PRDP RMA Guide

A Guide to Rapid Market Appraisal
(RMA) for Agricultural Products
Tiago Sequeira Wandschneider, Ngo Thi Kim Yen, Shaun Ferris, and Tran Van On
A Guide to Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA)
for Agricultural Products
i
Notes on Partner Organizations
The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)

is a not-for-profit organization that conducts socially
and environmentally progressive research aimed at
reducing hunger and poverty and preserving natural
resources in developing countries. CIAT is one of 15
centers funded mainly by the 58 countries, private
foundations and international organizations that make
up the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research, (CGIAR).
Since 1943, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) has held

the privilege of serving the poor and disadvantaged
overseas. Without regard to race, creed or nationality,
CRS provides emergency relief in the wake of natural
and man-made disasters. Through development
projects in fields such as education, peace and justice,
agriculture, microfinance, health, HIV and AIDS, CRS
works to uphold human dignity and promote better
standards of living.
ETSP (Extension and Training Support for Forestry

and Agriculture in the Uplands) is a continuation of
a forestry development project which aims to provide
cost-effective, demand driven systems of extension and
training to upland farmers and service providers for
enhanced sustainable natural resource management
and improved household livelihoods.
Notes on Authors
Tiago Wandschneider is an international development consultant specializing in economic analysis

and business development. He has worked for the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) in the UK and the
International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, (CIAT) based in Hanoi. He is a Portuguese national based
in Lisbon.
Shaun Ferris is a Senior Technical Advisor for Agriculture and the Environment at the Catholic Relief
Services (CRS). He is a corresponding author of this publication. An Australian national, Dr. Ferris
is based in CRS’ Program Quality Support Department (PQSD) in Baltimore USA. His email is
[email protected].
Ngo Thi Kim Yen is a team facilitator within the ETSP project. He is a Vietnamese national based in the
Helvetas office in Ha Noi, Vietnam.
Tran Van On is a freelance training facilitator with links to the Small-Scale Agro-Enterprise Development
project in the Upland of Vietnam (SADU) in the ETSP projects. A Vietnamese national, he is based in
Ha Noi, Vietnam.
ii
Preface
T
his Guide to Rapid Market Analysis Methods Note to users
is a product of the experiences and lessons
This guide is part of a series on participatory
learnt while implementing agro-enterprise
marketing methods, which have been developed
projects in Latin America, Africa and S.E Asia.
to provide assistance to service providers,
This manual is one of a series of agro-enterprise
seeking to improve market access for lower
publications developed through a collaborative
income, smallholder producers. When using the
learning alliance between the Catholic Relief
information in this guide, we suggest that the
Services and the International Centre for Tropical
reader absorbs all the ideas and concepts prior
Agriculture, focused on rural agro-enterprise
to going to the field. Our experience has shown
development.
that best results from this approach are attained
when the market linkage processes outlined in
The aim of this set of methods and tools is
this guide are interpreted and adapted to the
to enable service providers to empower rural
local marketing context, available resources,
communities to engage more effectively in the
social dynamics and anticipated scale of
marketplace so as to increase their income, their
implementation.
capacity to innovate and ultimately improve their
livelihood options. To date, the titles in the agro-
We believe that integrating marketing and
enterprise “good practice guide” series include:
business concepts into rural development projects
is a vital element in achieving sustainable food
•A
Strategy for Rural Agro-enterprise
and financial security. We hope that the methods
Development
outlined in this guide are useful and equip service
providers and local community actors with the
•A
Guide to Developing Partnerships, Area-based
skills needed to meet the challenges of today’s
Resource Assessment and Planning Together
dynamic rural world.
•A
Guide to Identifying Market Opportunities for
Smallholder Producers
•S
trategies to Improve the Competitiveness of
Market Chains for Smallholder Producers
•E
valuating and Strengthening Rural Business
Development Services
•A
Market Facilitators Guide to Rural Agro-
enterprise Development
• Collective Marketing for Smallholder producers
•A
Guide to Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) for
Agricultural Products
• Marketing basics for field agents
• Seven steps of marketing for field agents
iii
Contents
Page
Preface iii
PART 1. Concepts and theory 1

Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. Basic Marketing Concepts 3
Chapter 3. Key Features of Agricultural Markets 29
Chapter 4. Steps in Implementing a Rapid Market Appraisal 34
PART 2. Practical RMA Work 38

Step 1. Survey Area Selection 39
Step 2. Product Selection 41
Exercise 2.1 Product Selection 42
Step 3. Design of a Rapid Market Survey 43
Exercise 3.1 Team Composition 58
Exercise 3.2 Information Needs 59
Exercise 3.3 Selection of Key Informants and Preparation of Checklists 60
Step 4. Implementing a Market Survey 61
Exercise 4.1 Preparation for a Market visit and survey checklist 64
Exercise 4.2 Visit to a market and Interview of Key Informants 65
Exercise 4.3 Reflections on a Market Visit 66
Step 5. Methods and Tools for Analyzing Market Data 67
Step 6. Analysis of Data and Information 74
Step 7. Writing a RMA report 80
Step 8. From Analysis to Action 83
Step 9. Sharing results with farmers and stakeholders 91
Bibliography 97
Annexes 98
Annex 1. Criteria for Product Selection 98
Annex 2. List of Possible Issues for Investigation in an RMA 100
Annex 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Key Informants 102
Annex 4. Examples of Question Checklists for Different Actors and Service Providers 104
Annex 5. Key Points to be Evaluated in a Market Chain Study 110
Annex 6. Example of RMA Report Structure 112
Annex 7. Basic Business Plan 113
Tables
Table 1. The marketing mix – product, price, place, promotion. 7
Table 2. Fish demand in Phu To Province, Vietnam 10
Table 3. Categories and Types of RBDS 13
Table 4. Importance of crops for income within the group 50
Table 5. Historical calendar for Village Mbuule 51
Table 6. Institutional inventory of services received by Ttaago village. 53
Table 7. Methods and Tools for Rapid Data Collection 57
Table 8. SWOT Matrix general headings 71
Table 9. SWOT Matrix Issues to be addressed 71
Table 10. Methods for Analyzing Market Data 73
iv
Page
Table 11. An example of the feasibility matrix 79
Table 12. Issues that need to be addressed in activity building to meet vision 84
Table 13. Activity options to shift from today’s situation to a desired state 84
Table 14. Financial requirements and sequencing 87
Table 15. Planning matrix to identify key opportunities and challenges 88
Table 16. Planning matrix to identify key opportunities and challenges 88
Table 17. Actions to be taken at specific points in the market chain. 89
Table 18. Methods for Moving from Analysis to Action 90
Figures
Figure 1. Core marketing Concepts. 4
Figure 2. Levels within a Value Chain 8
Figure 3. Market segments 10
Figure 4. Marketing Functions and Services 11
Figure 5. Strong government or public sector dominating service provision 15
Figure 6. Public sector facilitating private sector service provision 16
Figure 7. Market chain for local bean production to sales in Uganda 20
Figure 8. Market chain for meat in northern Vietnam 20
Figure 9. Prices along the value chain 21
Figure 10. Using the Ansoff matrix for risk assessment 27
Figure 11. Price seasonality 30
Figure 12. Farm-gate paddy prices in Red River Delta (1994-1999) VND / kg (15,000 VND = 1USD) 30
Figure 13. Steps in the Rapid Market Appraisal Method 37
Figure 14. Examples of simple drawings 50
Figure 15. Market mapping method to assist in expressing market chains 52
Figure 16. Make interviews enjoyable and avoid interrogation 54
Figure 17. Gross margin analysis for bean production 69
Figure 18. Problem tree 71
Figure 19. Solution tree 72
Figure 20. Presentation of RMA findings to farmers 92
Figure 21. Presentation of the RMA findings to investors, policy makers and project managers 94
v
Value Chain Actors
PART 1.
Concepts and theory
Chapter 1. Introduction
to rs
n Ac
i
Cha
lu e
Va
Business Development Services
This manual was prepared by technical and of poor rural producers. The approach also
training staff working with CIAT’s Rural Agro- offers the opportunity to find ways of stimulating
enterprise Project and the Catholic Relief demand for technical and social innovations and
Services. It focuses on participatory marketing enabling rural communities to integrate products
and methods used to analyze market chains and from research, finance and local policy to help
move from analysis to action. The methodology grow their businesses.
information is complemented with a series of
exercises and case studies. Purpose of this manual
Traditionally agricultural support has focused on
Whilst there are many guide books on increasing production. This approach works well
“marketing”, and “how to analyze markets”, this if the primary concern is only food security and
book attempts to contextualize the methods if there is an internal or ready buyer to absorb
within the types of situations and settings the increased supply. Unfortunately, it is often
encountered by development agents when the case that increasing supply, only works for a
working with rural communities, in remote and limited time. Increasing production in the absence
poorly serviced areas. The participatory marketing of market knowledge can lead to local markets
methods aim to help research and development being oversupplied causing prices to fall, which
teams to tackle the dual challenges of food and can reduce income for poor farmers.
financial insecurity that is experienced by millions
1
PART 1. Concepts and theory
In other words, instead of producing what the supporting farmer organizations. The focus of the
market wants, farmers and their facilitators manual is how to evaluate market chains. The
often expend time and energy in trying to find service provider involved in developing marketing
markets for what they have already produced. skills could be from a Government department
Lack of attention to markets all too often results of agriculture, veterinary, animal husbandry,
in farmers being “stuck” with unwanted produce fisheries, an extension officer, community
that they are forced to sell at very low prices development officer, staff of an NGO and any
because it is not what the market needs. other private establishment including farmer
groups, co-operatives, and business staff.
This manual seeks to provide a basic
understanding of marketing concepts and how How to use the manual
this knowledge can be used to assist farmer The manual is designed to be used to support a 5
groups to produce goods and how to identify to 10-day training course, after which graduates
opportunities to introduce or strengthen local will have the basic skills to participate in a Rapid
business development services, all based on Market Assessment (RMA) of products identified
market demand. through a participatory process involving local
decision-makers, development agencies, private
Objectives of the Manual sector representatives, and farmers. Market
The objective of this guide is to build the capacity appraisal exercises are expected to generate pilot
of local service providers from Government interventions that will be tested and assessed for
Agencies (GA’s) and Non Governmental subsequent adaptation, replication, and scaling-
Organizations (NGOs) in participatory techniques up.
to undertake a rapid market analysis. The results
of the market analysis lead to the identification The manual is divided into two sections.
of market opportunities and agro-enterprises
that improve the incomes of rural producers, 1. Section One, deals with theory and the
processors and traders. basic marketing concepts and functions of
agricultural markets.
Specifically, the manual aims to: 2. Section Two, focuses on methods for
market analysis and is the most important
•P
rovide service providers with skills that will part of the manual. In this section, trainees
enable them to assist farmers to engage with will be guided through the design and
markets using participatory methods. implementation of a rapid market appraisal
•G
uide the process of market identification and (RMA), the analysis of secondary and primary
selection of attractive enterprise options, based data and information, and report writing.
on information gathered from the market chain
and analysis of local assets, skills and market Both sections include practical exercises – ways
access options. to test the tools developed. Additional support
•B
uild agro-enterprise skills within the materials are included in the Annexes.
community so that groups can continue the
process of engaging effectively within a dynamic
marketplace in the future.
Who will use this manual?

The manual is intended for use by an institution,
such as Government Agencies for Extension and
Research, Non-Governmental Organizations,
Community-Based Organizations, second order
Farmer associations interested in building staff
capacity in market facilitation and consultants
2
A Guide to Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) for Agricultural Products
Chapter 2. Basic Marketing Concepts
Learning objectives agricultural marketing, these activities include

post-harvest operations such as cleaning, drying
After reading this chapter, the learner should be
and grading of produce, and also transport,
able to understand and explain basic marketing
storage, processing, packaging, advertising and
concepts. A good understanding of basic concepts
sale.
will facilitate learning during the following training
sessions, and improve the ability of the learner to
The second definition stresses finding out
contribute to the collection and analysis of market
customer needs and satisfying these needs at a
data and information.
profit. This definition focuses on two important
points:
2.1 What is Marketing?
There are many definitions of marketing! Most i) t he marketing process has to be customer-
definitions focus on the functions and purposes of oriented; and
marketing. In this manual, we use two definitions. ii) m arketing activities should provide farmers,
The first refers to all activities and services transporters, traders and processors with a
involved in moving a product from the point of profit.
production to the point of consumption. This broad
definition emphasizes that marketing involves
a series of sequential activities. In the case of
3
As such, the market process ensures that

products are available for consumption:
• in the right place

• in the form wanted
• in the quantities and quality required, and
• at the time needed
• at a price that consumers are willing to pay
To be successful in the marketplace farmers need

to have a better understanding of markets. We
believe they need to focus on getting organized
and producing what they can sell and not trying to
sell what they have produced. To assist farmers
in this task, development agents need to be able
to analyze markets to find out what different
types of products consumers want to buy, what
prices they can afford and then work with farmers
to help them grow products to meet market
demands and consumer needs. Figure 1. Core marketing Concepts.
Source Kotler et al, 2002.
Produce what you can sell The process of marketing is therefore more
and Don’t try to sell what complicated than simply producing essential
you have produced products which are sold to willing consumers. It

is about
There are two distinct categories of “needs” that

(i) u
nderstanding what people need and want,
marketing aims to meet. The first area includes
(ii) p
roducing products to satisfy these wants and
basic or essential physical requirements such as
needs,
food, clothing, shelter, safety, community and
(iii) o
ffering products at a place where people can
knowledge. The second area covers “wants” or
buy them,
“desires” – products that may not be essential
(iv) a t a price and quality that they find attractive,
to living but make lives more comfortable and
and most importantly,
rewarding.
(v) s elling the product range at a profit.
Consumers make purchases based on their

This cycle of activities is shown in Figure 1.
needs, wants and ability to pay for any products
and services. They place specific values on One of the most fundamental relationships that
different types of products and services and when affect marketing and the ability of people to buy
they go to market, consumers rely on producers, products and services is defined by demand and
traders and processors to offer products which supply. Understanding the relationship between
meet their needs in terms of price, quality and supply and demand is critical to basic market
quality. analysis.
4
2.2 Demand and Supply Supply can be defined as the amount which
producers and traders are willing and able to
In simple terms, demand is the volume of a
provide at specific prices. While supply is strongly
product or service that buyers are willing and
influenced by production, the two are not the
able to purchase at different prices. Buyers must
same. For example, perishable produce may never
not only want to buy a product or service, they
be channeled to the market due to spoilage. And
must also have the means or resources to pay
some agricultural products may be stored and
for it. Demand is not static and there are many
released into the market at a much later date. The
factors and trends that affect the short, medium
supply of agricultural products tends to be more
and long-term demand for a given product in the
volatile than the demand for these same products
marketplace. Major factors that affect demand in
because of the strong influence that natural
agriculture include:-
conditions have on production levels. Some of the
main factors influencing the supply of agricultural
products are:
•C
limate. Favorable weather conditions will
translate into a good harvest and therefore have
a positive impact on supply, while drought or
floods will have the opposite effect. Pests and
diseases can have a similar negative impact on
production and supply.
• Production costs. An increase in the

production cost of a certain commodity may lead
farmers to shift to other commodities with better
returns. A decline in production costs might
have the opposite effect.
•P
rices. If prices rise, demand tends to fall. If
•P
rices. There is a clear tendency for farmers to
prices fall, demand tends to increase.
expand supply when prices rise, and to reduce
• I ncome. When the real income of consumers it when prices fall. In the case of storable crops
increases, so does their purchasing power and such as grains, farmers may be able to increase
demand. When incomes contract, the opposite supply immediately by reducing consumption
happens. and releasing stocks. Investment in production
is another common response, but it may take
•C
onsumer preferences. Demand is a function some time for this investment to generate
of consumer preferences, and these overtime, increased supply.
preferences are particularly affected by changes
in consumer income and education levels and •T
ransport infrastructure. An improvement
exposure to modern lifestyles and advertising. in transport infrastructure may reduce the
remoteness of certain areas and enable the
•C
ompeting or substitute products. Demand production of new agricultural products for sale
for a particular product will fall when alternative in urban markets.
products become more available and/or cheaper.
It will increase when such products become
scarcer and/or more expensive.
•Q
uality. Buyers are often sensitive to the quality
of agricultural products. Improvements in quality
can lead to an increase in demand, whereas a
decline in quality can have the opposite effect.
5
Product Price Place Promotion
2.3 The 4 Ps of Marketing

In order to supply what customers want for
a profit, market participants must develop
production and marketing strategies that enable
them to operate within the laws of demand and
supply. The four key variables that sellers use in
developing their market strategies are commonly
known as the four Ps of marketing or the
marketing mix (see Table 1).
• P
roduct (what to produce)
• P
rice (at what price to sell)
• P
lace (where to sell)
• P
romotion (how to promote the product)
As product markets are highly varied and

dynamic, certain marketing strategies may be
appropriate in one context, but not in others. 2.4 Core Marketing Activities, Services
Strategies also lose relevance over time due to and Institutions
changing circumstances. Moreover, marketing The information in Figure 2 provides a schematic
choices will always depend on the resources view of how markets, services and institutions
available to market participants, as well as their interact to support market coordination and
skills and knowledge. performance. The market typically operates on
three levels:
Developing marketing strategies is therefore an
essential part of market development and there Level 1. Core marketing activities that are required
are many books devoted to this subject entirely to produce and deliver a product through a series
(see Kotler, 2005). of market intermediaries1 to the final consumer;
Core market actors are the people and businesses
that produce, buy and sell the target product
within a market chain.
1 “Market intermediary” is a term used to describe the people
involved in specific roles along a market chain, such as a farmer, a
trader, a processor, a wholesaler, a retailer and a consumer.
6
Level 2. Services and infrastructure that help Level 3. Formal and informal policies, based on
to improve the efficiency and performance of Government or private standards and regulations
core market activities; This group of people that provide the enabling environment or “rules of
and business functions are often referred to as the game” for businesses to operate in a fair and
Business development services (BDS), the functions transparent manner within the marketplace.
in this level support the core business but are not
involved in buying or selling the target product It is the interaction of these three levels that
within a market chain. This level includes financial provide the necessary locations, players and
and non financial services. working environment for effective marketing
transactions to take place.
Table 1. The marketing mix – product, price, place, promotion.
Marketing Definition Aspects of this variable include Actions to be considered

Variables
Product (what Everything Variety, quality, design, The product supplied must satisfy a need. The product
to produce) that we sell. characteristics, brand, should ideally be in high demand and include features that
That which can packaging, sizes, services, are appreciated in the market (e.g. quality, appearance,
satisfy a need or guarantees. size, and packaging). In the case of farmers, it is important
a want. Includes that they grow crops and varieties for which there is strong
material objects, demand and to dry, clean, sort, and grade the produce
services, according to buyer requirements.
persons, places,
organizations
and ideas.
Price, (at what The monetary Price lists, discounts, price The product must be sold for the right price -- a price that
price to sell) value that a margins, credit conditions is competitive, but also generates a profit to the supplier.
seller seeks Farmers can influence prices through the choice of crop and
from a buyer quality management practices. Farmers can also influence
for a product or the price of their products through the choice of market
service. place and buyer, and through co-operation with other
producers in the marketing and processing spheres.
Place Distribution Market sales points, spatial A product should be sold at the best possible place or
(distribution and marketing coverage of market sales market. This will depend on the benefits (e.g. price), costs
channels and channels. points, locations within (e.g. transport and time), and risks (e.g. price volatility)
where to sell) A series of markets, inventories of associated with different market options. It must also be
independent products, transportation noted that buyers in different market places may have
organizations channels. different product requirements. For example, local collectors
involved in normally buy very small volumes of un-sorted produce
the process directly from individual farmers, whereas supermarkets or
of allowing importers in foreign markets require a much larger volume
the consumer of standardized products.
or industrial
user to use or
consume the
product or
service.
Promotion Convincing or Promotion includes Producers or suppliers should promote their product
(how to persuading advertising, personal to maximize sales and prices. They should engage in
promote the the audience sales, trade and consumer regular discussions and exchange of information with
product) of the quality promotions and public buyers. Farmers can use these discussions to inform
or features of relations. potential buyers of the products they have for sale, their
the products characteristics, and the volumes available. Farmers are
or services particularly well positioned to engage and coordinate
offered by the transactions with buyers when selling as a group.
organization.
7
Figure 2. Levels within a Value Chain

