.800 26.800
I3 7.800 7.100 9.000 0.200 14.100 11.000
I4 5.400 9.350 21.400 9.620 16.090 15.000
S1 2.420 0.200 16.800 2.940 0.040 23.700
S2 15.700 2.450 2.560 12.940 12.150 4.720
S3 20.480 14.800 12.890 9.420 10.900 11.130
S4 3.200 8.400 22.800 40.720 4.320 22.780
S5 6.400 11.200 3.180 5.200 8.300 3.180
S6 8.400 6.200 3.800 6.600 2.760 6.800
xxv
Annexure XIII: Detail scenario of NO2 in the study area (during 2008 & 2009)
Site NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3)
R1 68.200 54.800 203.900 32.620 33.300 272.340
R2 98.400 73.900 203.600 122.580 107.560 120.140
R3 123.400 58.700 198.600 96.080 85.860 262.420
R4 35.600 146.800 154.200 22.780 135.420 173.180
R5 59.600 203.500 324.800 66.700 201.360 411.540
R6 39.000 79.800 169.000 34.520 100.280 90.320
R7 39.000 79.800 169.000 34.520 100.280 90.320
R8 75.600 201.300 64.850 94.800 190.700 106.070
R9 194.600 58.900 74.450 219.640 67.180 81.890
R10 36.890 24.580 85.600 47.670 21.140 56.080
R11 164.520 140.900 61.540 116.340 119.100 96.560
R12 24.600 50.400 174.900 36.980 85.500 158.500
R13 18.900 92.400 45.000 13.300 133.840 15.680
R14 44.870 56.600 91.840 47.070 52.820 68.960
R15 112.400 102.600 168.290 154.420 93.380 149.350
I1 103.800 85.000 31.240 32.160 166.560 20.360
I2 64.500 120.000 103.200 57.280 80.400 64.800
I3 104.750 29.600 128.640 83.130 17.600 113.140
I4 26.900 94.700 72.700 32.920 86.180 37.100
S1 61.800 33.600 61.400 93.200 46.280 47.620
S2 221.360 50.890 145.870 192.900 49.650 171.290
S3 54.500 71.200 64.500 50.100 49.380 60.740
S4 207.800 90.500 82.400 210.760 70.540 120.520
S5 68.400 57.230 63.500 65.600 62.730 97.840
S6 121.400 223.400 303.700 99.300 160.340 277.780
xxvi
Annexure XIV: Detail data of spatio-temporal variation of micrometeorology
a) Premonsoon b) Postmonsoon C) Winter
Premonsoon
Rainfall Temperature Wind
Site (mm) Humidity (%) (°C) speed(Km/hr)
Max Min Max Min
R1 0.0 85.0 54.0 34.5 24.5 6.0
R2 0.0 87.0 45.0 34.5 27.0 8.0
R3 0.0 91.0 31.0 33.0 20.5 2.0
R4 3.8 87.0 40.0 32.0 19.0 8.0
R5 0.0 87.0 37.0 36.8 19.6 2.0
R6 0.0 84.0 58.0 33.5 26.0 12.0
R7 0.0 86.0 11.0 35.0 21.5 calm
R8 0.0 47.0 38.0 36.0 23.5 10.0
R9 0.0 80.0 32.0 28.8 19.0 6.0
R10 0.0 87.0 48.0 30.0 21.5 4.0
R 11 0.0 87.0 43.0 33.5 21.0 calm
R12 0.0 70.0 49.0 30.8 25.0 1.4
R13 0.0 85.0 36.0 38.5 26.0 12.0
R14 1.0 85.0 52.0 35.0 21.8 8.0
R15 0.0 91.0 36.0 33.0 26.5 8.0
I1 0.0 90.0 48.0 30.0 20.5 10.0
I2 0.0 70.0 40.0 24.0 18.0 2.0
I3 0.0 89.0 52.0 34.0 26.5 4.0
I4 0.0 81.0 36.0 33.0 21.0 10.0
S1 0.0 71.0 53.0 33.5 20.0 4.8
S2 0.0 83.0 41.0 29.0 18.6 10.0
S3 0.0 87.0 29.0 32.0 19.0 4.0
S4 0.0 90.0 37.0 35.0 24.0 10.0
S5 0.0 93.0 52.0 31.0 19.0 4.0
S6 2.5 88.0 51.0 35.0 21.5 5.0
(a)
xxvii
Postmonsoon
Max Min Max Min
R1 2.6 89.0 81.0 32.2 25.5 4.0
R2 0.0 90.0 67.0 33.0 26.5 2.0
R3 0.0 78.0 52.0 29.7 22.0 1.8
R4 0.0 82.0 48.0 33.4 23.0 3.4
R5 0.0 80.0 40.0 26.9 19.0 0.5
R6 0.0 90.0 72.0 32.0 26.0 4.0
R7 0.0 85.0 35.0 30.5 21.0 1.8
R8 1.0 84.0 62.0 33.0 24.0 7.0
R9 0.0 81.0 44.0 35.0 24.0 0.1
R10 0.0 92.0 51.0 26.0 16.0 2.0
R 11 0.0 70.0 56.0 25.9 19.4 4.6
R12 0.0 74.0 34.0 28.1 18.8 0.5
R13 0.0 84.0 54.0 31.9 24.0 5.6
R14 0.4 71.0 47.0 36.0 23.5 6.0
R15 0.0 71.0 48.0 30.7 24.0 1.2
I1 0.0 89.0 53.0 36.5 26.5 10.0
I2 0.0 89.0 39.0 20.0 11.4 calm
I3 0.0 89.0 75.0 28.8 18.0 1.0
I4 0.0 68.0 21.0 38.3 26.3 1.0
S1 0.0 89.0 75.0 28.8 18.0 1.0
S2 0.0 65.0 34.0 26.9 22.9 2.3
S3 0.0 78.0 46.0 29.0 20.0 8.8
S4 0.0 70.0 40.0 24.0 18.0 2.0
S5 0.0 88.0 51.0 35.5 23.0 5.4
S6 8.8 92.0 95.0 30.0 24.0 4.0
(b)
xxviii
Winter
Max Min Max Min
R1 0.0 90.0 33.0 30.0 16.5 calm
R2 0.0 93.0 57.0 24.5 14.0 2.0
R3 0.0 91.0 45.0 26.5 13.5 6.0
R4 0.0 91.0 36.0 26.0 12.0 0.0
R5 0.0 80.0 39.0 23.2 8.6 8.0
R6 0.0 85.0 70.0 20.6 14.0 5.0
R7 0.0 81.0 40.0 35.0 25.0 2.0
R8 0.0 72.0 58.0 28.0 21.0 5.3
R9 0.0 92.0 41.0 26.0 14.5 4.0
R10 0.0 75.0 53.0 30.0 20.4 1.0
R 11 0.0 86.0 34.0 22.5 10.0 calm
R12 0.0 84.0 47.0 28.0 15.0 6.0
R13 0.0 80.0 40.0 28.0 14.0 1.0
R14 0.0 75.0 35.0 30.0 20.0 2.6
R15 0.0 83.0 27.0 23.0 10.0 8.0
I1 0.0 90.0 25.0 28.0 15.0 calm
I2 0.0 78.0 28.0 28.8 14.0 2.0
I3 0.0 87.0 32.0 22.0 9.0 6.0
I4 0.0 81.0 37.0 29.0 13.0 4.0
S1 0.0 71.0 51.0 29.0 23.1 0.5
S2 0.0 87.0 26.0 34.0 22.5 4.0
S3 0.0 92.0 22.0 29.8 14.5 4.0
S4 0.0 88.0 25.0 34.0 11.7 4.0
S5 0.0 78.0 42.0 29.0 22.0 1.9
S6 0.0 89.0 55.0 27.0 17.0 2.0
(c)
xxix
Annexure XV: Total rainfall data in premonsoon, postmonsoon and winter season
during study period
Total rainfall (mm) in Total rainfall (mm) in Total rainfall (mm) in