Source adapted from Ferrant et al, 2004
The next section provides greater detail for each 2.5 Market Types
of these levels with information on types of
A market can be defined as a place where buyers
market locations, functions and services. Any
and sellers come together to buy and sell goods
service provider who seeks to provide marketing
and services. In a narrow sense, a market refers
or business advice to others, must have a good
to a physical place where goods and services are
understanding of the basic marketing terms and
exchanged. Such places can be found in villages,
concepts, if they are to help identify and support
by the roadside, in small and medium towns,
the marketing needs of others. We begin with a
and in cities. A market can also be defined as the
description of the physical locations where the
demand for a product or a service. According to
functions of market exchanges take place -- the
this definition, a market is a group of people who
marketplace.
have needs and who are willing to spend money in
order to satisfy those needs.
8
Assembly markets: These are markets where areas of high population or on a few days of the
produce is sold by farmers and small local traders week in less populated areas. The main function is
before being taken to wholesale markets. The main to supply consumers and small businesses such
function of assembly markets is to bring together as restaurants, hotels and street-food vendors.
supplies from a large number of dispersed farmers While retail markets are a very important source
within an area, thereby enabling buyers to access of supply, it is also common for consumers to buy
significant product volumes from a single location from shops, roadside vendors and street hawkers.
at reduced costs. Assembly markets can take
many different forms. In some cases, they may be Supermarkets: As urbanization has created
small areas where farmers and traders gather for ever larger market centers with higher levels of
a couple of hours on a regular or irregular basis. market demand, supermarkets have emerged as
In other cases, they may be weekly or bi-weekly a convenient, safe, well-managed marketplace for
markets. Assembly markets are normally located the mid- to high-income urban consumer. Many
in rural areas, but permanent ones can often be supermarkets are managed by large international
found in small towns close to farming areas. companies, which enable them to offer goods
from across the world. Whilst supermarkets first
Auctions: These are markets, where products are emerged and dramatically changed food retailing
offered to buyers through a process of taking bids. in industrial countries, they are becoming a
Products or lots of produce are offered to buyers, feature of large towns in virtually all urbanizing
which are then sold to the highest bidder. Unlike countries. Farmers can sell to supermarkets but
produce markets, the auction process is used only the buying conditions for these formal markets are
for specific goods, and the process is designed more stringent than the informal “wet markets” in
to aggregate and sell produce within a short terms of food quality, but also in terms of supply
timeframe, often only a few hours. Auctions are frequency, financial regulations, food quality
therefore mainly used for perishable, higher value standards and production systems.
products such as flowers, fish and livestock.
2.6 Market Participants and
Wholesale markets: These markets tend to be Intermediaries
located in towns and cities. The main function Consumers and market segments: Consumers
of the wholesale market is to gather supplies are critical drivers of market performance, they
from different production areas for subsequent are the decision makers and they in the end
distribution to urban retail markets or in some decide what they want to buy, where they want
cases to aggregate goods for export. Wholesale to buy and the form in which they want to buy.
markets play at least three important functions. Consumers however, are not all the same and
First, farmers and traders can deliver their therefore market demand for a particular product
produce to one location rather than having to visit is not homogeneous. Different people do not have
many retailers. Second, retailers can buy a wide the same needs and preferences and a vital part of
range of produce from one single place. Finally, the human condition is to demand different things.
the trading of large quantities of produce in one
place enables price formation in line with supply One way that market analysts make sense of
and demand conditions. In many countries, urban demand and trends in demand is by dividing
wholesale markets for fruit, vegetables and flowers consumers into different categories or groups of
tend to operate at night or in the early hours of the buyers, each with similar needs and preferences.
day, so that retailers have fresh produce to sell to Each separate group forms a market segment (see
customers during normal working hours. Figure 3). Market segments include consumers
with common features, such as age, sex, religion,
Retail markets: Retail markets can be found personality, geography and income. Different
everywhere -- in villages, small towns and large market segments have different needs toward a
cities. These markets sell small amounts of goods product.
to consumers who use the produce on a weekly
or daily basis. Depending on the numbers of
customers, retail markets take place every day in
9
Figure 3. Market segments
For example, in many developing countries, young Most products have diverse market options due
people prefer soft drinks whereas older people tend to to the different needs and interests of market
prefer coffee and tea. Wealthy and health-conscious segments. Producers cannot satisfy all needs of all
consumers in large cities are starting to demand safe market segments. Therefore, defining the potential
vegetables, whereas people living in villages are less market segment/customer group will help the
concerned about the food safety issue. producers to satisfy their customers’ needs and
select the most suitable marketing strategy to
An example of how market segmentation affects maximize their resource and labor inputs and
prices and products is shown in Table 2, which thereby increase their returns.
provides an example of market segmentation for
fish in a northern province of Vietnam, according to Farmers: At the opposite end of the market
income. One market segment is composed of high- chain are the farmers or producers. Farmers
income households while the other comprises low- occasionally sell directly to the consumer, but this
income households. High-income consumers tend to is not the norm and most often farm products
buy large fish and are willing to pay 15,000-20,000 move through the hands of several market
VND per kilogram (at the time of this survey 1 $USD intermediaries before reaching consumers.
= 15,000 VND). Carp and grass carp are particularly
appreciated. Low-income consumers normally buy Market intermediaries provide an essential link
smaller, soft bone fish, such as tench and mud carp, between farmers and consumers:
and can only afford to pay 8,000-12,000 VND per
kilogram. Demand by this group is concentrated in •M
ost consumers live far away from production
July-August and December-January. areas and products must therefore be
transported, sometimes over very long distances.
Table 2. Fish demand in Phu To Province, Vietnam
•A
gricultural production is generally seasonal
High-income Low-income
consumers consumers
while consumption is regular and continuous
Product features larger and fresh, smaller fish, soft
throughout the year. As a result, many
good taste bone agricultural products are stored for variable
Preferred breeds carp, grass carp tench, mud carp periods of time.
Prices 15,000 – 20,000 8,000 – 12,000
VND/kg VND/kg •M
ost farm products are not in a form that
Consumption 15 kg/head/year 9 kg/head/year is acceptable to consumers. They must be
Timing all year round July-August; sorted, cleaned, processed in various ways
December-January and presented to the consumer in convenient
quantities.
10
There are different types of market intermediaries, capital, trade small volumes and use simple
each performing different functions in the means of transport, such as bicycles, donkeys
marketing system. Below we introduce four types and motorbikes. Larger collectors may own or rent
of market intermediaries that can be commonly pickups or small trucks.
found working in markets throughout the
developing world. : Travelling traders: These are typically traders who
own a truck and spend their time travelling into
Collectors: These are small local traders who remote rural areas to buy farm produce, which
buy directly from dispersed farmers. Their they sell to wholesale traders in urban markets. In
main function is to assemble local products for some cases travelling traders have regular contacts
subsequent sale to larger traders and processors with farmers who sell to them each season, but
operating within the region. Collectors have limited often travelling traders are opportunistic buyers,
Figure 4. Marketing Functions and Services

11
who drive to production areas in the hope of local traders is to aggregate produce from several
finding produce for sale. These traders are farmers. This enables the farmers to sell larger
particularly important for smallholder producers, amounts of product at one time which enables the
as they get to remote areas making solid offers to group to negotiate for more favorable prices with
farmers, and they pay for produce as they take it traders.
from the farmers.
Cleaning: Harvested produce needs to be cleaned
Wholesalers: Wholesalers deal with much larger before processing and/or consumption. Through
volumes than collectors and rent or own medium this activity, foreign matter such as sand, straw
to large vehicles. They also tend to rent or own and stones is removed.
storage premises. Wholesalers procure most of
their supplies from smaller traders or processors, Drying: Moisture content influences the
but some also buy directly from farmers. The main perishability of a product and the efficiency of
function of wholesalers is to bulk produce and processing. Therefore, many products are dried
then supply retailers in towns and cities. Many at some stages of the marketing chain in order to
also supply processors and other large traders, avoid microbial contamination and lengthen the
including exporters. longevity of the products (or shelf-life).
Processors: Agro-processors are those individuals Sorting: Harvested produce usually requires some
and firms involved in the transformation of form of sorting to meet the needs of processors,
agricultural commodities (e.g. rice millers, cassava exporters, and consumers. Sorting differentiates
starch factories and animal feed manufacturers). produce according to certain attributes or
Processors can be very small household characteristics, including variety, size, shape,
enterprises or fairly large firms, employ traditional degree of impurity, and ripeness.
or modern technologies, and are located in rural
or urban areas. Large processors tend to have Standard units: Standard weights and measures
significant stocks of raw material to ensure include the use of national, or international
continuous processing and enable them to use units, all of which can be understood and verified
their equipment during the off-season. throughout the region of trade. Specific products
normally have widely and easily recognized
Retailers: The main function of retailers is to standard units of sale. Farmers that meet these
distribute supplies to consumers. Retailers are standards help to enable rapid transfer of goods
very diverse in size and operation. For example, and ease of sales agreements. Traders are often
supermarket chains are fairly large companies that prepared to pay a premium for produce that
deal with significant volumes of a wide range of meets specific standards.
agricultural products. In contrast, small shops and
market vendors sell much smaller volumes and Processing: Processing or transformation is a
fewer goods, and do not keep sizeable stocks. critical marketing function / service, which adds
value to the primary good. Processing is done to
2.7 Marketing Functions meet consumers’ needs and tastes and is often
undertaken to reduce drudgery for the end user.
Marketing functions are the roles performed by
For example, maize is milled into flour for ease of
market participants as the produce moves from the
cooking and consumption, more exotic products
farm to the consumer. Each function is associated
such as mushrooms can be processed into
with the provision of one or more services. Figure 4
different dishes and packed before being sold to
shows some key marketing functions and services
market. Various processing methods add value
at the assembly, wholesaling, and retailing stages.
and or lengthen the shelf life of product (e.g. by
2.7.1 Marketing Functions canning or freezing). Some commodities cannot be
consumed at all without processing. This is the
Bulking: One of the most basic marketing case, for example, of rice and livestock.
functions that can be performed by farmers or
12
Storage: Storage facilities are needed at In many countries, business development

various stages of the marketing chain. For services are concentrated in urban areas, where
some products, storage can only be for short they provide profitable services to many clients.
periods due to product perishability (fruits and BDS is less accessible in rural areas mainly
vegetables), while durable commodities may be because farmers do not have the resources to pay
kept for very long periods (cereals and pulses). for services at commercially viable rates and the
Sometimes storage is required for just a few costs of delivering services to a remote, dispersed
days while the product is awaiting transport population are high. Therefore, the growth of
or the seller is searching for buyers. In other rural business services is mainly focused on
cases, crops may need to be stored for much higher value marketing opportunities, such as
longer periods. Farmers may want to maintain fruit, vegetables and livestock.
some stocks for future consumption or sale. Table 3. Categories and Types of RBDS
Processors may accumulate stocks in order
to extend their activity to periods when there Market Access: • agricultural fairs • market linkages
• samples for • marketing trips and
is little produce (raw material) in the market.
buyers meetings
Traders may also want to store produce for sale • market • learning journeys
during the off-season period, when prices are information down the chain
• contract farming • market research
higher. Finally, many governments feel the need • standards and food
to undertake storage to stabilize supply and quality assessment
prices. Input Supply: •s eeds, (informal, • irrigation,
commercial) • pesticides
• fertilizer, micro
Packaging: Many products need to be packaged and macro sales
in some way if they are to be marketed widely Infrastructure: • feeder roads • telecommunications
and efficiently. Packaging may help reduce • storage and • Informal money
warehousing transfer
physical deterioration, theft and adulteration of
• transport and • information
products. It may also ensure product cleanliness delivery through print,
and facilitate measurement, labeling, and radio, TV
attachment of sales instructions and product Collective • farmer marketing •v

ertical integration
action groups to achieve greater
descriptions. Finally, packaging may be used for • co-operatives
promotion and advertising purposes, making the
product more attractive to the consumer. Training and •e xchange visits •a ccountancy and
Technical and business bookkeeping
assistance tours • production gross
2.8 Business Development Services • technical training margin analysis
(BDS) Technology • farmer to farmer • linking SEs
Transfer exchanges and technology
The functions described in the previous section • research to suppliers
can be done by farmers or these functions can farmer tech
be provided by business development services transfer
(BDS). BDS services are critical for the effective Financing • r otating funds • facilitating supplier
“merry go credit
and efficient marketing of farm products, rounds” • warehouse receipts
particularly as societies urbanize and market • internal savings / credits
chains become longer, in terms of distance and and loans • futures trading
• direct bank through exchanges
the number of people involved in the chain. In credit for crop • third party loan
other words, participants in agricultural market financing guarantee schemes
chains require a number of support services • loan to buy
schemes for
in order to improve and sustain their business equipment
operations. Business development services
include a broad range of activities as outlined in
Table 3. Source: adapted from Miehlbradt, A et al. 2005
13
The list of rural BDS presented in Table 3 is not Transport: A major cause of marketing problems
exhaustive but shows there are many potential often lies in the limited availability and high cost
services, and it is often the case that poor of transport services, especially in areas that
smallholder farmers in remote areas can access are difficult to reach. Transport of produce from
only a fraction of these services, if any. Declining remote, difficult to access areas is only justified
government support in agriculture also means when the selling price in destination markets is
that that richer farmers can pay for commercial well above the purchasing price in those areas.
agricultural services in order to remain competitive,
whereas poor farmers are marginalized due to Communications: Post, phone, e-mail, Internet
lack of access to technologies, information on services and word of mouth are critical for smooth
new farming methods and information on market information flow along the market chain. The
opportunities, all of which increase barriers to increasing availability of mobile phone networks
market entry. The types of services that most and e-mail has had a major impact on the
farmers can access include the following: efficiency of marketing systems and for many
market actors, the mobile phone is the most
Supply of inputs: Access to good quality and effective means of communicating with buyers.
affordable inputs, in the right form and volume, In areas where mobile phones have become
is critical to the activity of different actors in the ubiquitous, many buyers will only now operate
market chain. Key inputs for farming include with suppliers that have a phone, to ease and
seed, fertilizer, agro-chemicals, irrigation water,
reduce the costs of transactions.
agricultural implements, and post-harvest
equipment. Processing often requires access to
Market information: Information on prices of
water and electric power, equipment, and spare
products in different markets is essential for
parts for machinery and small equipment.
informed decision making, reducing transaction
costs and risks, enabling efficient storage and
Research: Research is essential for the
facilitating the flow of goods from production
development of appropriate production, post-
to consumption areas. Access to information
harvest, storage, and processing technologies. For
example, the release of improved varieties can lower reduces business risk and allows market
production costs, increase produce supply and participants to explore profitable opportunities
quality, reduce product perishability, and enable and meet consumer needs. The scope for cheating
off-season production. The development of agro- and unfair pricing practices is significantly
processing technology can reduce waste and costs, reduced when information is available to all
increase production capacity, and improve product market participants.
quality.
Finance: Finance is necessary for goods to move
Advisory services and market information along the marketing system. Farmers need to
provision: Market participants require specialized purchase inputs and hire labor, and may want
information and advice. This may cover a wide to hold on to their crops after harvest to benefit
range of areas, including production, post- from higher prices. Traders and processors need
harvest, processing, marketing, management, to finance investments as well as marketing and
and business strategy. Agricultural and industrial processing activities. Although it is difficult to
extension officers, other government agencies access formal bank loans in most developing
and information services, and consultancy firms countries, farmers and rural traders can achieve
are common sources of specialized advice and impressive results through savings and informal
information. Market participants themselves loan sources. Access to mobile money, mobile
are an important source of information. Market loans and associated insurance are new financial
information and advisory service can be provided products which offer new possibilities for remote
directly or through communication means such as farmers.
mobile phone, email and internet.
14
Figure 5. Strong government or public sector dominating service provision
2.8.1 Forms of service provision Whilst this approach can provide rapid results,
the private sector is generally crowded out of the
There are four main ways of supporting rural
market place as they are unable to compete with
business development services and an important
these alternative, subsidized suppliers that often
sustainability question for rural BDS is, “Who
do not charge for the services they provide.
pays?”
Project sustainability: The provision of free

Free services: Some services such as roads,
services by NGO staff, rather than working
power grids, extension advice, research and
through local private sector service provides
market information are provided by governments
is probably the main reason for poor levels
as a public good. Whilst the approach tends to
of sustainability when a project closes. Even
be successful for infrastructure, the provision of
when free services are of low quality or limited
regular business services is often less successful.
accessibility, their presence often undermines
The quality of public goods services is often low
private sector confidence to invest in such areas
and in many cases, poor people would prefer to
and therefore services do not emerge. When an
pay for services that were more reliable and of a
NGO completes a project and withdraws their
higher standard.
support, if the farmers have no continuing access
In some cases, the lack of provision of public to essential services, the agro-enterprise becomes
goods services from Government has been unprofitable, or untenable. With no access to
replaced by donor and NGO support programs. services project gains are lost and farmers return
to their previous options and low levels of service
15
Figure 6. Public sector facilitating private sector service provision
use and productivity. The sustainability issue is cost of services can also be based on a percentage
a major problem with many rural projects and we of the final harvest income.
would recommend that to avoid this problem that
field agents are not required to give away assets. Facilitated services: To promote the shift from
free public services to private services, many
Subsidized Services: To make services accessible projects are using public/private partnerships.
to a specific set of clients or farmers, development These partnerships seek to strengthen existing
agents can assist beneficiaries by reducing private service provision or establish new private-
service costs. Governments and donors can offer based services in new areas that may not yet be
users services at a reduced fee or may provide commercially viable. This process of facilitating
start-up funds to initiate new services. In this services can also be used to tailor specific services
case, there may be a timeframe within which the for poor farmers through activities such as micro-
service will need to transfer from receiving partial packaging of inputs, supporting savings groups
public funds to being a free standing program. so that farmers can save for down payments
This process of subsidizing services can be done on goods, the establishment of micro loans to
using vouchers that have a sliding value over the purchase schemes for technologies such as
duration of the project. Another alternative is for irrigation pumps, and/or training local part-time
communities to share a part of the cost of such business advisors to act as market linkage agents
services, either through direct cash payments or, based on local commissions of sale, as illustrated
more likely, through food-for-work programs. The in Figure 6.
16
Fee paying services: As markets become more cost of these services will be factored into the
competitive, farmers will see the value in paying price the trader pays the farmer for the produce.
for services to maintain their competitive edge
in the marketplace. This is particularly relevant This practice, if done well, is extremely beneficial
to farmers who are aiming to sell their goods to for farmers, but if a trader is less scrupulous,
formal buyers, or farmers engaged with higher farmers can become so indebted to the traders
value products, those selling to more distant that they are almost labor for the traders with no
markets and especially those farmers who are room to negotiate reasonable sales prices for their
selling into export markets. In all of these cases, goods.
farmers increasingly need to factor in the costs
of innovation and the costs of upgrading their More formal types of embedded services are found
production and market performance. These costs in the financial sector. In India, for example, a
may be required to sign up to a certification new type of credit card has been developed by
process, a traceability process, or to pay for the National Agricultural and Rural Development
expert knowledge, training and advice to fully Bank for use by farmers in making small
understand market requirements and how to transactions. The credit includes a charge for life
become compliant with the market needs and insurance as a means of protecting the lender in
regulations. Whilst such costs are factored into the incident that the creditor dies without paying
final product prices, it is often only the richer the debt. Although highly effective, the ability
farmers, those with more land, water resources, to embed services is often limited and therefore
or those linked to higher value markets that can this approach can only be applied where it is
afford to invest in such services. However, as practical to do so and when there are incentives
agricultural markets consolidate, more farmers to maintain the embedded nature of a service.
will need to gain access to specific services if they
are to remain competitive within a market. 2.9 Infrastructure and Policies
One of the main impacts of government
Embedded services: The concept of embedding intervention in agricultural marketing systems is
services takes into account the challenge that through the provision of support infrastructure
whilst services are important, consumers or users and the policy and regulatory frameworks.
find it difficult to pay for such services and thus Well-developed and maintained economic
services are avoided. To overcome this problem, infrastructure, alongside supportive policies and
service providers try to “piggy back” some regulations, create an enabling environment for
underinvested services into packages that include cost reductions and private sector investment
goods or other services that people are prepared in the provision of marketing and other support
to pay for. In some cases, this is done explicitly services. Such public goods therefore have
and is advertised as a bonus. In other cases, a major impact on the competitiveness of
services are provided and recipients are unaware agricultural production as well as employment
they are being charged. and income levels along market chains.
In rural areas, one of the most reliable service 2.9.1 Infrastructure

providers may be a travelling trader. These
There are a number of basic infrastructures that
traders often have strong relationships with other
enable farmers to link to markets, ranging from
service suppliers and will provide these services
water, roads, communication and security.
to farmers as part of their buying relationship.
Many traders will offer farmers credit, free seeds
Land: A critical asset for farmers in terms of
of a crop they wish to buy, and sometimes this
linking to markets is having the necessary land
relationship can include fertilizer and tools.
assets to produce sufficient surplus produce
Therefore, in addition to buying and transporting
to be able to sell into markets. One of the
the farmers’ goods, traders also provide a number
largest constraints for smallholder farmers is
of other embedded services. The farmer is not
having very limited land area. It is somewhat
charged immediately for these services, but the
17
counterintuitive that even through maize is the grid generally have to sell their goods soon after
major agricultural product for farmers in East harvest, with little upgrading of the basic product.
and Southern Africa, that more than 50 % of the
farmers are net buyers, as they have insufficient Communications: The latest form of
land to produce maize surpluses using low input infrastructure that is rapidly transforming
farming methods2 . The location of the land is rural areas is access to wireless communication
also important, with productivity being highly systems. The massive proliferation of mobile
dependent upon agro-ecozone. phones, and the integration of these phones with
internet browsing facilities, is allowing farmers
Roads: For many communities, access to market to link with services, buyers and set up trading
is determined by access to serviceable roads. relationships. Mobile phones are now an essential
Farmers will only offer surplus for sale if they information and trading resource, and farmers
have access to paths and roads from their without access to a mobile phone network are at a
farms to market. Due to their high cost, most real marketing disadvantage.
communities rely upon Governments to provide
basic roads. However, several studies have shown 2.9.2. Agricultural Policy and regulation
that market access is significantly improved with Trade Agreements: A key role of the Government
the construction of even basic unpaved roads is to support a competitive regulatory trading
that allow farmers to use donkey carts, or small environment for agriculture. At the global level,
tractors to bring produce to larger roads for the World Trade Organization (WTO), offers
sale to traders with pickups or trucks. Enabling signing countries, a framework to facilitate trade
year round market access via more robust road between countries. However, within this trading
networks is critical to regular market access. arrangement, uncompetitive farmers will lose
market share to more efficient farmers from other
Water management systems: Poorer smallholder countries. Similarly, at the regional and sub-
farmers tend to work in rain-fed agricultural regional levels, trade agreements offer favorable
systems where success is dependent upon trading rules within a specific area. Trade
favorable weather. Due to the risks of poor agreements aim to promote trade between buyers
weather, most banking, micro-finance and and sellers by supporting the use of common
insurance agencies are reluctant to provide standards and grades with associated weights
financial services to farmers who do not have and measures. This enables remote buyers and
some form of water management program. sellers to trade produce without the need for
In several countries, Governments recognize physical inspection with greater confidence. Trade
the vulnerability of rain-farming communities regulations also include rules on legal arbitration to
and both Government and Non Government settle disputes when the occur, taxation, tariff and
Organizations are investing in water management subsidy measures, so that produce is traded on a
systems, which include the construction of micro- level playing field, to avoid unfair advantages within
dams, bore holes, water catchment systems, a trade agreement zone.
upgrading traditional and new irrigation systems,
to enable farmers to achieve more consistent Food safety: Following a series of food poisonings
production. incidents in mainstream food chains, caused
by food contaminated with pathogens such as
Power: Rural power is a critical support service aflotoxin, listeria and vomitoxin and fumonisin,
that enables farmers to make significant shifts Governments and commercial companies are
from basic production to value added products. establishing more rigorous Food safety regulations
Farmers in areas with access to national electric to protect consumers. These regulations restrict
grid power, can condition, store, dry, chill and the sale of food items unless they meet specific
add value to their produce using a range of food quality specifications and some goods require
technologies. Farmers without access to low cost inspection for toxin levels as part of the sales
2 T.S. Jayne et al, 2010. Patterns and Trends in Food Staples Markets condition. In many formal food chains, companies
in Eastern and Southern Africa. now require produce traceability from farm to point
18
of sale, so that any problems detected within a 2.10 Market structure and performance
batch of food can be identified and supply stopped
As producers and consumers become more
at source.
distant from each other through trends such
as urbanization, and products become more
Public and Private standards: Associated with
processed, there is an increasingly complex
mass urbanization over the past 20-30 years there
network of people and activities that link
has also been a rapid consolidation of buyers,
producers with consumers. This sequential
within the formal food system. In the food chains
process that includes market actors, their
that supply industrialized countries, the number
functions and business relations is described
of traders, processors and retailers has decreased
using a number of terms including a sub-sector,
dramatically, with countries such as the United
supply chain, market chain and value chain,
Kingdom selling 80% of its retail food through 5-6
(see Figure 7). All of these terms refer to the
supermarket brands. One of the outcomes of this
distribution or channels that support the flow
consolidation of buyers, has been that the retailers
of goods, information and finances between
and major trading houses often play a more
producers, intermediaries and consumers.
prominent role in setting food quality and safety
These terms are used synonymously in various
standards than Government. This has come about
texts and we have attempted to indicate some
because the leading supermarket chains want
differences in these terms:
their loyal customers to be confident in their foods
systems. This quality assurance process between
Subsector: If an economy is divided into a
sellers and buyers has significantly improved food
number of sectors, such as health, education,
quality standards in the formal market food chains.
transport, banking and agriculture, then a
The effect of this market power from supermarkets
subsector focuses on the set of products and
has also led to major reforms at the farm level
activities for specific products within a given
in how food is produced and levels of hygiene is
sector. In the agricultural sector, a sub-sector
enforced at the point of production. The most
study would therefore focus on the market
recent food safety requirements being laid down by
structure, regulations and performance of a
the retailers, are that every produce in the modern
defined product, such as maize, within a defined
food chain must have total traceability from farm to
geographic zone.
store shelf.
Supply chain: refers to the sequence of
Traceability requirements: Modern
(upstream) sourcing and (downstream) market
communication and computer management
functions of individual enterprises. In some cases
systems now allow for individually packed produce
the term supply chain is more specifically linked
to be traced from their point of production, through
to a lead company with activities and services
the various elements of a market chain to a retail
focused on optimizing the flow of goods to the
store shelf. This means that if there any quality
lead company. Supply chain management was
problems with a particular batch of produce, that
a term first used in the manufacturing industry
it can be isolated and withdrawn from the market
to describe the ecology of partners involved in
quickly and remedial action taken at the point of
providing parts and services that contribute to a
problem. Full traceability systems for eggs can
final product. This term has subsequently been
be used to trace, for example a batch of eggs with
used in all marketing sectors.
salmonella, and action taken to remove all produce
from that farm at the store level, then to address Market chains: a general term used to
the hygiene problems at the farm, or at the point encompass the series of market players and
of contamination. It is likely that all produce in the transactions involved in the production, trading,
future will receive an identification code of some processing and marketing of any good that is
form, such as a bar code, to trace all goods. This driven by market demand.
will help to reduce food safety challenges and help
to optimize food market chains.
19
Figure 7. Market mapping method to assist in expressing market chains
Market channel: refers to the production and

marketing of a specific good with a specific set of
actors.
Value chains: refers to the series of marketing

functions for a product from production to sales,
but places emphasizes on the value that is created
along the chain, also highlights the importance
of increasing the value of the whole chain and
ensuring a fair distribution of benefits amongst
chain participants.
Market webs: term used to explain the complicated

and interrelated nature of the production, trading
and marketing process, which integrates multiple
actors and channels within a market area. This view
considers that farmers, traders and other market
chain actors, are involved in multiple chains at any
one time, hence marketing agents operate within a
web of market links rather than single chains.
Figure 8. Market chain for meat in northern Vietnam
20
Marketing maps: To begin to understand how a incurred and the profits earned by market
product moves from the farm to a consumer, it intermediaries, account for the difference between
is a useful exercise to create maps showing the prices at different stages of the market chain. This
flow of products from major areas of production to is illustrated in Figure 9.
final consumers. Marketing maps can be drawn in
participatory meetings by the chain actors as shown
in Figure 7.
For many field agents and farmers, drawing out a

marketing map, helps to get a basic understanding
of the key players within a market chain. Marketing
maps can be used to add detail over time, for
example, the market map can be used to add in
locations of service providers, costs along the chain
and to help with a process of identify bottlenecks
and opportunities.
Alternatively, marketing maps can be much more

Figure 9. Prices along the value chain
stylized, as shown in Figure 8, which shows a
marketing chain in Vietnam for beef meat being In many cases, farmers also perform marketing
sold into a number of different markets. This figure functions and therefore incur marketing costs. The
depicts all market channels for contract growers most important ones are listed below:
-- from production up to export and domestic retail
sale. • Market research and promotion. Farmers often
spend time and money collecting market
New Business models: A business model describes information and promoting their products. They
the rationale of how an organization creates, may need to contact buyers, visit other farmers
delivers, and captures value (economic, social, or and markets, call an extension officer, and
other forms of value). The process of business model participate in a trade fair, and so on.
construction is part of business strategy. This term
can focus on the business operations of a specific • Product preparation. This includes cleaning,
firm, but increasingly this term is being used sorting and grading produce. Household and
to describe the interlinked activities of business exchange labor are typically involved in these
partners within a value chain. tasks, but local labor may also be hired to perform
these tasks.
2.11 Marketing Costs
In addition to the main production costs that are • Packaging. Packaging costs are also common in
calculated using a Gross Margin analysis, which the early marketing stages. Simple and cheap
focuses on fixed and variable costs, the process types of packaging, such as jute or nylon bags, are
of marketing also includes a range of specific commonly used by farmers.
costs. Often these costs are under estimated
in profitability analysis; this section describes • Handling. When farmers rent transport they have
marketing costs. All marketing activities generate to load and unload produce. Labor is hired or
costs, with associated costs of transport, labor, and exchanged to carry out this activity.
processing.
• Transport. Transport costs will vary according to
These costs vary across agricultural products, the distance between the farm and the market or
depending on the commodity, the degree of buyer, the quality of the roads, and the availability
processing, distances from the farm to consumption of transport.
centers, transport conditions, costs of utilities, cost
of labor, marketing risks, and so on. The costs
21
• Product losses. Losses can affect both the quantity additional marketing costs.
and the quality of a product. For example, many
crops lose weight during drying and storage, and Gross marketing margin is the sum of all marketing
while in transit. Pests such as rodents and insects costs (grey in Figure 9) plus profits (black in Figure
can cause much damage to grains. Perishable 9).
products, such as fresh cassava and many fruits
and vegetables, deteriorate rapidly after harvest. Net marketing margin excludes normal marketing
costs, and only focuses on the profit realized.
• Storage. Storage costs typically include the cost of
building and operating a store. There are at least three reasons why the calculation
of gross and net margins is an important element in
• Processing. Certain products (e.g. cassava, sugar market research and analysis:
cane, mushrooms, bamboo) are sometimes
processed at farm level before being offered to Margin analysis indicates where in the marketing
consumers. chain value is being added to the product and
profits are being made.
• Fees and unofficial payments. Farmers must
often pay a fee when selling at a market. In Margin analysis can assist development agents to
some countries, it is common for farmers to pay understand the efficiency of marketing systems and
unofficial fees to the police during transport from the bargaining position of different participants. In
the farm to the marketplace. a competitive and efficient system, marketing costs
and profits are relatively low. The difference between
It is important to note that some of these marketing retail and farm-gate prices is therefore moderate,
activities may be funded through credit. The cost of and farmers receive a reasonable share of the price
loans – i.e. interest payments – should be regarded paid by consumers.
as a marketing cost.
Margin analysis can enable development agents
2.12 Marketing Margins down the to identify sources of inefficiency in a marketing
value chain system, such as poor farmer negotiation for
prices, too many traders in a chain, or excessive
Many development agents are biased against
costs within a chain or excessive profit taking. In
traders as they assume that all travelling traders,
these cases a development agent can work with
wholesalers and retains gain higher profits than
the producers and traders to find more equitable
farmers and are therefore exploitative. This
solutions.
assumption is often based on the direct comparison
of buying and selling prices down the chain. For
•C
utting out the middle man: This is an idea
example farmers receive, $20 / 50 kg bag in their
that many NGO’s have, to reduce costs in the
village market but the product sells for $2 / kilo
market chain. In many cases it is not easy to do
in the urban markets, which equates to $100 /
this. Traders are in place because they have a
50 kg bag. Making direct comparisons between
role to play and are offering a needed service. One
these prices can be misleading as these numbers
way around this is for farmers who were selling as
do not reflect the marketing and transaction costs
individuals to a local collector, to sell collectively to
associated with each of the buying stages in the
a travelling trader. In this case, the activity of one
chain and the risk that the individuals in the chain
trader in the chain is being replaced by a more
take on, along the chain.
organized farmers group. The fee that was paid to
the collector is now absorbed by the farmers, who
To gain a more objective measure of income and
must do that work and will benefit from the share
profit share for different actors within a market
of that task. So, cutting out the middle man can
chain, the development agent will need to collect
work, if farmers take on the tasks previously done
information on the marketing margins along the
by someone else. Cutting out a middle man does
chain, as shown in Figure 9, which includes not
not mean avoiding some additional costs in time,
only the purchase and sales prices, but also any
money and energy.
22
•B
ecoming more competitive: In some cases it Relative number of trading and processing
is found that a trader is collecting a higher share enterprises. A large number of trading and
of the final price than the farmers. As mentioned processing firms indicates a high level of
previously, this could be because of the extra risks competition within the marketing system. This is
or transaction cost at that point in the chain. It essential for avoiding a situation whereby certain
may also be that the producers are supplying firms are making excessive profits at the expense of
such low volumes that the buyer actually has suppliers and consumers.
high costs of doing business. An example here is
a women’s group in India, who found out that the Barriers to market entry. The higher the barriers
price of chickens they were being offered by their to entry into the market, the lower the levels of
trader was only 20% of the price that the trader competition. Entry barriers can be related to the
was selling the same chickens to his buyer in capital and skills required to develop a certain
the local town. When the women confronted the marketing function. For example dairy farming
trader about this, he explained that their volumes generally requires considerable expense in buying
of birds were so low that he could only pay a low cows, feed, shelter, milking equipment and coolers,
amount. In this case, rather than simply asking compared with maize farming which may only
for a higher price, the trader suggested that if the require buying seed. Access to marketing networks
women increased their production from 15 birds can be another important entry barrier. Complex
per week to 50 birds per week, that he could pay and lengthy enterprise registration and licensing
them a significantly higher price, as it made his procedures can also result in high entry barriers.
business more efficient.
Availability of market information. Good access
2.13 Efficiency of Agricultural Market- to market information by all market participants
ing Systems facilitates the flow of produce from surplus to
deficit areas, contributes to spreading consumption
An efficient or well-performing marketing system
throughout the year through storage and imports,
serves the interest of all participants, including
and reduces the scope for excessive profits along
farmers. But what exactly is an efficient marketing
the market chain.
system? To farmers, the sale of their products for
a high price would be efficient marketing. However,
Transport infrastructure and services. Good
too high a price for farmers would discourage
transport infrastructure and affordable transport
purchases by consumers. Too low a price would
services are essential for the low-cost movement of
discourage production of future supplies.
products along the marketing chain.
The interests of farmers and consumers are
Storage. Storage services contribute to stabilizing
reconciled when: the movement of goods from the
prices and consumption over time.
farm to the point of consumption is done at the lowest
possible cost consistent with the provision of services
Processing. Well-developed processing activities
that the consumers desire and are able to pay for.
reduce the cost associated with the transformation
The implications of this definition are twofold.
of agricultural commodities.
Firstly, efficient marketing implies minimal waste
and unnecessary charges by market intermediaries.
Access to credit. Market participants require
Marketing costs should be as low as possible and
finance in order to move goods along the marketing
market intermediaries should earn normal profits,
system. They must either use their own capital or
consistent with the function performed.
borrow money to fund the purchasing of goods and
the services required to get them to the next stage
Secondly, efficient marketing entails the supply of
of the marketing chain. Because their own capital
goods that meet existing demand, for example with
is often limited, good access to credit by all market
respect to volume and quality.
participants is an important condition for the
efficient operation of marketing systems.
Below is a discussion of key determinants of the
efficiency of agricultural marketing systems.
23
Degree of organization of producers. 2.14 Intervention in Agricultural Mar-

Participation of farmer organizations in marketing keting Systems
the produce of their members enables producers to
Should governments and development agencies
enjoy economies of scale, improved access to market
intervene in agricultural marketing systems?
information, and a stronger bargaining position
Sometimes it is possible to improve the efficiency
vis-à-vis selected buyers. At the same time, when
of such systems and increase the benefits accruing
dealing with farmers’ associations or clubs, instead
to some or all market participants, including
of small and dispersed individual producers, traders
producers and consumers, through carefully
face lower transaction costs. They can communicate
planned interventions. However, before deciding to
simultaneously with several producers and buy
intervene, governments and development agencies
larger volumes of standardized product at a specific
should be reasonably confident that:
time and place, which reduces their operational
costs and the risks incurred. • The intervention will be effective in addressing one
or several sources of inefficiency in the marketing
Regulations. An efficient marketing system
system;
requires regulations that reduce risk and costs,
• The benefits from the intervention will exceed its
while enabling transactions to be carried out
costs; and
without every party needing to be in the presence of
• The impact of the intervention will be sustained
each other. Below are some examples:
over time.
• Legal enforcement of contracts and protection

Interventions should lead to reductions in
against fraudulent practices.
marketing costs and risks, improvements in access
• Standard weights and measures and quality
to markets, and higher returns along market
specifications to minimize disagreements between
chains. The type of intervention required and the
suppliers and buyers, and reduce the need for
agency involved will depend on the marketing
visual inspection of every product lot.
constraints and opportunities. Examples of
• Minimum health and sanitation standards
interventions include changes in policies and
to protect consumers and minimize unfair
regulations, investment in marketing infrastructure,
competition by less scrupulous operators.
provision of market information, development of
• Simple and low-cost enterprise registration and
appropriate farmer advisory services, facilitation of
licensing procedures to reduce barriers of entry
improved business links between different market
into trading and processing.
participants, development of product grades and
standards, productivity and so on.
2.15 Market Research