premonsoon postmonsoon Winter
2008 2009 2008 2009 2008 2009
236.4 393.8 1296.8 900.4 29.9 474.3
xxx
LIST OF PUBILICATIONS
1. Ambient air quality status of Burdwan town, West Bengal. (2009) Poll Res 28 (4):
643-647.
2. Spatial and temporal variation of urban air quality: A GIS approach. (2010) JEP(1):
264-277.
3. Spatial and temporal variation of surface Ozone and its precursors in Burdwan
Municipality area. (2011) Res J Chem Environ15 (2):82-90.

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SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN

BURDWAN TOWN, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii-xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii-xiii

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 18-61

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 171-180

Table no. Title Pages

Table 1.1 Sources and effects of common air pollutants 15

Table 3.1 Land use/land cover of Burdwan Municipality area 86

Table 3.2 Medical record (2008) of respiratory disease in Burdwan 87

Table 3.3 Locational details of sampling sites at a glance 88

Table 3.4 Details characteristics about the sampling sites 89

Table 3.5 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 89

Table 3.6 Standards of heavy metals 90

Table 3.7 Primary standards (2008) of CO and O3 90

Table 3.9 Air quality index Table (Mudri, 1990) 91

Table 3.10 Summary of methodology 92

Table 4.1 Spatial and temporal variation of respiratory suspended 131

Table 4.16 Premonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, 148

Table 4.17 Postmonsoon correlation analysis between particulate matter, 149

Table 4.18 Winter correlation analysis between particulate matter, 150

Table 4.20 Eigenvalues of factors in premonsoon 152

Table 4.22 Eigenvalues of factors in postmonsoon 154

Table 4.24 Eigenvalues of factors in winter 156

Table 4.25 Premonsoon AQI status of study area 157

Table 4.27 Winter AQI status of study area 159

Figure no. Title Pages

Figure 3.1 Study area location 94

Figure 3.2 Land use/land cover map of Burdwan Municipality showing 95

Figure 3.3 Calibration graph for SO4 96

Figure 3.4 Calibration graph for NO2 96

Figure 3.5 Calibration graph for SO2 97

Figure 3.6 Diagram of typical sensor formulation 97

Figure 4.1 Windrose diagram (Premonsoon) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 162

Figure 4.2 Windrose diagram (Postmonsoon) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 162

Figure 4.3 Windrose diagram (Winter) [a) 2008 b) 2009] 163

Figure 4.4 Spatial interpolation of respiratory suspended particulate 163

Figure 4.5 Spatial interpolation of respiratory suspended particulate 164

Figure 4.6 Spatial interpolation of respiratory suspended particulate 164

Figure 4.7 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Premonsoon) 165

Figure 4.8 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Postmonsoon) 165

Figure 4.9 Spatial interpolation of SO2 (Winter) 166

Figure 4.10 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Premonsoon) 166

Figure 4.11 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Postmonsoon) 167

Figure 4.12 Spatial interpolation of NO2 (Winter) 167

Figure 4.14 Spatial interpolation of Pb (Postmonsoon) 168

Figure 4.15 Spatial interpolation of Pb (Winter) 169

This section briefly gives the background information regarding the

1.1 Air pollution

Common air pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide

Some air pollutants may be introduced through natural occurrences such as

1.2 Urban areas- the focus of air pollution

This problem of air pollution is accelerated in magnitude with increasing

Rapid economic growth through urbanisation is causing serious air pollution

1.3 Meteorological influence in urban air pollution

Meteorology plays a crucial role in air pollution studies. In fact, there is a

1.4 Air quality problem in South Asia

Air pollution may cause several health problems. It impacts economic