The collection, processing and analysis of data and
information about marketing systems are known
as market research. Markets are dynamic, they are
constantly evolving and changing, and therefore
market research is not a onetime activity, effective
market research needs to be conducted on a regular
basis. This manual focuses on the rapid appraisal of
agricultural commodity markets, which is one of the
most widely used and effective market research tools.
By now, it should be clear to readers that market

research can serve two main purposes. The first
is to enable market participants (farmers, trading
enterprises and processors) to understand the
market situation and adapt their production and
24
marketing strategies to improve their position in the agriculturally based goods. For many developing
market place. Knowledge about customer needs and countries, the populations are likely to double
competitors is essential to improve existing market over the next 15-20 years, suggesting a significant
strategies and develop new enterprise options. This increase in demand for basic goods.
type of market research is generally conducted by
market participants themselves or by specialized Urbanization: In the last century, the world has
consultancy firms hired for that purpose. Extension urbanized faster than ever before, approximately
officers and development agencies working with 50% of the global population now live in towns
resource-poor farmers may also undertake such and cities. The rapid movement of people to urban
research to help producers gain improved market centers means that more consumers need to buy
access. food and other agricultural produce.
Secondly, market research can be conducted to Rising incomes, particularly urban: In most
guide interventions aimed at improving the efficiency countries, incomes are rising. As incomes grow,
of marketing systems and generating benefits people spend a lower percentage of their income on
to different participants. Such research can be basic foodstuff. This means that people can select
conducted by a wide range of agencies, including higher quality or more processed foods. The fastest
donors, government ministries and departments, rate of income growth is found in urban centers
non-government organizations, and development and the richer middle urban class consumers want
projects. The focus of market research activities more sophisticated produce and can afford to pay
will depend on the objectives and mandate of the higher prices. This trend is related to the rise of
implementing agency. However, there will invariably the supermarkets, which is happening faster in
be an emphasis on understanding constraints and some regions than others, African has relatively few
bottlenecks, as well as opportunities for intervention. supermarkets at this time.
As part of this process, analysts should be aware of
key market drivers and also take into account the Globalization: This is the term used to describe
level of risk that any new market opportunity may the recent impact of innovations in communications
involve. An important outcome of market research is and transport systems on trade and the increasing
being able to match new opportunities for enterprise integration of world markets. This process has
development with the assets and skills of the encouraged nations to liberalize their economies
client(s) who will invest their time and energy into a and increase their volume of trade, including
recommended enterprise option. agricultural products. Globalization is considered
by many to be the most influential trend on
2.16 What drives market trends? market forces at this time, having both positive
and negative effects on the smallholder producer
There are a number of factors that drive changes in
community.
the market place, in terms of the quantity, quality,
volumes and types of products that are in demand.
Market liberalization: This term refers to the
The following list provides an overview of the major
process by which control of the marketplace is
factors that influence why markets are dynamic
released or liberated from the control of the State.
and the factors that create market trends over the
Governments still provide a regulatory framework
long run. It is useful to know how these affect the
but the mechanics of the market is organized and
markets in the short, medium and longer term.
implemented by a host of private sector actors and
Chapter 3 provides more information on short-term
companies.
factors that have a particular affect on prices in the
agricultural market. The list below describes basic
Commodity price trends: One of the most
factors that shape markets over a longer time-span.
devastating effects of globalization in the 1980’s
and 1990’s was the steady fall in global prices of
Population growth: The rate of population growth
major agricultural commodities traded on the world
in most developing countries ranges from 2-3%.
market. From the 1980’s, when global commodity
This means that every year there are significantly
agreements were dismantled up until the early
higher numbers of people to supply with
25
2000’s, the value of the top 20 traded agricultural been most rapid in the medium income countries,
commodities, fell steadily to its lowest level in more such as in Latin America, and parts of South
than 40 years. From 2007, commodity prices East Asia. In Africa, there are still relatively few
started to increase rapidly as investors sought supermarkets, who mainly sell their goods to the
safer havens from the global financial crisis. Food richest consumer groups in the main towns and
prices peaked in 2008 before falling rapidly again, cities.
as the financial crisis morphed into a major global
recession. After the dip in prices markets and Niche markets and Fair Trade: As consumers
commodity prices have been highly volatile, a result become more sophisticated they can afford to
of the underlying fragility in the global market pay a premium for exotic, novel, or specialty
system. products. These new types of “lifestyle” products,
i.e., products that fulfill the needs of a very select
Price trends in the period from 2010 to 2012, have consumer interest group, have created a new
shown a steady rise, but the underlying trend is market segment related to “niche” products.
for greater price volatility with price peaks and Specialty coffee produced from a limited number
troughs being exacerbated by the combination of of farms is an example of a product that is in such
integration of financial systems around the world scarce supply, that it can command a price many
and the uncertainty in Governments being able to times higher than mainstream coffee products.
resolve fundamental issues. The most important Similarly, some consumers will only buy goods
issues related to the imbalances of trade around that are “fairly traded”. The charity organization
the world, with many established countries having “fair trade” promotes products that work with
unsustainable levels of debt, and other emerging certified farmers and pays them a guaranteed
countries having huge cash surpluses driven by minimum price, and generally includes a premium
export trade. payment. Certification schemes and the associated
produce are a growing market segment for
Market concentration: In the past 20 years, there smallholders, with brands such as organic fair
has been a radical shift in the number of buyers trade, RainForest Alliance, Utz etc, providing
trading on the international market, from very many strong marketing linkages for farmers to access
local business traders to a few large international higher value markets.
trading houses. For major commodities such as
wheat, maize, soybean, coffee, oil etc., the number Consumer concern for food safety: Increasingly
of producers relative to international traders has complex and scaled food systems, which include
fallen dramatically down to 5-10 major international more stored and processed foods has led to several
traders. This loss in competition at the trader level major food safety incidents. Food scares caused
in the market chain has meant a significant shift in by eggs affected by salmonella, beef affected by
market power away from producers to the buyers. “Mad Cow disease,” peanuts contaminated with
The danger of this situation is that a few buyers aflatoxin, have either caused mass illnesses or
could use their market power to maintain low prices deaths. These incidents have led to major new
and establish cartels. campaigns and stringent food safety regulations
to make food safe for the public. Farmers who are
Retail formalization: In addition to the fall in involved in quality based supply chains can access
international buyers, there has been a similar effect premium markets, where people are seeking safe
in the retailer sector. In developed nations, in the food products.
past 20 years, 100’s of village shops have been
superseded by a few national or trans-national The growing importance of environmental and
supermarkets. For many sectors, supermarkets sustainability issues: Technologies that increase
are the dominant buyer and farmers are required productivity can have a severe negative effect on
to formalize their business methods to meet the natural resources. In the agricultural context, this
stringent quality controls and price structures of can lead to the overuse of inorganic chemicals and
the supermarket procurement standards. The level pesticides, and rapid soil degradation. Consumers
of supermarketization in developing countries has have reacted against this with a shift towards
26
demanding products that are produced organically (highest risk). Market analysis based on demand
or at least using “clean” and renewable production and profitability often gravitates towards higher
systems. Consumers will pay a premium for risk options and enterprise groups need to be
products that can show they are produced using aware of the risks and benefits from high-profit
environmentally friendly methods. In the future, options.
the use of sustainable and environmentally friendly
Existing products New products
production systems is likely to become a more
Existing markets 1. Market 3. Product
important issue. Already the “organic” market is
penetration development
growing by 20% per annum. (lowest risk)
New markets 2. Market 4. Diversification
Information & communication technology: The development (highest risk)
rapid spread of mobile phones in rural areas of the
world transforming how agricultural businesses
Figure 10. Using the Ansoff matrix for risk assessment
are being run. Phones allow cheap communication
within producer groups and with buyers and in
The market researcher can use the Ansoff
many countries, buyers insist on their suppliers
matrix to guide clients towards a sensible level
being contactable. For sales of higher value goods,
of risk based on their experience, assets, skills
access to phone technology is fast becoming an
and financial options. For example, market
essential element of the marketing toolkit and
researchers may advise newly formed farmer
the ability to bundle access to services such as
groups to select options that are based on market
financial services, input supply and transport
penetration with the view that less experienced
services through a phone makes this technology an
farmers should test markets in a stepwise
essential part of the marketing tool kit.
manner starting with test plots and market
trials before engaging in larger scale supply.
Innovation: Experimentation that leads to
For groups with more experience in marketing,
new technologies, products, services and
higher risk, higher return strategies are likely to
organizational structures is another essential
be more attractive. To facilitate the identification
process that provides farmers with an advantage
of market opportunities and evaluate prospects
in the marketplace market chains. Examples of
for diversification, CIAT developed a guide
innovation in the agricultural sector include areas
titled Identifying and assessing market
such as, mobile phone technology to support trade,
opportunities for smallholder producers
linking savings and loans activities with agro-
(Ostertag et al, 2007).
enterprise, input procurement and more formalized
innovation areas such:- as biotechnology and the
recent development of bio-fuels in agricultural
systems.
2.17 Preparing for risk

One of the more difficult tasks when developing
marketing strategies is to assess the level of risk
associated with a new marketing strategy. When
working with poor smallholder farmers or small-
scale processors it is important to find a simple
means of assessing an appropriate level of risk that
such clients should take on when developing a new
enterprise.
Tools such as the Ansoff matrix, illustrated in

Figure 10, are used to categorize risk options by
comparing types of products and markets. In
this matrix, risk increases from 1 (low risk) to 4
27
Exercise 2.1
Assumption Basic concepts in marketing were provided to
participants
Objective Improve understanding of basic marketing

concepts
Task Draw the market chain for a specific product,

indicating i) the different market participants, ii) the
functions performed at each stage, and ii) spatial
flows.
Suggested procedure Form three groups (one for forestry products, one
for livestock, and one for agricultural crops). In
each group:
- Identify one specific product.

- Draw a map/diagram of the market chain for
the product.
- Indicate the type of market participant
(producer, collector, assembly trader, processor,
wholesaler, retailer, etc) involved at each stage of
the chain.
- Indicate the type of markets (assembly,
wholesale, retail) found along the chain.
- Indicate the marketing functions (drying,
cleaning, assembly, storage, sorting, packaging,
processing, etc) performed at each stage of the
chain.
- Indicate the main factors driving this market,
or those factors most likely to increase price
volatility.
- At each stage of the market chain, indicate the
place where marketing activities take place
(village, town, city).
- List barriers to entering this market.
- Identify which type of producer could benefit
most easily in this market and/or the skills
required by a service provider to enable
smallholder producers to enter this market.
Expected outputs A diagram of the marketing chain.
Presentation On flipchart
Due Each group has forty-five minutes for preparation

and five minutes for presentation.
28
Chapter 3. Key Features of Agricultural Markets
Learning objectives have a particularly strong impact on the price of

perishables, such as fresh fruit and vegetables,
cassava roots, and fresh fish. Perishable
able to understand and explain key features of
commodities cannot be stored for long and
agricultural markets. This will facilitate learning
therefore have to be sold quickly. Consequently,
during the following training sessions and improve
prices tend to fall considerably during the late
the ability of the learner to collect and analyze
hours of trading or when a sudden arrival of large
market data and information.
amounts of produce leads to excessive supplies
3.1 Introduction (gluts) in the market.
Agricultural markets in developing countries are Short-term price instability often makes it difficult
different from markets for industrial products for farmers to anticipate the price they will receive
and services. This is due to the special nature for their products. Will this be the same as last
of agricultural production and the specific week or last month, or will it be higher? Have
characteristics of agricultural products. Those prices at the market fallen suddenly, in which
involved in a rapid appraisal of agricultural case it would be better to sell at a later date? Are
marketing systems need to have a good prices so low that it is better not to harvest as this
understanding of these specificities. As such, would mean selling at a loss. Regular consultation
this manual includes a discussion of some key with traders and processors can provide some
features of agricultural markets. answers to these questions and help farmers
decide when to sell.
3.2 Short-Term Price Volatility
The price of agricultural commodities can change 3.3 Seasonality
suddenly and significantly within the same The price of most agricultural produce follows
week or even day. Short-term price volatility a clear seasonal pattern similar to that shown
is often caused by poor coordination between in Figure 11. Agricultural supply being
supply and demand. Coordination failures can
29
concentrated in the harvesting season and one 3.4 High Inter-Annual Price Variations
or two months afterwards. This leads to very low
Another common feature of agricultural markets
prices during this period and a marked rise in
is that prices can change considerably from one
prices as supplies become scarcer. The degree
year to the next, as shown in Figure 12. These
of seasonality in supply varies significantly
price fluctuations often reflect changes in supply
according to the type of agricultural product.
and demand caused by natural conditions such
as weather, pests and diseases. For example, a
Many factors can contribute to stabilizing
severe drought can significantly reduce yields,
supplies and therefore reducing seasonality
particularly for non-irrigated crops; sudden
within the year, such as:
outbreaks of pest or disease infestations can also
cause losses in agricultural production leading
•m ultiple and long harvesting seasons
to significant price rises. In contrast, favorable
• diversity in the harvest time within the country
weather conditions can have a strong positive
•a vailability of off-season imports from other
impact on production, causing over-supply in the
countries
markets and falling prices.
•s torage of produce to prolong the supply onto
the market
Figure 12. Farm-gate paddy prices in Red River Delta (1994-

Figure 11. Price seasonality 1999) VND / kg (15,000 VND = 1USD)
Farmers’ reaction to these shocks may exacerbate

Maize price seasonality in northwest Vietnam
price volatility. Farmers may over-react to a rise
A recent study of hybrid maize markets in northwest in the price of a specific commodity by expanding
Vietnam showed relatively small price variations cultivated areas and intensifying production
across seasons. This was primarily due to the fact
that very large volumes of hybrid maize were being during the following planting season. This may
stored for use during the winter months, a period then lead to over-supply and low prices at the
when maize supplies from other regions (e.g. Nghe next harvest time. The inverse can happen
An and Daklak provinces) and China were also
available. when farmers reduce planting in response to
a severe decline in prices. Therefore one year’s
high prices can be followed by one year of low
Demand can also play a role in explaining price prices. Inter-annual price fluctuations can be a
seasonality. There are specific times in the year significant source of risk. Market research can
when prices increase due to changes in demand. provide insights into annual market trends by
The most obvious examples are the increases in analyzing long-term data on supply and demand
prices of all food items during major religious and trends, which can signal an impending increase
festive events. Farmers can plan their harvests to or decline in prices.
coincide with these periods of peak demand so as
to capture higher sales prices.
30
3.5 High Risk When information is gathered on prices along a

market chain, marketing costs often emerge as
Agricultural markets are characterized by high
a more valid explanation for the spread between
risk, and inter-annual price fluctuations can be
producer and retail prices. For example:
a major source of risk. Producers may find that
the market price at the time of harvest does not
•A ssembling agricultural produce from small-
cover production costs or is much lower than
scale, dispersed, and remote farmers is costly.
anticipated. Traders may be unable to sell their
• Agricultural products often have to be
stocks for a profit.
transported over long distances and difficult
roads before reaching the consumer.
Product deterioration and spoilage is another
• Along the way, produce needs to be cleaned,
risk factor. Agricultural produce may suffer
dried, sorted, packed, and advertised in order to
from insect infestation, bruising, and physical
be acceptable to consumers.
deterioration during transport, handling and
• More complex forms of processing are
storage, causing significant financial losses to
sometimes required, generating additional and
farmers and traders.
sometimes significant costs.
Another common risk incurred by traders, • Product deterioration and spoilage are also
especially in developing countries, is the common.
possibility that the purchased product may • Storage may be another source of costs to
contain undetected foreign matter such as traders and processors.
water, sand and stones. The practice of selling
All of these activities incur costs for the traders,
agricultural products mixed with sand, stones
processors and retailers and all the traders
and other foreign matter is common as farmers
and intermediaries that buy and sell produce
attempt to increase their income.
between the farmer and the final consumer need
Farmers often fail to realize that buyers who have to remunerate their labor and make a profit from
had bad experiences because of poor quality or their activity.
cheating will either stop purchasing from that
Many agricultural projects seek to assist farmers
area, or will continue buying but at lower prices
to remove the so called “middle men” from the
than they would normally be willing to pay, to
market chain in an attempt to reduce these
offset such risks.
marketing costs. But before taking action, farmers
At the same time, development agents should need to know the benefits and costs associated
be aware that some unscrupulous traders also with each of the functions performed. It is often
cheat farmers with rigged balances, providing the case that traders are far more efficient than
mis-information about market prices, and telling farmers at bulking, grading and presenting
farmers that quality requirements mean that can goods to distance buyers than farmers. Therefore
only offer a low price, even if there are no market farmers need to be able to compare the prices
grades to adhere to. and costs associated with taking on new tasks in
the marketing of their goods before they take on
3.6 High Transaction and Marketing additional responsibilities.
Costs
Prices paid by end users and consumers
are normally well above those received by
primary producers. This often leads to the
conclusion that traders are exploiting producers.
However, marketing costs and risks are often
a more accurate explanation for the significant
differences between producer and consumer
prices.
31
3.7 Incomplete Information Rapid growth and increasing household incomes,

particularly in urban areas, means that many
Poor access to market information is an important
consumers have become more discerning in their
source of inefficiency within agricultural markets.3
purchases, demanding better quality produce,
Farmers generally have limited knowledge
a greater range of goods, and also want an all
and understanding of how markets work and
year round supply of certain food products.
insufficient information about supply, demand
Supermarkets are fuelling this increase in
and price variations. This limits their ability to
produce differentiation and market segmentation,
target remunerative opportunities, meet buyer
with their international procurement capacity.
requirements, and negotiate favorable prices.
To engage with these new and often lucrative
Although better informed, traders and markets, farmers need regular information about
processors may also lack access to critical market trends. They must also be able to innovate
market information, and may not be able to fully and organize themselves to meet the increasingly
adjust to a changing market environment. More stringent quality requirements in domestic and
generally, poor access to market information export markets, if they are to continue to earn a
leads to high marketing costs, higher risks and living wage from their farms.
results in poor coordination between supply and
To compete in the marketplace farmers must
demand. This information failure has a negative
be able to produce what the markets want at
impact on demand for farmers in terms of the
relatively low costs. They should focus on what
types of products they produce and the prices
they can produce well and supply good quality
they receive.
products that are prepared, packaged and
3.8 Intense Competition delivered in accordance with buyer requirements.
Otherwise buyers will prefer to buy their goods
Domestic and export markets for agricultural from other farmers who provide better value
products are characterized by intense goods.
competition and understanding more about
competition provides insight into the problems
Being competitive in dynamic markets
and opportunities faced by farmers and market
intermediaries. In order to compete successfully in the marketplace,
farmers must produce what buyers want in terms
In much of the developing world improvements in of volume and, quality at prices that make them
more attractive than alternative suppliers. Farmers
production technologies, roads, communication need to be able to innovate in order to retain their
systems and marketing policies have significantly competitiveness and be able to respond to changes
increased competition in agricultural markets in the marketplace.
over the past decade. New international marketing
agreements, such as those developed through
the WTO, have also opened up domestic markets
to competition from neighboring countries and
more distant countries, where some farmers may
produce their goods with the added advantage of
receiving production and export subsidies. This
type of competition is likely to increase with time,
as marketing agreements open markets to new
producers and communication across the world
enables producers to market their goods in ever
more distant locations.
3 The efficiency of agricultural markets is discussed in Chapter 2.13

of this section.
32
3.9 Price responses to changes in

supply
Generally speaking, the supply of agricultural
products is not very responsive to prices, at least
in the short-term. In other words, it takes time
for farmers to adjust production in response to
changing prices.
The responsiveness of prices to changes in either

supply or demand is termed “elasticity”; many
agricultural products have low price elasticity.
The reasons for the slow price responsiveness
is that, for example, if a decline in the price of
carrots occurs after planting, farmers will not
be able to reduce cultivated areas. The options
available to them are limited; they might reduce
their use of inputs or wait until the next planting
season, when they may plant fewer carrots. On
the other hand, if prices start to rise, farmers
cannot sell their produce, they must wait until
the crop is ready for harvest.
Producers may have limited arable land and labor

to expand cultivation, and lack access to the
technologies that would enable them to scale-up
production, such as improved varieties, irrigation,
and agro-chemicals.
3.10 Price response to changes in

demand:
Unlike supply, demand for most agricultural
products is very sensitive to changes in prices.
Often final users or consumers can substitute
between products, and are therefore able to
shift consumption to alternative products. For
example, if carrots become expense consumers
may choose to buy more cabbage. Farmers must
be able to keep their costs low in order to cope
with competition from alternative products.
This situation is referred to by economists as

having a high elasticity to demand, so that for
example, when the price of cotton goes up, a
garment factory can increase production of
clothes made of synthetic materials and reduce its
output of cotton clothing. When the price of coffee
increases, consumers can shift to alternatives
such as tea or other drinks, but farmers are
clearly unable to rapidly shift out of producing
coffee.
33
Chapter 4. Steps in Implementing a Rapid Market Appraisal
Learning objectives markets visited, the number and type of key

After reading this chapter, the learner should be informants selected, and the time required to
able to specify situations where an RMA should be collect and analyze information, will vary according
conducted, explain how key underlying principles to the purpose of the RMA, the client type, the
affect the implementation of the appraisal, and level of participation require, the timeline and the
describe the different steps in the process. resources available.
4.1 What is an RMA? The RMA approach is investigative. There are

no absolutes in the data collected or in the results
RMA’s provide a quick, flexible, and effective way of derived from the analysis. The market analyst
collecting, processing, and analyzing information needs to take on an investigative approach, linking
and data about markets and marketing systems. information, with personalities and opportunities
Based on the results of an RMA the analyst can in order to reach the objective of providing
develop appropriate programs and policies for business opportunities for subsequent investment.
promoting production and marketing interventions A good analyst therefore needs to be able to
and assist clients in developing their market combine analytical skills with creative thinking
strategies and business plans. RMA’s comprise in order to understand current constraints and
a wide range of simple methods and tools for opportunities, potential options and risks and best
collecting quantitative as well as qualitative alternatives for a given situation in time.
information in order to minimize the costs and
delays in providing timely and sufficiently detailed Being dynamic in nature, the results from the
business information. study have a shelf life and therefore any analysis
must include a certain degree of opportunism,
Flexibility is one of the main attributes of a so as to capture the potential offered by market
rapid market assessment. There are no fixed opportunities that are open at that time and the
rules regarding the size and composition of the prospects of formulating partnerships to pursue
team involved. Likewise, the number and type of business ventures that hold promise.
34
4.2 Purpose of an RMA the collection and analysis of relevant data and
information on input and output markets that
Although RMAs serve a variety of purposes,
can be disseminated to enable improved decision-
this type of analysis should always be regarded
making by and better coordination between
as an intermediate step towards developing
different actors in the market chain.
interventions in the marketing system aimed at
increasing the benefits for market participants.
4.3 Principles of an RMA
Some of the purposes that an RMA can serve
include the following: The principles outlined below influence the way
an RMA is designed and implemented.
Understanding existing market status: An RMA
can provide an up-to-the-moment snapshot Demand focus: Demand is the result of
of the market status for a given product or preferences and actions by all buyers in the
service within the study area; the size of the product chain. Demand is one of the main factors,
area depending on the scope of the study, i.e. at if not the principal factor, driving production.
the local, national or regional level. Analysis of It influences what is produced and how it is
historic and current information can be used to produced, processed, marketed, packaged, and
explain how the market has evolved over a set sold.
period of time, who are the main players, what
is the basic structure in terms of channels and As a result, emphasis is given during the RMA to
distribution coverage; who is benefiting from understanding quantitative and qualitative trends
being in the market and provide the analyst with in demand, the market structure, and the product
a reasonable perspective of past performance. requirements of different buyers.
Understanding market potential: An RMA Vertical (market chain) perspective: Agricultural

can provide information on the size and growth commodities go through different stages before
potential of local, regional, national, and export reaching the consumer. An RMA should therefore
markets. This information is critical to guide focus on the different participants in the supply
strategies and interventions by government chain, the way they interact with each other, and
and non-governmental agencies. Products with their access to relevant support services.
good market prospects, i.e. growth markets, are
likely to generate greater impact on the rural Understanding competition: Understanding
and national economies, and should therefore competition can shed considerable light on the
be identified and prioritized in development problems and opportunities faced by all market
interventions. participants. Competition exists across all levels
of the marketing system: Farmers compete with
Guide in the design of interventions in the each other as well as with medium and large
marketing system: An RMA can provide a agribusiness firms that produce their own crops
good understanding of the marketing system and livestock. Competition comes from domestic
for a specific commodity, the constraints, and sources as well as from other countries.
opportunities faced at various levels, and the
reasons why the marketing system is under- Insiders as experts: An RMA relies to a large
performing. This information can be used to extent on data and information provided by
develop appropriate policy, investment and other farmers and market intermediaries. Farmers,
interventions that will have greatest benefits traders, processors and other market chain
either to large numbers of producers in low value participants should therefore be seen as the
products or a lesser number of market actors in experts. Each has “insider” information about
higher value products. particular issues.
Collecting marketing information for Optimal ignorance/cost-effectiveness: Time

subsequent dissemination: An RMA entails and resources (both human and financial) for
undertaking an RMA are always limited. There is
35
therefore a need to make the best possible use of •O pportunities for market interventions,
available resources and avoid unnecessary data agro-enterprise opportunities, that will be
collection. When designing and implementing an differentiated by scale, investment needs and
RMA, consideration should be made to answer type of farmer.
what kind of information is really required for • Critical constraints to market access, “barriers
achieving the RMA purposes. Only essential to entry”.
information should be collected, processed, and • Technology options to achieve productivity
analyzed. gains.
• Organizational changes to increase performance
Participation: In an RMA, participation is such as economies of scale.
essential for ensuring that the market assessment • Policy options to support systemic marketing
is relevant and translates into appropriate gains.
interventions. Relevant stakeholders should • Scalability perspectives to indicate potential
be invited to get involved in an RMA exercise. impact.
For example, farmers, policy makers or local
authorities, etc. need to participate in selecting Each of these areas can be defined in terms
commodities. And other actors in the marketing of recommendations for specific market chain
chain need to provide information on the surveyed actors, service providers and institutions, these
commodities. Such stakeholders should also be being the principle agents and agencies that are
involved in the sharing and discussion of RMA able to invest in activities to improve and optimize
findings. a chain. When developing these points a good
RMA report focuses these recommendations to
4.4 Steps in the RMA a specific client, so that they can use the ideas.
RMAs normally comprise seven steps or stages, Developing a useful client focused report must
as shown in Figure 13. While steps 1-3 are be able to answer a simple first question “who is
sequential, steps 4-6 are not. The collection and the client?” Studies that are not clear about the
analysis of data (steps 4 and 5) are conducted in client, often make general recommendations that
parallel and parts of the market appraisal report cannot be applied, this is a common failing of this
(step 6) can be written while data and information type of study.
are still being collected and analyzed. It is often
the case that additional data and information is
collected well into the report-writing stage, if gaps
appear in the analysis. The different RMA steps
are discussed in the next chapters of this section.
Normally, RMA includes report writing. However

programming staff or related stakeholders often
find it difficult to transfer RMA results into
actions. Therefore, besides these 6 steps of an
RMA, the guidelines explain how to convert
recommendations to actions.
4.5 Outputs from an RMA

Although the RMA tools and approaches are
similar, each RMA will vary considerably at the
implementation stage, due to the wide-ranging
contexts in which the method can be applied.
Whilst the context will vary, the types of outputs
should be fairly similar. An RMA should provide
recommendations in the following areas:
36
Figure 13. Steps in the Rapid Market Appraisal Method
Exercise 4.1 Purposes of RMA

Assumption Basic concepts and RMA definition were provided
to participants.
Objective Create awareness about the usefulness of RMA.
Task Identify what information needs to be collected

when conducting an RMA for a specific product,
and what purposes will the information serve.
Suggested procedure Work in groups. Formed groups will be

maintained throughout the training.
Identify one specific product/service.
Identify what information needs to be collected

and for what purposes.
Prepare the results on flipchart.
Expected outputs A table or matrix with the list of purposes and

information.
Presentation On flipchart.
Due Each group will have 20 minutes for preparation

and 5 minutes for presentation.
37
PART 2.
Practical RMA Work
Step 1. Survey Area Selection
Learning objectives • scope and scale of the impact zone and within
this area:-
After reading and conducting the exercise at the
• Client types
end of this chapter, the learner should be able
• Partners.
to, (i) Explain how the geographical focus affects
the design of the RMA, (ii)
When the emphasis of the project is for the
Identify and use appropriate
development of small areas, for example a cluster
product selection criteria and
of villages or a commune, the RMA background
(iii) select products to implement
information should ONLY focus on understanding
the assessment based on the
the local marketing system within that area. The
identified criteria
RMA analysis will also seek to identify problems
and bottlenecks that can be addressed through
1.1 Area Selection
agro-enterprise interventions within the local
When deciding to undertake an economy. Many projects provide large amounts
RMA, agencies must be clear of analysis that may not be relevant to a specific
about the geographical area(s) area, so the RMA needs to clearly define the size
where they want to show market of the study relative to the need.
impact. Initial reconnaissance
work should quickly identify the
39
PART 2. Practical RMA Work
When an agricultural project aims to engage a

larger geographical area(s), such as a province
or country, then, the study parameters, staff
and resources need to be scaled to that level.
Working at the national level is clearly much more
intensive, costly requiring many more staff than
doing a market study within a 20 kilometer radius
area.
It is very important however, to note that an RMA

study, will follow a specific market chain and this
often includes an analysis of markets located
outside the impact area, region, or country.
Market chains do not respect administrative or
agro-ecological boundaries and an understanding
of the competitive position of the target area
within broader marketing systems is imperative.
40
Step 2. Product Selection

In many cases, projects will be consulted when deciding on the product
have decided upon a product focus. A specific guide in this marketing series
for market analysis prior to deals with the issue of product selection, for
commissioning the RMA. If this more information on this issue see A Guide
is not the case, primary and to Identifying Market Opportunities for
secondary information needs to Smallholder Producers. Special attention
be gathered from the impact or should be given to the needs and priorities of
target area to identify a shortlist different groups, including men and women,
of priority products. These poorer and less poor farming households, and
products should be of high those living in accessible as well as remote
economic potential in the target communities.
area and be associated with
growth markets. PRA tools such The views of the private sector and relevant
as semi-structured interviewing, government agencies should also be considered.
focus group discussion with Participation during this phase is important
market actors (especially not only for proper product selection, but
producers) are useful methods also to create favorable conditions for
used to identify possible stakeholder involvement during the design and
products for RMA analysis. implementation of interventions.
Identification of priority products: To help

make decisions on which product to study, it
is useful to first identify criteria for product
prioritization. Several criteria can be used to
rank and select products, as shown in Annex 1.
The weight of each criterion should relate to the
key objectives of the project. For example, if the
objective of the project is to create opportunities
for women, then criteria such as
•R
equires limited access to land
•D
oes not compete with Men’s crops
•C
an be produced near to the homestead
would be given more weight. Similarly, if the focus

of the project is to assist marginalized farmers
working on degraded land, then soil fertility
issues should be given higher priority in the
selection process.
In all cases, the selected product should be suited

to the local agro-climatic conditions, should enjoy
favorable market conditions and show strong
potential to improve income generation for poor,
smallholder farmers.
Stakeholder consultation is very important during

the product selection stage. Farmers should
41
Exercise 2.1 Product Selection

Assumption Participants were introduced to the RMA purposes
and product. selection criteria
Objective To help participants identify and be familiar with

product selection criteria.
To create opportunity for participants to practice

product ranking based on appropriate criteria.
Task Identify products and undertake a ranking of these

products based on chosen criteria.
Select the product with higher ranking for RMA.
Suggested procedure Work in group. In each group:
- Refer back to the purposes of RMA.
- Select one/two purposes for RMA.
- Brainstorm to identify three products /services.
-S
elect the most appropriate criteria from
introduced list (or add more if necessary).
-R
ank the three products based on selected
criteria.
- Choose the product with higher ranking for RMA
Expected outputs A matrix with three products and results of

ranking.
Due Each group has 30 minutes for preparation and

10 minutes for presentation.
42
Step 3. Design of a Rapid Market Survey
Learning objectives 3.1 Team Selection

After reading this chapter and conducting the A key step in the design of an RMA is the
exercises at the end, the learner should be able formation of the team that will plan and carry out
to: (i) Select appropriate RMA team members, the market survey. This team will be responsible
(ii) Select key issues for analysis based on RMA for collecting data and information, conducting
purposes, (iii) Explain the relevance of secondary the analysis, and writing the final report.
data and information and identify sources to
collect them, (iv) Select markets The composition of the RMA team can vary,
and key informants (v) Develop depending on the resources available and the
appropriate checklists for key objective of the market assessment. However,
informant interviews and (vi) the RMA team should not exceed five or six
Plan the appropriate timing and members and interview teams should consist
duration of the RMA. of no more than 2-3 people, to enable open and
more personal discussion of potentially sensitive
This chapter provides some commercial information. Often teams of 1-2
guidelines for the design of people are most efficient in this type of data
rapid market surveys. This collection.
is a critical stage in the RMA
as careful planning and
preparation will generate
useful information, sound
analysis of relevant issues, and
appropriate recommendations
for intervention.
43
The entire team should be involved in the design 3.2 Identification of Key Issues for
and implementation of rapid market. Where Analysis
possible, team members should have different
Market chains are complex systems involving
and complementary skills and expertise.
a range of activities, actors, relationships and
regulations. To be efficient in the information
Ideally, at least one person in the team should
gathering stage, the survey must focus on the
have a strong background in market research
key purpose of the RMA, and design the interview
and the analysis of agricultural commodities.
process to address the most relevant issues.
One team member should have strong technical
Particular attention should be given to any
knowledge about the commodity under study,
specific requests for information by the client,
including production, post-harvest, and
from a commissioning agency and possibly from
processing issues. One or more team members
future beneficiary groups.
may already have some contacts in the trading
community (i.e., traders, transporters and
For example, a farmer group that normally sells
processors who are working with the target
fresh cassava roots may want to know more
commodity). Team members should be motivated
about processing methods, processors and the
and have good facilitation and interviewing skills.
prospects for dried cassava and technologies
associated with storage of dried cassava products.
Where possible, the participation of relevant
In this case, the survey group should ensure that
national, provincial, and/or district government
questions address both fresh and processed good
staff should be considered. This can contribute
and that survey team members are well briefed
to mainstreaming RMA as a decision-making tool
in these areas before they go to the field. This
within government and enhance the influence of
will help the team members discuss relevant
the market survey on future policy and market
issues with market chain actors from an informed
development interventions. Extension workers
position. To help make decisions on the focus
can also take part in the market appraisal or
of the analysis, the survey team should build a
conduct a market survey as their routine work.
survey checklist similar to that provided in Annex
2. A well prepared survey team is essential in
The team must have a leader; this person is often
discussing marketing options.
the person with most experience in marketing
and economic analysis. The leader will be
3.3 Literature Review
responsible for major decision making, and be
responsible for the final report, in particular One or several team members should undertake
the recommendations to the survey clients. The this task. Alternatively, a consultant can be hired
team leader, must have a clear understanding for this purpose. This has to be decided based on
of the purpose of the study and play a lead role the resources and time available, as well as the
in training staff and making sure that they fully analytical skills of team members.
understand the types of information that is
required from the survey and help the survey Secondary data and information is cheaper and
team with a sound understanding of the sector or quicker to collect than primary data, and is often
market chain that will be studied before they go to more accurate. For example, quantitative data is
the field. frequently available from government statistics
and previous studies, enabling the team to gain
Some or all the participants joining an RMA a good understanding of local production levels,
team must be trained on the market assessment seasonality and historical trends in demand,
method and have attended refresher sessions supply, and prices for a specific product. In
to enhance and or update their communication, addition, detailed information on export markets
facilitation, interviewing, documentation and can sometimes be obtained from existing sources
analytical skills prior to the survey. without having to visit those markets.
44
The literature review should precede the collection commodity but can offer a broad, and sometimes
of primary data and information. This will enable detailed, perspective on the sub-sector. These
the team to gain an initial understanding of the individuals might be an academic or researcher, a
production and marketing system for the focus retired food industry manager, a trade association
commodity, and to identify issues that have not official, or staff from relevant government
yet been sufficiently researched. This will then departments, donor agencies, and NGOs.
lead to better planning of the fieldwork.
When selecting key informants, the RMA team
Possible sources of secondary data and must answer these three questions:
information include studies, official statistics,
government and NGO reports, documentation Sample unit: who should be interviewed? A
from projects, and specialized magazines, localized RMA will focus on village, commune,
bulletins, and newsletters. These can be obtained and perhaps district and provincial markets.
from statistical departments; ministries of Local input retailers, farmers, collectors, traders,
agriculture, trade or finance; donor agencies; and processors will have to be interviewed, along
NGOs; and/or rural development projects. They with visiting traders from other areas. Extension
may also be available on the internet. Newspaper officers and staff from local government agencies
articles and TV and radio programs may provide and development projects can also be interviewed
useful information as well. as knowledgeable observers.
At times, there will be plenty of secondary data In contrast, a broader and better-resourced RMA
and information about the target product. At will cover all the critical nodes in the market
other times, existing data and information will be chain, from producer to retailer and exporter.
scarce. Hence, the literature review may take two All major types of markets (village, district,
to three days or several weeks. and national) should be visited. In addition, a
sample of all main actors in the market chain
3.4 Selection of Markets and Key should be interviewed. Other key informants will
Informants include policy-makers, researchers, technical and
The RMA team has to decide from an early stage administrative staff from government and non-
in the design, the type and number of markets government agencies, and representatives from
that will be visited, and the type and number of donor agencies. Annex 3 at the end of this guide
key informants who will be interviewed. Choices presents a table with different key informants,
will depend on the time and resources available, their advantages and disadvantages.
the purpose of the RMA, and the type and amount
Sample size. How many people should be
of information required.
interviewed in each key informant category?
Two types of key informants should be As a general rule, a minimum of three to five
interviewed: interviews should be conducted for each stage of
the marketing chain. A rule of thumb indication
Market participants: These are the actors of the right sample size at each stage, is when
involved in the production, marketing, and the RMA team starts to gather a consistent set of
processing of the agricultural commodity under responses.
analysis. Examples of market participants include
input suppliers, farmers, traders, transporters, The geographical scope of the survey will
storage service providers, processing firms, influence sample size. Hence, national surveys
importers, and exporters. will require a larger number of interviews than
regional or local surveys.
Knowledgeable observers/ key informants: In
most RMA studies, there are a small number The heterogeneity or diversity of market
of insightful, knowledgeable people who do not participants at each stage of the market chain
participate in the production or marketing of the will also influence the number of interviews. The
45
more diverse they are with respect to location, retailers and large supermarket chains, and
size, organization, product mix and technology, so on, so that a broad response to the sector is
the greater the need to increase the size of the gained.
sample.
The initial choice of markets and key informants
Sampling procedure. How will key informants is not treated as definite, but subject to change
be selected for interview? The team can opt during the fieldwork. As the fieldwork progresses,
for a purely random sampling, i.e., interviewing the RMA team may feel the need to interview
people that are available, or the team may start additional key informants in order to improve the
by interviewing larger or well known / respected quality of the data and information gathered and
traders and processors within a specific market gain improved understanding of key issues. The
chain as they are likely to have an excellent team may also become aware of new markets and
insight into the market dynamics. In many cases, key informants as the fieldwork progresses.
it is worth asking the interviewees to recommend
other key market players to interview as the larger 3.5 Preparation of Checklists
players in a market will be well networked and Checklists are essentially abbreviated
will know who else plays a significant role in the questionnaires which are used by the interview
market chain being studied. team as a guide to major issues that need to be
discussed. The issues and questions included in
Whichever method is selected it is most important the checklists will focus on the major purposes
to ensure that the sample includes different types and issues of the RMA that were identified in the
of market participants in each category, i.e. poor section “identification of the survey contents”.
and rich, male and female farmers, informal and
formal traders, small and large processors, small Using a checklist is different from a formal
46
questionnaire. While a structured questionnaire assessment. The peak marketing season is

consists of a series of carefully prepared usually the best time to find traders, observe
questions, asked in a logical order and often transactions, and collect price data. On the
have a list of fixed responses. Checklists serve other hand, producers may be in their farms
as a prompt for a semi-structured interview harvesting the crop, and therefore absent from
with an individual or focus group discussions. the community. Traders may also be very busy
A team often works with one person leading the conducting their business.
conversation and another person writing down
the response. The skill in doing semi-structured Consequently, when interviewing market
interviews is the ability to seemingly have a participants, the team must carefully choose
normal conversation with the interviewee, while the periods of the day when they are available.
you are collecting detailed information and For example, most trade in perishable products
probing the person for really valuable information. takes place during the night and very early hours
of the morning. These periods may be the best
Normally it is necessary to prepare different times for interviews, if the objective is to observe
checklists for different types of key informant. transactions, but far from ideal for interviewing
This is because each type of key informant is busy people.
particularly knowledgeable about specific issues,
according to their position and function within The duration of the exercise can vary significantly.
the marketing system (see Annex 3). For example, Two to four days may be sufficient when the
farmers may be able to provide useful information objective is to collect information about a specific
about local input supply and market channels, product within one or two local markets. A
but lack a clear understanding of processing, more complex market survey, for example at
the export trade, and key policy and regulatory the national level, would involve several groups
issues. Transporters may be knowledgeable about of people and could take between four and ten
product flows, the state of road infrastructure, weeks to finalize. One team or several teams can
and the availability and cost of transport services, undertake this type of assessment as part of their
but unaware of prices, storage practices, and work routine.
marketing arrangements between different
market chain actors. Annex 4 provides examples The design of the RMA terminates with drawing
of checklists: (i) for input suppliers, (ii) for up a schedule for all the subsequent steps:
producers, (iii) for wholesalers, and (iiii) for
processors. • Implementation of market survey
• Analysis of data and information
It is recommended to test the checklist with • Report writing
several people before using it for field work to • From analysis to action
see whether the questions are understood, the
time allocated is appropriate, the order of the
content is logical, and then make revisions where
necessary.
3.6 Planning. Timing and Duration of

the Market Survey
The timing and duration of the RMA depends on
the target product, the number of market places
visited, the number of key informants selected,
and the type of information required.
The RMA team needs to consider the most

appropriate period for conducting the market
47
3.7 Methods and Tools for Rapid Data Collection
Learning objectives • Focus groups

• Product ranking and prioritization
After studying this chapter and conducting the
• Historical calendars
recommended exercises, the reader should have (i)
• Market mapping
a good understanding of the main participatory tools
• Evaluation of service provision
required, (ii) have trained interested partners in the
• Market visits
use of these tools and (iii) pilot tested unfamiliar tools.
• Learning journeys
This chapter provides a review of some methods • Semi-structured interviews
and tools that can be used by the survey team for • Structured interviews
collecting data from a range of actors in the market • Direct Observation
chain, including farmers, traders, processors and
These tools can be used either alone or in
retailers. These people operate in different worlds
combination, and the survey team should decide
and thus require different ways of interaction.
which tools are best suited for the scale and scope
The following section provides some basic tools to
of the marketing survey to be undertaken. No
assist the market analyst to match approaches with
survey would use all of these tools. Instead the
specific situations. The basic tools include:
survey team should select those tools that are most
appropriate to meet the needs of the purpose or
“Terms of Reference” of the survey.
48
3.8 Focus Group Discussions with 3.8.1 Tools to be used within focus groups
Producers Having established the focus group, there are a
Focus group discussions are probably the most number of tools that can be used in this situation to
appropriate method for interviewing small-scale assist the survey team to gather data efficiently but
producers. This enables the RMA team to involve a in ways that facilitates information exchange and
greater number of producers in the discussion and reduces extractive and intrusive questioning.
to gather a variety of views in a short period of time.
Product ranking and prioritization: This method
Focus group discussions are similar to individual can be used with farmer groups to determine the
semi-structured interviews in that both are based range and priority of products in the survey area.
on checklists and centered on specific issues. The Products can be categorized according to types:
main difference is that several people participate for example, food security, income, high value,
simultaneously in the focus group discussion. nutrition, women’s income and medicinal uses. To
find the rank order of the products within each of
Group discussions with producers and other these categories, farmers can be asked to vote or
members of the community will need to be put a stone next to the most important product, for
organized in advance. This should be done through example in terms of income.
a local government or non-government agency
already working in the sample villages. The village You may be working with people who only have a
leaders will need to be informed about the visit and low level of education, so where ever possible use
its purposes. They can play an important role in pictures and symbols so that farmers who cannot
mobilizing farmers to attend the discussion. read well can participate.
Discussions should be as informal as possible.

Facilitation skills are essential to ensure that
participants feel comfortable and express their views
openly. It is important to prevent some individuals
from dominating the discussion. Wide participation
is critical if differences across household categories
and gender groups are to be well understood. This
typically means that one person in the interview
team leads the discussion, one person writes down
the results and another person ensures that the
main issues in the checklist are covered or that
specific issues based on comments raised which
are of particular interest to the discussion are fully
understood.
Sometimes it is better to have separate men and

women farmers focus groups so as to be able to get
a better understanding of the different roles that
women and men play in production and marketing
activities.
49
Farmer
Maize cob Sack of grain
Figure 14. Examples of simple drawings
Here are some tips on how to help people and not have to be professional – you can use stick
these may help with educated people too! drawings like the ones in Figure 14.
•S ay things clearly, and repeat if necessary. Do When using numbers you can substitute numbers
not use technical jargon. for lines.
•A sk people questions to find out if they are
following the conversation. When prioritizing products it must be clear to the
• Make the learning fun! Try to keep the group participants that the product with the most votes
members interested and engaged. Keep them will be considered as the most important. Results
happy. should be discussed with farmers to confirm them
• Use lines or dots rather than numbers if people and be sure that all agree with the results. This
are having difficulties following figures. For means of ranking can also be used to identify
example, instead of 3 + 5 = 8 you can write priority constraints in production and marketing
||| +||||| = |||||||| activities.
•U se objects (such as sticks and stones) as
counters, rather than numbers. Another method to determine priorities is to
•U se leaves or seeds to represent different crops rank pairs of products, as illustrated in Table
and trees. 4. With this method, farmers can examine pairs
•U se pictures as well as words. For example, of crops or different constraints and indicate
instead of just “maize” (corn), draw a picture which is more important than the other. Here the
of a maize plant or corncob. Your pictures do meaning of “importance” needs to be clarified so
50
that people know what they are voting for. Other Table 5. Historical calendar for Village Mbuule
essential information to be gathered includes:
Time Event Impact
1990 Road built by Enabled us to get to nearby
•T
he number of people in the group who produce
Chinese in 1982 towns and sell our beans to
the products being discussed more traders
•M
arket locations for this product 1995 Major famine in Lost all livestock and received
•M
arket demand (give season supply units) 1987, due to el food aid
Nino
•T
raders involved
2000 New school opened All children went to school
in the village Labor prices increased
Table 4. Importance of crops for income within the group
2002 Government Many farmers planted all their
Maize Beans Rice Chilies informed us about farms with coffee
coffee
Maize
2005 Coffee prices fell to Farmers pulled out coffee
Beans low levels NGO’s introduced fruit trees
Rice 2007 First time we saw , started merry-go-round
Chillies color TV Started savings scheme to help with
our farmer self- funeral rites. Many people lost
help group relatives to HIV/AIDs
2008 Catholic Relief Seed fairs enabled partners to
Historical Calendars with a Focus on Marketing: Services started gain a range of new varieties
Historical calendars can be useful in providing a new projects on
background to the changes that have occurred in health and gender.
an area and how this has affected the marketing 2009 Microfinance We lost money in loan system
opened office in because some members
practices of farmers and local entrepreneurs over nearby town defaulted. Lost livestock.
the past 5–10 years. The key questions to ask 2010 Market linkage Village group started
are: Did the community benefit from the new project arrived experimentation with grains
infrastructure or an innovation? How has the and conducted a and vegetables
village mapping
market changed over the past 4-5 years? How exercise
have the farmers responded to dynamic market 2012 More people Started to listen to market
conditions? Learning how the community has worked with information services to learn
adapted to change will provide the survey team vegetables as more about markets
prices were good
with a better understanding of the community’s and started to
strengths, opportunities, and attitudes toward work with “Golden
risk, and provide insight into how changes are Egg Traders” to
sell produce
linked with market options and innovation. It also
helps the community to recognize what they have
learned and gained from the changes that have Source authors
occurred over time.
Market Mapping: A simple method to assist
As agriculture is based on natural resources, the farmers in expressing their understanding and
facilitator should also try to record any changes constraints within the market chain is to ask
that have taken place in the resource base, them to draw a map on a large piece of paper,
particularly in terms of quality. One question to (or a flip chart), that will allow them to express
ask, for example: “Have yields dropped because their understanding of people involved in the
of soil degradation and/or new policies on land market chain, their roles, functions, and price
size holdings? Table 5 shows a historical calendar changes along the chain. This information can be
made for Mbuule Village in Tanzania. supplemented with the farmers’ understanding of
services being provided at different stages and the
quality of these services, See Figure 15.
51
Figure 15. Market mapping method to assist in expressing market chains
Evaluation chart for Service Provision: This payment? Which services are missing? Who are
tool is used to create an inventory of service the best service providers to link up with in any
providers and where possible to evaluate the agro-enterprise project? It is important to try and
availability and quality of services provided in the capture not only the formal service providers but
project area. Unlike secondary data that provides also those people that provide informal services.
averaged information, this tool aims to find out For example, traders that lend money or provide
from farmers if public services and other private information on prices in different markets. Table
business support services are available, if they 6 shows an inventory of services received by
use them and what is their opinion as to their Ttaago Village in Tanzania.
quality.
Market Visits: All market surveys will include
This tool provides a picture of services that the visits to markets. However, this approach is
community can access. The inventory can be mentioned as it can be used to introduce specific
done from an historical calendar perspective and partners or clients into the analytical process. In
the facilitator should gather information on the part this is done as a capacity-building process
value and quality of services being offered. This so that for example farmers, who visit markets
discussion should be used to study trends in regularly but have not approached the market in
service provision, how these have changed, and a systematic manner, can learn how to discuss
how farmers perceive or approve of the changes market prices with traders and learn more about
being made. Are the services free or require what traders need in terms of price, quality,
52
quantity and regularity of buying. These types of commonly used by larger buyers, such as large
visit are simple to arrange and provide farmers industrial processors, supermarket buyers
with new insights in how they can improve their who may have strong relations with their direct
market prospects. The benefits of this process supplier but a weak understanding about the
are quickly realized and farmers can use this in operations of the market channel beyond this
their subsequent market development with other point.
products. Market visits can be arranged to expose
farmers to local markets, but also to expose rural The learning journey is a method used to bring
traders and farmers to more distant markets. together, for example, the corporate procurement
The market visit approach generally requires manager of a supermarket chain, their aggregator,
more organization as the distance and number a more local trader and in some cases a
of participants increase, therefore the method representative of the farmers. The group then
should be used practically and farmers should be selects a product of interest and literally travels
informed about how to engage traders and how to in a vehicle from the supermarket floor along
record basic information for assessment later. their market chain back to meet with farmers
from a major production zones to observe who
Learning Journeys: This method builds on the is involved in the chain, their activities, costs
idea of a market visit but expands the exposure to and challenges. This method is proving to be
arrange visits with target chain actors along the particularly successful as a first step in linking
chain, hence visits with farmers, local collectors, smallholder farmers to high-value retail markets,
traveling traders, processors, wholesalers, as it provides actors in the market chain with a
aggregators and retailers. The approach is view to the requirements that poor small-holder
Table 6. Institutional inventory of services received by Ttaago village.
53
farmers must meet in order to supply high-value Number of interviews. The sample size will depend
markets. on the purposes of the survey, its geographical
scope, the structure of the commodity sub-sector,
The learning journey approach provides the and the time and resources available.
opportunity for corporate buyers to gather
information and reflect on how their current While knowledgeable observers are a very
business models affect the ability of small-holder useful source of data and information, market
farmers to remain in this type of business. participants will constitute the majority of
Gathering this information enables all the parties key informants. Service providers, such as
in the experience to reflect on barriers and entry transporters and storage facility owners, should
points to improving value chain communications, also be interviewed.
business relationships and market access. The
learning journey is often a first step for value There are no fixed rules regarding the number
chain actors to evaluate opportunities for change of interviews with market participants. As
together. This learning and review opportunity, mentioned in the previous chapter, a minimum
within the learning journey framework, allows of three to five should be interviewed at each
people within a chain to assess if, for example, it stage of the marketing chain. But when market
makes business sense for the corporate agency to participants are very heterogeneous or diverse,
consider how to redesign their business models there is a need to increase the sample size. A good
to include business practices that support the indication of the right sample size for each stage
specific needs of business with smallholder of the marketing chain is when the RMA team
producers. In other cases, it may stimulate starts to gather a consistent set of responses.
buyers to think about new business practices that
are more equitable, more pro-poor, but also make
sound business sense.
The experience also provides insights to other

market chain actors, such as farmers and local
collectors, about how they can best position
themselves to be more attractive business
partners to larger buyers. From the discussions
and thinking around these points, the individual
chain actors start to understand their roles within
the chain and how they relate to other actors,
the resulting conversations can then focus on
how they might work with a chain-wide view to
improve their business together, rather than as a
point business within a chain.
Figure 16. Make interviews enjoyable and avoid interrogation
3.9 Semi-Structured Interviews with
Key Informants Skills required for key informant interviews.
Individual, semi-structured interviews with key The difficulties in conducting a good semi-
informants (i.e. knowledgeable observers, market structured interview, and the concentration and
participants and service providers) constitute the energy required, are often overlooked, Figure
main primary data and information-collection 16. Key informant interviews require strong
method. These interviews are based on carefully interpersonal and interviewing skills, as well as
prepared checklists. These provide guidelines for an inquisitive mind.
discussion, helping the interviewer remember
the key issues and direct the interview. Some Interviewers must be confident, knowledgeable
examples of checklists are presented in Annex 4. about the topics under discussion, have good
improvisation skills, and pay attention to detail.
54
They must be able to earn the interviewee’s trust, Great care is needed to avoid influencing the
create a friendly and relaxed atmosphere, and answer or suggesting the reply. However,
maintain a lively and engaging discussion. While interviewers should not take the answers provided
not everybody has all these skills, they can be to at face value. As the fieldwork progresses, team
a large extent acquired through experience and members will become more aware of the key
practice. issues, and should therefore be in a position to
bring their own analysis into the discussion and
Some tips. Semi-structured interviews should question some answers that are perceived as
not be organized mechanically, but conducted inaccurate. The interviewer can in this way gain
as discussions around particular topics. They some authority and earn greater respect from the
are flexible in that they allow key informants key informant.
to discuss the issues in their own words. The
questions asked will then depend on the answers It is very important to emphasize that key
obtained. informants are usually very busy. A semi-
structured interview rarely lasts for less than 30
Semi-structured interviews of knowledgeable minutes and can go on for one hour. If the key
observers differ slightly from those with market informant cannot devote such time or is becoming
participants. Indeed, while the discussions with too tired, to the point where the quality of the
knowledgeable observers should be fairly open, discussion is being compromised, it is better to
similar to brainstorming, interviews with market terminate the interview. Sometimes it is possible
participants and service providers should be more to schedule a second interview for another day.
structured, with greater use of checklists. These Other times, the RMA team will need to rely on
checklists should not be treated as definite. If other key informants to go through the issues
need be, they can be adapted after testing them that have not been properly discussed during
during one or two interviews. some of the interviews.
During the interviews, the questions asked should While personal contact is by far the best method
be simple, clear, carefully phrased, and follow a of interviewing, sometimes this is not possible
logical and appropriate sequence. For example, because of distance and time and resource
sensitive questions should not be asked during constraints. In other words, it may be difficult to
the initial stages of the interview, but left for later. access some key informants. In such cases, team
Market participants may regard some issues as members may opt to conduct the interview over
sensitive and may be reluctant to discuss them the phone. Sometimes there may also be a need to
until they are confident that the interviewer is contact by phone some key informants who were
well intentioned and will not use the information previously interviewed to obtain some missing
inappropriately. Examples of sensitive areas of information or discuss a particular issue that was
enquiry include taxation, labor, costs, and sales overlooked during the previous interview.
pricing.
3.10 Structured Interviews
Interviewers must also know when to probe
A structured survey as the name suggests,
deeper into specific issues or move to another
is a fixed set of questions that are posed to
topic. When the answer is unclear or perceived
interviewees in a sequential manner, each
as incomplete or too general, there is a need
interview covering all the same questions. An
for further questioning. Some key informants
example of a simple structured questionnaire
are more knowledgeable than others, and can
is given in Annex 5. Due to the rapid nature of
provide much more detailed answers about
RMA, the use of standard structured interviews,
specific issues. The interviewer must therefore
with their associated large sample sizes is not
be able to judge the amount of information that
common. However, there may be situations
the key informant is capable of providing. Exact
where a more systematic approach, as offered
quantification is often difficult, but it is normally
by structured surveys, is useful to investigate a
possible to obtain approximate figures or values.
specific issue of interest.
55
For example, if more information is required on

a specific type of business transaction or more
information is needed to determine the demand
for a new type of service, then there are clear
advantages in gaining a series of responses on
the same subject from diverse actors. The use of
new online survey tools such as “Survey Monkey”
(www.surveymonkey.com/) or IFormBuilder,
www.iformbuilder.com/ provide examples of
where online structured surveys can be built, for
gathering information on people’s perceptions or
preferences. In product development and product
marketing studies, simple structured surveys
are particularly important and we will revisit this
issue in Step 7, From Analysis to Action.
3.11 Direct Observation.

This method consists of checking the views of
market participants and the information provided
against their actual behavior. Direct observation
methods should be employed during visits to
villages, market centers, processing facilities,
warehouses, and so on. Through these visits,
the team can observe production activities, post-
harvest handling, sorting and grading practices,
storage technologies, transport of produce,
and transactions. This will enable the team to
compare what key informants are saying, for
example regarding their scale of operation or the
quality of produce handled, with how they are
organized and behave.
It is important to note that direct observation is not

only a validation method, but can also be used to
collect additional data and information. Much can
be learned from simple observation. For example,
the variety and quality of produce can be inspected
and the storage and processing technologies
identified. Moreover, direct observation may enable
the team to estimate the number of suppliers and
buyers in particular markets, the volumes traded
or processed, existing storage and processing
capacities, and so on.
A summary list of participatory methods and tools

for rapid data collection is shown in Table 7.
56
Table 7. Methods and Tools for Rapid Data Collection
PRA Tools Why used When to use Time

Focus groups To gain information on a specific issue At any stage in the analysis that 2-3 hours,
or product from a “representative” group provides an opportunity to gather
of people that can provide information information from representative groups
on behalf of a community. Can also be in the market chain, such as farmers,
used with consumers if information on traders, consumers etc….
their perception about certain products is
required.
Ranking, and weighting To find out what farmers are growing and At the participatory diagnosis phase to 2-3 hours
the priority of these products in relation select and prioritize products for further
to income and market linkages. Also used market investigation
to rank constraints in production and
marketing.
Historical calendars To find out when major events happened in At the participatory diagnosis phase 2-3 hours
the community over the past 10-15 years, to find out what has worked, list local
who has supported the community, what service providers and evaluate their
went well / what did not work. value to the community.
Market mapping Enables farmers, traders and service Having selected a product, this method 2 hours
providers with a simple means to express is used to map out the production and
their current understanding of their market marketing links and relationships
links and relationships for specific products.
Evaluation of BDS To gain an inventory and quality At the outset of study to discover 2 hours
assessment of service providers that existing services and how these support
work(ed) in the project area & identify market access
successful innovations
Market visits All market surveys will collect information In situations where market surveys 1-3 hours
from a range of marketplaces. This method include a high degree of participation depending on
however, enables the team to incorporate of for example farmers and for capacity survey scope
chain actors such as farmers or extension building processes
officers into the process to expose them to
basic market analysis
Learning journeys Method that enables actors from along the Commonly used by larger corporate 1 week
chain to come together and follow products buyers who are unfamiliar with their
down the market chain, to experience and market chain beyond their direct
appreciate the constraints and opportunities suppliers.
of each actor
Semi-structured Rapid, flexible investigative method used Throughout an RMA to gather 1 hour per
interview to gather data from diverse actors and information from all actors within the interviewee
determine critical issues particularly market chain, about access to services.
in regard to opportunities, constraints
efficiencies and incentives
Structured interviews Focused study approach to gather Before or after a semi-structured study 1 hour
information in a standardized manner and to gain insights on more specific issues
compare responses to common questions
across defined response groups, i.e., rich/
poor, farmers/trader etc..
Direct observation Method used to compare interviewee’s To clarify information that is unclear, to 15 mins
information against their behavior or confirm scale and scope of an activity
marketing activities.
57
Exercise 3.1 Team Composition

Assumption Purposes of RMA have been identified and one
product has been selected.
Objective To help participants to set up the most suitable

team for conducting an RMA.
Task Set up a team to conduct the RMA for your selected

product.
Suggested procedure Work in groups. In each group:
- Identify who should be involved in your RMA

team;
- Specify their roles.
Expected outputs A table with team composition.
Due Each group has 10 minutes for preparation. The

plenary group then walks around each of the
smaller presentation groups, a process called a
“Gallery Walk”, where the teams are asked to read
out the activities and ideas, for general review.
58
Exercise 3.2 Information Needs

Assumption Purposes of the RMA have been identified.
Products have been ranked and selected.
RMA team has been formed.
Objective To help participants identify the information

required to achieve the RMA.
Task Identify the type of information that needs to be

collected when conducting the RMA for the chosen
product.
Suggested procedure Work in groups. In each group:
-R
efer back to the purposes of the RMA and the
selected product.
- Identify the types of information that need to be

collected, using Annex A as reference.
Expected outputs A list of information needs for the RMA of the

selected product.
Due Each group has 25 minutes for preparation and 5

minutes for presentation.
59
Exercise 3.3 Selection of Key Informants and Preparation of Checklists

Assumption Basic concepts have been provided.
Product for rapid market appraisal has been

selected.
Information needs have been identified.
Objective To help participants identify key informants and

the type of information that will be collected from
each of them.
Task Develop checklists for semi-structured interviews

with different market participants/key informants.
Suggested procedure Maintain three groups to work on the products

you have selected.
Identify the market participants/key informants

you will interview when conducting the RMA for
the selected product. Use Annex B as reference.
Develop a matrix of three columns, including

names/types of market participants, where these
can be found, and the type of information that can
be obtained from them.
Expected outputs A matrix with possible market participants/key

informants and respective information that will
be collected from each type of market participant/
key informant.
Due Each group has 45 minutes for preparation

and 5 minutes for presentation. There will be
15 minutes for discussion and fine-tuning of
checklists.
60
Step 4. Implementing a Market Survey
Learning objectives carefully, but this will not ensure proper data and
information collection. The quality of the data and
information gathered will depend on the ability of
exercises recommended, the learner should be able
team members to interact with key informants,
to: (i) identify the survey procedures, (ii) identify
facilitate and direct the discussions, and employ
the appropriate number of interviews, (iii) apply
observation and interviewing skills. Below we
appropriate approaches to contact key informants
provide some guidelines and tips to help those
and (iv) apply methods of cross-checking the
involved in an RMA to apply data and information
collected information and data
collection methods effectively.
This chapter provides guidelines
for the application of market Market analysis is a dynamic investigative process
survey methods with (i) focus not a passive recording of multiple responses
to similar questions. Market researchers need to
groups with producers, (ii) analyze data as they record and collate responses.
semi-structured interviews
with individuals and (iii) direct
observation.
Market research is about

finding new opportunities.
Therefore the process of data
collection and analysis go
hand in hand – a blend of art,
investigation and science. The
RMA team may have planned
61
markets, and then interview actors at lower levels

of the market chain, down to the producer. This
will enable the team to gain a wide perspective of
the marketing system before engaging with local
market participants.
A second option is to start with focus group

discussions at community level, and then move
up the market chain. The team first interviews
local traders and processors, then market
participants at regional level, and finally actors at
the top end of the market chain, including traders
and processors in destination markets as well as
exporters and importers.
4.1 Investigative market research 4.4 Cross-checking data and informa-

tion
Collecting market information is not a passive
process of obtaining responses to the same The importance of checking the validity of the
questions and then reviewing statistical information and views provided by key informants
divergence. It is a process of investigation to draw cannot be overemphasized. Market participants
out information that will lead to new business may have their own agendas and interests,
options, or finding ways to overcome critical and this may influence the accuracy of the
constraints in a market chain. It is also about information provided and affect their views on
finding future business partners. particular issues. Three methods are commonly
used to check the quality and validity of the data
4.2 Contacting key informants and information collected during fieldwork.
The method of contact will vary across key Mirror imaging. This type of interviewing consists
informants. It can be done informally by of asking the same set of questions to informants
telephone or email, or formally by writing. at adjacent stages in the marketing chain, and
Formal letters with the logo of the implementing then checking the consistency of their answers.
organization or local authorities can be very Strong divergence in responses may require
effective in reassuring the key informants that further probing.
you are a bonafide researcher, which may help to
gain their trust and cooperation. Triangulation. This process involves interviewing
informants with different perspectives to
In other cases, you will be required to cold call, arrive at a better understanding of particular
i.e. to arrive at a specific location and ask people issues. Triangulation enables the RMA team to
if they can be interviewed. When contacting understand certain aspects of the marketing
key informants, it is very important to explain system through a process of approximation.
the likely duration of the interview, as well as
its purposes. In addition, the confidentiality of Observation. This consists of checking the views
the information provided must be emphasized. of market participants and the information
Transparency is critical to avoid a situation where provided against their actual behavior. Direct
key informants are reluctant to participate in the observation methods should be employed during
interview and disclose information for fear that visits to villages, market centers, processing
this will be used inappropriately. facilities, warehouses, and so on. Through these
visits, the team can observe production activities,
4.3 Survey sequence post-harvest handling, sorting and grading
The first option is to start by interviewing practices, storage technologies, transport of
exporters or traders in wholesale and terminal produce, and transactions. This will enable the
62
team to compare what key informants are saying,

for example regarding their scale of operation or
the quality of produce handled, with how they are
organized and how they behave.
It is important to note that direct observation

is not only a validation method, but can also be
used to collect additional data and information.
For example, much can be learned by watching
to see how a market operates, or observing the
number of trucks that come into a factory at a
specific time.
Supervision of interviewers. Supervision of

interviewers is recommended, particularly
in terms of the types of information they are
collecting. Where ever possible data should be
evaluated while the team is still in the field, as
it is expensive to go back to the field, when a
problem in the data is only observed when all the
interviews have been done.
Following up with field staff can be done by

visiting team members and some key informants
to confirm that they were indeed interviewed and
that key issues were discussed, confirmation of
interviews can also be done by phone.
63
Exercise 4.1 Preparation for a Market visit and survey checklist

Assumption Basic concepts in marketing have been provided.
Product for RMA has been selected.
Information needs have been identified.
Market participants/key informants have been

selected and respective checklists developed.
Objective To provide an understanding of how to conduct

market visits and semi-structured interviews.
Task Prepare for market visit and semi-structured

interviews.
Suggested procedure Maintain three groups to work on the products

you have selected.
Decide on the type and number of market

participants that will be interviewed (maximum of
five per group).
Form sub-group for conducting survey (if

necessary) and assign specific tasks (asking
questions, taking notes, etc) to each member.
Make appointment with the key informant in

advance, if necessary.
Expected outputs A concrete action plan for conducting the survey

in the real market.
Presentation None.
Due Each group has 20 minutes for preparation. There

will be 15 minutes for discussion and fine-tuning
of action plans.
64
Exercise 4.2 Visit to a market and Interview of Key Informants

Assumption Market visit has been planned and interview
checklists have been developed.
Objective Provide an opportunity for participants to practice

RMA activities.
Task Collect relevant information during the market visit
Suggested procedure Maintain working in three groups.
Go to the nearest market to observe, interview,

and take note of relevant information.
Expected outputs Information relating to the selected product is

collected and recorded in participants’ note books.
Presentation None.
Due Half a day (3-3.5 hours).
65
Exercise 4.3 Reflections on a Market Visit

Assumption Market visit and semi-structured interviews of key
informants have been conducted.
Objective Provide an opportunity for participants to reflect

on their performance when using RMA tools.
Task Identify the difficulties faced when applying

RMA tools in the real world and develop
recommendations to address such problems in the
future.
Suggested procedure Maintain working in three groups.
List the tools/skills you have applied in you

market visit.
Identify the difficulties you faced when applying

each tool/skill.
Prepare a list of recommendations to address

such problems in the future.
Expected outputs A matrix with difficulties faced and

recommendations.
Due 30 minutes for preparation, 5 minutes for

presentation per group, and 15 minutes for open
discussion.t
66
Step 5. Methods and Tools for Analyzing Market Data
Learning objectives 5.1 Trend Analysis

After studying this chapter and conducting the Based on a combination of secondary and
exercises recommended, the reader should (i) have primary information, the market survey team
a good understanding of the main participatory can gather information on trends in prices and
tools required for analyzing market information, market growth for a selected product. Market
and (ii) be in a position to provide basic training information services are a good source of this
and coordination of analytical process with type of information as they collect price data
interested partners. over long periods of time. Time series data can
be used in a simple linear regression analysis,
This chapter provides a review of some methods available in Micro-soft excel, to show whether
and tools that can be used by a market survey prices for the selected product are increasing,
team for collecting data from a range of actors staying the same or decreasing. Care should be
in the market chain, including farmer, traders, taken when undertaking price trend analyses,
processors and retailers. These people operate in as the value of money changes over time, this
different worlds and thus require different ways of is caused by inflation. If the analysis needs to
interaction. The following section provides some remove the effects of inflation, and compare “real
basic tools to assist the market analyst to match price” trends, raw price data needs to be deflated
approaches with specific situations. The basic using a CPI index4. Once all of the data has been
tools include: deflated, conclusions on regression analysis are
considered to be more reliable. This is especially
•T
rend analysis (price, production and the case in countries that are experiencing
perceptions of sales growth) high levels of inflation. For example in 2010, in
•P
rojections for growth Ethiopia, the rate of inflation was 20-25% for food
•M
arket volume analysis products, to compare data from year to year, a
•P
rofitability analysis deflation process, helps the marketing team to
•M
argin analysis compare like with like across years.
•S
WOT
•P
roblem tree Trends in production can be analyzed based
•S
olution tree on time series data from local and national
•S
cenario building agricultural statistics. If this is not available, then
one approach to gaining an estimate of trends in
production and prices is to review the information
4 CPI Consumer Price Index – The CPI is a value given to a basket

of commodities. Over time, the value of money tends to depreciate
against the amount of produce that can be purchased. Therefore an
index is given to the value of money over time, which can be used
to compare real or deflated price trends.
67
given by farmer groups on their historical of markets. To do this type of analysis, the
calendars. Traders can also provide useful researcher needs to make certain assumptions
information on their perceptions of whether and obtain multipliers for specific market
they are selling more or less of a commodity, drivers that will affect the future demand. The
and if more or fewer traders are dealing with simplest form of this type of analysis is to project
a particular product over time. For example in future demand based on changing population.
Ethiopia, over the past 10 years there has been This analysis is based on current levels of
a dramatic increase in the amount of maize that consumption multiplied by national growth rates
is grown and consumed in the country, as people over time.
have switched their food habits away from the
traditional staple food, called Tef, which is low in For example, rice production in Vietnam was
terms of yield and hence expensive to buy in the approximately 39.1 million metric tons (mt) in
markets, to higher yielding and lower cost maize. 2009/10 (26.1 million mt, milled basis). Vietnam
used to be a major exporter of rice, but with
Careful questioning of traders can provide a increasing population these exports are declining.
reasonable picture of basic growth trends in the Depending on the amount exported in a given
market. This is an important issue to define as year, we will estimate a 5% export level, the total
agricultural interventions should target growth consumption level would be 2,479,000 mt. Given
market. a growth rate of 2.4%, the demand for rice on
a population growth rate alone will increase by
Tips: Why are growth markets important?
approximately 59,508 mt / year. In other cases,
demand for certain products, may be in decline
A common problem that occurs in agricultural due to other drivers such as increasing income,
projects is the focus on increasing competitiveness which enables consumers to buy preferred
within a market rather than on reducing poverty.
Let us consider a situation where Climbing beans substitute products, causing a decline in the
are traditionally produced by farmers in the Village demand for the inferior good. This type of analysis
of Rhum. An agricultural project is started nearby is useful to gain an understanding of future
and focuses their attention on the Village of Wahum,
providing the farmers with technologies that demands and therefore whether investment in
increase their competitiveness. Over time the famers that sector is justified.
in Wahum, are able to sell more Climbing beans
than the farmers in Rhum. If the market is size
stays the same or even decreases in size, producers 5.3 Market Volume Analysis
in both Rhum and Wahum are likely to get poorer as
Using a combination of secondary and primary
a result of increasing production to supply a limited
market. data, the marketing team should develop an
estimate of the size of the market being analyzed.
If the market size does not change during the This usually requires a combination of information
intervention period, Wahum will take market share
from Rhum and although Wahum farmers will gain, based on (i) production data and (ii) sales or export
overall poverty levels in the area do not change, the data for the selected product. Sources of secondary
incomes simply shifts from Rhum to the village of data may include household survey information
Wahum, or worse, incomes for both villages start to
decline. It is only in the case where the market size of the target project area, sub-national data from
is growing that both Villages will gain when more district of provincial government sources and
supply enters the market. Many projects do not national data sets. For major food and export
take this into account and therefore can give a false
impression of poverty reduction within an area as products, this data is often included in annual
they may only report on their village of interest and Government summary statistics, developed for
be unaware of the problems caused in neighboring
the budget or are held with organizations such as
villages.
the World Bank and FAO. Care should be taken
with these global information sources because
5.2 Projections the accuracy of the data does not always take
Following trend analysis of existing market prices into account seasonal variations. It is therefore
or volumes, market researchers can also use recommended to compare global figures with local
regression techniques to indicate future directions information given by larger traders. It should also
68
be noted that if production data is used in the To give an example within one market, an analyst
analysis of market volume, the analyst should can first of all find out how many traders sell a
take into account the ratio of product used by specific product, such as cabbages. If the market
the household and that sold into the market. team finds out there are 20 traders of cabbages
This information can be obtained from household in the market, the team can then interview 5 or
data and to a degree through focus groups with 6 traders to find out who is the largest trader,
farmers. and the amounts they sell, by week, by month
and eventually gain an idea of annual buying and
Depending on the scope of the market survey, selling of cabbages within the market.
the primary data collection should aim to gather
information on the amounts or volumes of the For larger market surveys, the marketing team
selected product that are traded in the survey area. can identify the largest markets within the survey
Market volume information usually cannot be area and survey the largest traders within each of
found from one source; the market team or analyst the markets to determine flow of produce through
will be required to ask several traders about the the markets. By repeating questions to several
amounts of product that are traded through the traders, the marketing team can work towards an
main markets and by the main traders themselves estimate of market volume. Mirroring, i.e. repeated
in the target area, or at the target markets. questioning with traders at a similar level and
Through a process of asking several buyers and triangulation, with generally works by comparing
sellers, the marketing team can gain an idea of the responses across and between different types of
actual amount traded. traders should start to reveal an estimate of the
market volume.
Figure 17. Gross margin analysis for bean production
69
5.4 Profitability Analysis The market researcher can undertake this simple
but revealing analysis through a systematic
Probably the most critical aspect of marketing
collection of buying prices, marketing/transaction
is to provide customer satisfaction at a profit.
costs and selling prices for each participant in the
However, many farmers do not keep good
market chain from the farmer to the consumer.
records about their costs and sales and often
Comparing these costs and determining the
are not sure about their actual profit margins.
percentage of the final market price that each
It is very important therefore to have a clear
market actor obtains will provide a basic measure
idea about current levels of profitability and,
of the efficiency of the marketing system. In
based on this information, the likely gains in
competitive market chains, marketing costs and
profitability that will occur with investment in
profits are relatively low. The difference between
new market interventions. The simplest form
retail and farm-gate prices is therefore moderate,
of financial analysis is a gross margin analysis,
and farmers receive a reasonable share of the
as shown in Figure 17. This provides the
price paid by consumers. If this is not the case,
information for a business/enterprise venture,
then additional research may be required to
typically over a one-year period. This approach
define precisely why certain market chain actors
can also be used also as a means of verification of
are extracting an exceptional level of profit. Note
profit at the end of the season, to confirm whether
that market research often requires a process of
the plan accurately met the forecasted figures.
iterative analysis in certain areas to make sense
Financial data can also be projected over time, of the information. An example of market margins
so that the business investor can see how costs is given in section 2.11.
and profits change over time. In many cases, the
initial period of investment means that profits are
5.6 SWOT Analysis
low in the first one to three years, due to the costs When a market survey is being used to identify
of start up. However, profits generally increase as a market opportunity for a specific group of
loans and capital outlays are paid off. producers, SWOT can be used to evaluate the
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
To review profitability over time a slightly more Threats, for a target agro-enterprise. For best
complicated financial analysis can be performed results, SWOT analysis needs to have a clear
using methods such as the (i) Internal Rate objective, which fits well with visioning tools that
of Return and (ii) Net Present Value. These are often used when working with farmers who
methods give the investor an idea of how profit want to make a shift, for example, from producing
will change over a fixed time frame, such as the low levels of poor quality produce that has little
next 1-5 years. These types of analysis, can be demand in the market, into a higher volume of
done using Microsoft Excel, which has specially better quality produce for an alternative market.
formulated macros and tutorials to explain how to
undertaken these types of analysis. For example chickpea growers, living near
Mwanza in northern Tanzania, want to increase
5.5 Margin Analysis their supply of Red beans to the town. The
It is often assumed that farmers are exploited switch in product and production sales is
by traders and receive a disproportionately low therefore a primary point for using this type of
amount of the final market price compared analysis. SWOT can be used to evaluate whether
with other chain participants such as traders, the farmers will be competitive against existing
processors and retailers. This point can only be suppliers? The basic elements of a SWOT are
verified through an analysis of the marketing shown in Table 8 and the key issues related to the
margins along the chain. Once gathered, this SWOT categories are shown in Table 9.
information will highlight where in the marketing
chain value is being added to the product and
where profits are being made.
70
Table 8. SWOT Matrix general headings 5.7 Problem tree analysis
SWOT Matrix Helpful Harmful Problem and Solution trees are participatory tools
(to achieving the (to achieving the that can help an RMA team to think through
objective) objective)
a specific challenge and identify the range of
Internal
(attributes of the
Strengths Weaknesses problems that prevent or impede a goal being
organization) achieved. In the marketing context, the problem
External tree can be used to identify problems that reduce
Opportunities Threats
(attributes of market performance for a specific product in a
the external
environment)
selected market chain. The problem tree exercise
begins with a brainstorming session in which
participants list all problems that affect market
Table 9. SWOT Matrix Issues to be addressed performance for a selected product and work out
the relationships between problems. In a group
Issues to review as part of the product / agro-enterprise situation, it is useful for group members to write
analysis
one problem on a card, so that cards can be
Strengths and weaknesses Financial and intellectual
moved according to their importance.
resources, location,
customer service, efficiency,
infrastructure, quality,
staff, management,
price, delivery time, cost,
capacity, relationships with
customers, brand strength,
local language knowledge,
ethics, principles
Opportunities and threats Political/legal, market
trends, economic conditions,
expectations of stakeholders,
technology, public
expectations, competitors
and competitive actions, bad
PR, criticism, global markets,
security, climate change
SWOT analysis can be used by the marketing

team to create profiles of competitors, which
are compared with the target agro-enterprise
group, using SWOT analysis to focus on their
relative competitive strengths and weaknesses.
Depending on the detail of the exercise, the
marketing team can use this method to examine
competitors’ costs, sources of profits, resources
and competencies, competitive positioning,
product differentiation, business linkages and
other factors. If the marketing team can define the
Figure 18. Problem tree
current market situation and the existing agro-
enterprises, this can assist the marketing team,
to identify a niche for the client in the market
and or strategies that would best suit the client
group to be competitive within the market given
the profiles of competitor groups, companies and
other regions.
71
Once all the problems have been shared and 5.8 Solution tree
discussed, the second task is to arrange the cards
In this exercise, the group takes the problem
into a logical hierarchy and draw links between
tree and inverts all the problems into positive
them. The group should work towards a priority
objective statements. Through this process the
problem that is identified as the “core problem”,
central problem becomes the main objective. This
i.e., it is linked to most other problems. In the
process of converting problems into solutions,
example below, the core problem was defined as
builds a hierarchy of development objectives
limited competitiveness of chickens and this was
and interventions. The problem and solution
related to lack of on-farm inputs for chicken feed.
tree provides a simplified view of cause and
effect relationships. In this way, the RMA team
The next stage is for related problems and issues
can identify ways in which the farmer group
to be divided into cause and effects based on the
can prepare their target market options and
core problem. To link this to the tree analogy,
implementation plans to tackle key issues.
problems are considered as roots and effects as
Essentially the solution tree is used as the basis
branches. The discussion should try to find all
for the design of an intervention program, by
cause and effect relations and move the cards
inverting the problem tree the main problem is
accordingly. There can be more causes to one
transformed into the general objective. The direct
effect or more effects to one cause. Links should
causes of the problem become specific objectives
be clearly shown on the diagram to show cause-
and causes can be translated into targets. The
effect relationships and horizontal links to show
lower level causes of problems are then turned
joint causes and combined effects, Figure 18.
into solutions and these become activities for
specific interventions. The information in Figure
19 illustrates a solution tree for improving market
competitiveness of chickens.
Adapted from Lundy et al, 2007

Figure 19. Solution tree
72
5.9 Scenario building Table 10. Methods for Analyzing Market Data
Scenario building is a technique used to lay out Analytical Methods Why is this method used?
potential plans for specific types of client. This Trend Analysis To gain a better understanding of
method requires the RMA team to identify the the changes in the market over
time.
most promising agro-enterprise opportunities
Market Volume To gain an understanding of the
for target client types. For example, selecting
analysis size of the market that is being
opportunities for a cluster of farmer groups evaluated.
requires the RMA team to match local assets, Profitability Analysis Tools such as gross margin
skills and leadership qualities with investment analysis, internal rate of return
and net present value used
and market access options. The scenario also determine the profitability of an
needs to provide a simple plan outlining the existing enterprise or proposed
scale or volume of the target market, buyers, business.
quality issues, supply issues and investment Margin Analysis To provide a measure of the
efficiency of a market systems.
requirements. The plan should also identify
Projections Method to predict changes in
potential partners involved, their responsibilities, demand for a selected product
and the likely gains and risks. based on specific market drivers,
such as population growth,
changing incomes, urbanization
As an example, the RMA team who worked
and consumer habits.
with potato farmers in south western Uganda,
SWOT This is a strategic planning tool
considered three to four market options for the used to evaluate the Strengths,
farmers. These included Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Threats in a project, business
venture, or any other situation
•S ales of potatoes into the local market of an organization or individual
• Sales of potato into the nearest large city, 80 km requiring a decision in pursuit of
an objective
from the farms
Problem Tree To identify and prioritize problems
• Sales of potato into a fast food restaurant in the
and to map out problem causality.
capital city 400 km away
Solution Tree To find solutions to the problems
• Sales of potato into the wholesale market in the identified and through this process
capital city to develop a series of interventions
to overcome the problems in a
systematic manner.
Scenarios can be developed to highlight market
Scenario Building Technique used to lay out
opportunities for a range of clients including BDS potential plans for specific types
options, niche market options, export market of client. This method requires the
analyst to identify most promising
options and market linkage options to supply
agro-enterprise opportunities
industrial and or high-value markets. and then provide information on
target market, investment needs,
The potential market scenarios presented must potential partners, likely gains and
risks.
all be based on findings and results from the
RMA. The scenarios created in this section are not
intended to be detailed plans and their purpose at
this stage is to highlight options for presentation
to the farmers.
A summary of tools used for data analysis is given

in Table 10.
73
Step 6. Analysis of Data and Information
emerging findings. These discussions are usually

informal discussions but can be more formal
presentations, which may include the use of
charts and diagrams, for example at end of week
round up sessions.
Regular meetings to discuss findings allow the

RMA team to quickly identify inconsistencies
and inaccuracies in the data and information
collected, as well as information gaps. Field
activities can then be promptly revised to address
Learning objectives these problems. Such meetings also provide an
After reading this chapter, the learner should be opportunity for involving all team members in the
able to: (i) Adopt a step-by-step approach to the analysis of different issues.
analysis of the data and information collected
during fieldwork, (ii) Analyze the topics studied, (iii) Tips for the marketing team
highlight key questions that need to be answered
during the analysis and (iv) develop appropriate To help keep the marketing team focused, team
meetings should be short and organized before the
recommendations based on the analysis. members go for dinner.
One or more members of the team should be
The following sections provide a responsible for recording the data and information
collected, and putting it on paper on a daily basis
guide to the types of questions in a structured and clear way. This will ensure
that the research team should that data and information are properly recorded,
while facilitating their subsequent processing and
attempt to address during the
analysis.
analytical stage. The analysis
should be practical and based
on the scope and type of survey
and the analytical team should
focus their attention on the most
important issues as outlined in
their terms of reference.
6.1 Discussion of
Findings
The data and information
collected during the RMA
market survey should be
analyzed continuously, as more
information is collected. The
fieldwork and the analysis of
data and information should
be conducted in parallel. At the
end of each day in the field, or
alternatively, after every two or
three days of fieldwork, the team
should get together to share
and discuss the data and the
74
6.2 Initial Understanding of the Mar- 6.4 Topical analysis

keting System Topics or variable groups for analyzing depend on
During the early stages of data and information the RMA purposes. However for a comprehensive
analysis, it is critical to gain some understanding RMA, the topics or variable groups should
of the marketing system for the product being consider the issues outlined below.
studied. Both secondary and primary data and
information should be used to describe the Supply and Demand trends
marketing system. Key questions:
The following questions should be answered •What are the trends in supply and demand, both
during this initial phase: in terms of quantity and quality?
•Which domestic and export market segments are
•What are the basic structure of the marketing growing faster? Which ones are in decline?
chain? •Which market channels have more promising
•Whar are the different channels and key stages growth prospects?
in the chain? •What are the driving forces behind these trends?
•Where are the main production areas for the
product? Price trends and behavior
•Where are the main wholesale, processing and
Key questions:
consumption centers?
•What are the scales of operation at each stage of
•How do prices vary within the year? Are there
the marketing chain?
clear seasonal patterns? What are the factors
explaining these patterns?
6.3 Preliminary Diagram of the
•What are the recent trends in real prices, for
Marketing Chain
example over the past five years? Are real prices
It is useful at this point to sketch a diagram of the rising or declining, and why?
marketing chain. A simple example was shown •Are these trends likely to change in the future? If
in Figure 7. You could rework this diagram to so, why?
include the different channels observed in the •Which market segments enjoy most favorable
survey work and add in new participants at each price prospects, and why?
stage, with their functions. Another map could
be drawn showing the main roads in the survey Using a price chart will help to visualize the price
area, to show the main flows for the studied trend. Those charts can also be included in the
commodity, from production sites to the markets report to support the analysis.
and areas of consumption. This map could show
roads, lakes, rivers and location of the main
markets, so that group members can see where
key activities are taking place.
Drawing such diagrams during the initial stages

of the analysis helps the RMA team to process,
analyze, and visualize the data and information
collected. It also makes it easier to identify
areas where further information is required. The
marketing chain diagram can then be refined
while fieldwork progresses and the analysis
further developed.
75
Market requirements
Tips on price analysis
Key questions:
Great care is needed when drawing conclusions from
•What are the product requirements of different margin analysis. Policy and other interventions are
often based on oversimplified assumptions about the
markets and participants? costs incurred and the profits made by marketing
•What are their needs with regards to volume, enterprises. When the price paid by consumers is
regularity of supply, time and location of well above the price received by farmers, it is often
assumed that market intermediaries are making
deliveries, quality specifications, and so on? excessive profits at the expense of producers. This
may not be the case. The reasons why margins are
Market participants and their behavior high may lie in the considerable marketing costs
and risks incurred by traders and processors. These
Key questions: agents may actually make periodic losses due to
adverse price fluctuations and product deterioration,
and the overall profit generated from their activity
•Who are the market participants? may actually be a fair remuneration for their
•What role do they play in the marketing system entrepreneurial role.
and which functions do they perform?
•How well do they perform these functions?
Efficiency of the marketing system
•And how do they relate to each other?
•How do they coordinate horizontally, for example Finally, it is very important at this stage to
through farmer organizations and private sector develop a sound analysis of the efficiency of
associations? the marketing system. Key questions to answer
•What are the different marketing and contractual include:
arrangements between market participants at
different stages of the market chain? •H ow is marketing system performing?
•What is the extent and forms of informal credit • Are producers and market participants
flows between market participants? supplying what consumers want?
•Is there vertical integration in the marketing • Is the system responding to the changing needs
system, whereby firms operate at different of market participants and consumers?
levels of the market chain, such as agricultural • Is produce flowing regularly and at a relatively
production and processing? low cost from surplus (production) areas to
deficit (consumption) areas?
• Is produce being stored appropriately or
imported for consumption during the off-season
periods when there is little domestic production?
• Are processors employing efficient technologies
that minimize costs while assuring good product
quality?
• Are there significant post-harvest product losses
at different stages of the marketing chain?
• Is there strong competition at different stages of
the marketing chain?
• An analysis of marketing costs and margins
is also essential to determine sources of
inefficiency (see Box 1). Which marketing and
processing costs are too high?
• Is there scope for lowering these costs?
• Are producers and other market participants
receiving a fair share of the benefits generated
by the production and marketing of these
commodities?
76
• In other words, are some market participants 6.5 Constraints and Opportunities
realizing excessive profits at the expense of
While doing analysis on above topics, attention
others? Are producers receiving a reasonable
should be paid to constraints and opportunities
share of the export or retail price?
that each market participant has. Below are
some examples of typical constraints that market
Policy and Institutional Environment
participants may face:
In some RMA studies, the policy environment may
be relevant, if this is the case, here are some •L ocation of farmers is not well suited to supply a
target market against existing competition.
Key questions: • Poor economic infrastructure (roads,
railway, ports, power and water supply,
•A
re relevant policies, laws and regulations communications, warehouse and cold chain
suitable? How they are being implemented? facilities, and so on)
•H
ow does local policy affect the structure and • Limited land area of target farmers, not
performance of the marketing system? enough farmers can produce this product at
•H
ow do local policies contribute to, or hinder, the volumes required to supply target market
the development of the marketing system? opportunities.
• Weak horizontal cooperation amongst farmers
and agribusiness firms
• Poor access to appropriate production and post-
harvest technologies, such as seeds, fertilizer,
irrigation, storage facilities.
• Lack of access to formal and informal credit
• Limited access to good quality and affordable
support services in areas such as market
information, input supply, repair services,
transport, storage and processing, and so on.
• Inadequate policies and regulations
When analyzing the causes of the problem, it

is important to define the real cause. This will
lead to suitable and effective interventions.
For example, one constraint is lacking access
to governmental credit. The real cause of this
constraint may not come from the lack of credit
program but from inadequate information
provision. Tools such as the problem tree can
assist in making logical decisions and developing
more effective interventions.
77
6.6 Recommendations for 6.7 Filling in the gaps

Interventions As was mentioned in the section on data
One of the ways to develop interventions is collection, analysis often reveals gaps in the data,
to apply the “Objective tree” methodology as false trails, or exciting opportunities. This will
outlined in the previous chapter. The next step require the RMA team to implement short follow
is to analyze the feasibility of recommended up research with selected stakeholders in order to
interventions. This can be done either before or improve recommendations for interventions.
after writing the report but a critical analysis of
objectives must be done in prior to discussing
the RMA results. The priority of the interventions
should also be clarified with related stakeholders.
Key questions:
•H as this intervention/solution been applied

before?
•W hat is the timeframe for the intervention?
•W hat level of resources are required?
• If it has been applied, what are the reasons for
its successes or failures?
• If it failed, what must be done to ensure
success?
For new interventions, the RMA group should
review their feasibility by using the Feasibility
Matrix shown in Table 11. This matrix will assist
in answering the following questions:
•W hat can each stakeholder contribute
(human or financial resources, etc.) to the
implementation of the intervention/solution?
•W hat is the potential benefit (short and long
term) of the intervention/solution for each
stakeholder?
•W hat does each stakeholder need to do to
ensure the long-term and sustainable benefit?
•W hat are the risks or difficulties of each
stakeholder when implementing the
intervention/solution?
Depending on the depth of the analysis, more

questions could be made. For example, there
might be additional questions related to costs for
each stakeholder.
78
Table 11. An example of the feasibility matrix
Problem: Limited market opportunities for seed potatoes

Recommended solution/intervention: Production and marketing of both seed and ware potatoes to growth high value markets,
using new varieties, irrigation and storage facilities.
Related potential Contribution Potential benefit What should be Possible risks or
stakeholders (short and long term) done to ensure the difficulties
participating in the sustainability of the
implementation of the intervention?
intervention
Farmer group Land, labor, Increase in productivity, Drought,
management quality and income mismanagement
Lack of discipline
Extension / NGO Provision of training in Increased skills and Work with more than Short term support
use of new technologies. ability to adapt to one extension agency
Cost share in testing existing and new
new methods challenges
Research Pilot testing of new Improved yields, better Introduction of new Lack of funds to
technologies disease resistance and varieties, methods and support process
ability for year round irrigation
production
Input supply merchant Improve access to Long term supply of Clear business planning Inability to supply
fertilizer, and agro- essential inputs to that includes input at competitive or
chemicals boost yields supply affordable price
Micro-finance agency Provision of loan Access to reliable and Building relationship Low repayment rates,
options to meet long lower cost finance than with MFI to develop better option for loans
production cycle moneylenders and promote new loan
options for farmers
Buyer Provision of agreement Steady income Constant focus on Quality criteria too
for year round improving production high, volumes not met,
procurement and sales performance alternative buyer
79
Step 7. Writing a RMA report
Learning objectives The structure, writing style and content of

the report will depend on its purpose and its
audience. A report aimed at providing the basic
able to develop an RMA report with appropriate
findings of the survey for farmers to upgrade their
structure and clear content that present correctly
production, handling and marketing activities
the findings of the survey.
is clearly different from a report targeting a
7.1 Timing processing company, a retail organization or a
donor.
Writing the RMA report
should begin towards the The report should be understandable to the
final stages of data analysis. target audience. For farmers or field-based staff,
At this stage, the RMA team the report should focus on a few of the most
should have developed a sound important issues, i.e., product, price, profit, target
understanding of the key issues. market and buyer. The presentation should be
clear with limited marketing jargon. The report
7.2 Responsibilities must emphasis the key points that the farmers
The Team Leader should be need to address with comparisons of products,
the main report author. S/ so that they can see why one product or market
he should be responsible for is recommended compared with another. In most
coordinating report writing cases this will compare the existing situation with
and editing the draft and final the proposed situation.
versions. The allocation of tasks
among different team members When preparing a market report for a broader
will depend on their specific skills and experience stakeholder’s group, or a potential lender, or
and their availability. All team members should investor, then more details should be added. For
provide comments to draft versions before these this second type of audience, a short written
are sent to other reviewers. In addition, some report could be circulated before the meeting and
members can be responsible for writing specific this report should have all the financial analysis.
sections or preparing some annexes of the report.
7.3 Purpose and audience
80
7.4 Structure The flip chart materials should have clear pictures
which help to explain the main points so that
Market reports generally have a structure as
illiterate farmers also get a better understanding
shown below:-
of the results.
• e xecutive summary,
• introduction
7.6 Report for a wider audience
• t arget clients for the study When presenting RMA findings to a wider
• m
ethodology audience such as a project management team,
• k
ey findings other NGO’s, or potential investors, the report
• s
pecific recommendations to the target clients should provide detailed information about the
• c
onclusions survey methodology and give clear evidence of
demand evaluations and financial details. The
The report should clearly identify how the results report should also highlight any innovations that
can be used by target clients in their planned the target user groups could take advantage of, to
agro-enterprise projects. In more formal written make them more competitive in the marketplace.
documents, the report should also contain
sections with references and annexes. An example 7.7 Content and Style of a written
of a possible report structure is shown in Annex report
6. The outline in Annex 6 is a reference, and The report should be written in a concise form
decisions about the most appropriate report and focus on the critical issues only. Data and
structure should be left to the study authors. information that does not contribute to an
understanding of the key issues should be left
7.5 Report for farmers out. Repetition should be kept to a minimum.
When working with farmer groups, the report
should be written so that it can be presented Quantitative data can be very useful in supporting
orally, with clear pictures and basic data. The and illustrating the analysis, but it should be
written report should be 2-3 pages long. The RMA presented in a condensed and digestible form
team also should prepare presentation materials through the use of tables, graphs, and charts.
on flip charts that highlight the main findings. Diagrams showing spatial product flows or
The report should focus on market opportunities representing the marketing chain, among others,
and major risks. The report needs to be simple also help readers to digest a significant amount
enough that farmers understand the main issues, of information. Some readers may want to access
See section 8.2, but not so simple that you miss more detailed data and background information,
the essential pieces of business information. and therefore these can be included in the
annexes.
Flip chart presentation information should focus
on highlights as indicated below:- The use of photos is not essential, but can
improve presentation. Photos help readers
•P
roducts, with details such specific variety, visualize markets, transactions, post-harvest
•M
arket, with details such market types and practices, processing technologies, means of
distance from production site transport, product appearance, equipment and so
•P
rices being offered at target market(s) on. They can be especially useful when the target
•C
osts of production audience is not very familiar with the studied
•P
rofit, what is the expected change in profit commodity and marketing system. Photos also
•P
roduction cycle, length of season make reading more pleasant and entertaining,
•K
ey risks which can be important in cases where the target
audience is not used to reading analytical reports.
81
Finally, in order to facilitate reading, it is

important that the authors of the report follow
a standardized style. For example, the same
font type and size, page margins, and table and
graph formats and numbering should be followed
throughout the different sections of the report. All
reports should have an contents page and where
required references.
7.8 Responses and Editing

It is important that a first draft of the report
be shared with a number of people who are
experienced in similar type of studies or
knowledgeable about the commodity and
marketing system. These first reviewers can
provide useful feedback and comments on the
quality of the analysis and presentation. Sharing
a draft of the report can sometimes lead to
significant improvements in the quality of the
presentation, especially the parts that are not
clear.
82
Step 8. From Analysis to Action
Learning objectives • isioning

V
• Exchange visits
• Market visits for deal making
exercises recommended, the reader should (i) have
• Identifying chain champions
a good understanding of the tools required, (ii) have
• Market agent “go between”
trained interested partners in the use of these tools.
• Learning journeys revisited
This chapter provides a review • Developing a business plan and associated
of methods and tools that can intervention plan
be used by marketing and • Piloting
intervention teams to apply the
information gained through
8.1 Visioning
an RMA to move from analysis Visioning is a method that can be used with
to action. The type of methods partners, local entrepreneurs and farmer groups
used in this step will depend on to assist them in working with the market data.
the actors of change that are The visioning process helps to lay the framework
being targeted and the scale of for a plan of action that takes into account the
planned intervention. The actors clients assets, skills and aspirations for change.
of change may be a number of Visioning typically starts with a facilitator and a
farmer groups, a combination target farmer group or investor group, who hold
of marketing actors in a a brainstorming session about the status of their
market chain, (farmer, traders, current situation for a selected product and how
processors and retailers) or they will change to achieve a better outcome. This
the manager of a processing process of outlining the current situation and
company. The basic tools the goal situation, applies to all activities related
include:- to pre-production, production, postharvest and
marketing. See Table 12.
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Table 12. Issues that need to be addressed in activity building to meet vision
Inputs supply Production Postharvest Marketing BDS

• Seed inputs • Area of land to be planted •H ow to harvest, when •H ow the group will •W hich services are the
• Irrigation •T ools to be used hoes, and by whom? market its produce most important
• Fertilizer animals or tractors • Storage options and • Transport, and delivery • Which services need to
• Pesticides •A gronomic practices (seed facilities schedules be strengthened
• Other inputs type, variety, planting • Sorting, grading, • Payment terms • Should services be paid
density, weeding methods) packing, and labeling • How the money shall be and, if so, how
•M onitoring of fields, shared in the group
particularly for higher • Investment plans for
value enterprises the group and savings
mechanisms
The group will first of all describe the current experience can be used as the basic elements of a
situation. When there is consensus in the group, business and intervention plan.
about where they are today, the next stage is to
develop an idea or a “vision” of how the group The results developed from a visioning process
would like to see their future business outlook generally include a list of activities that are
for the selected product. This activity allows the required for the group to meet their vision. These
group to “see” what they would like to achieve activities should be systematically divided into
over a specific time frame. Typically the facilitator short, medium, and long-term issues. Planning
of this type of exercise will tell the group to processes based on visioning then start by listing
select a time horizon of between 3 and 5 years, the set of activities that need to be changed to
depending on the type of product being evaluated, achieve success. For a farmer group, the changes
and provide a vision of how their business will required tend to fall into the following categories:
appear after that amount of time. input supply, production, post-harvest handling,
marketing, and business development services.
It is often the case that the aims of the group are These issues should focus on the identified
fairly ambitious over the longest time frame. The market opportunity and the level of detail,
role of the facilitator is then to take the group depending on purchasing conditions, that are
through a process of reducing the time horizon. given by the buyer.
As the timeframe is reduced, the group needs
to prioritize issues and activities that need to Note that the same can be done for livestock
be achieved within this period. The group also enterprises.
needs to identify who will be responsible for these
activities. Each reduction in time brings in a The facilitator can then lead the group through
greater degree of reality to the vision, until you get a final process of making decisions on what can
down to a 6-12 month plan. The ideas from this be achieved, using available assets, local skills
and resources and also what can be achieved
Table 13. Activity options to shift from today’s situation to a desired state
Today, where we Short term Medium term Long term activities Where we want
are activities activities to be
What can be 2 metric tons of • Organize producer • Start savings • Link to lending 10 metric tons of
achieved with bean production groups group agency bean production
existing resources? and sales • Access seed of • Buy a mobile • Build a seed store and sales
new varieties phone • Hire transport for
•P
repare • Build trust with distant markets
implementation target buyers
plan
What activities Limited business • Training in • Training in • Build grain store Capacity to do a
or interventions skills market analysis savings and loans • Build drying area market survey and
require external • Write business options prepare a business
resources? plan • Test irrigation plan
method
84
only with external support. This information can can return to traders who indicated they would be
be further refined by providing information on interested to access produce from local farmers.
service providers who have the skills to assist
with any given problem. See Table 13. 8.4 Learning Journeys revisited
In the previous survey the idea of a learning
8.2 Exchange visits journey was discussed as a means of collecting
In some cases, rather than focusing efforts on information along a market chain and also
re-creating a new situation, a more efficient offering diverse market actors with a space
and perhaps enjoyable approach is to take in which they could discuss their ideas and
a group that is seeking ways to upgrade its ambitions. This same technique can be adapted
activities to another that has already made to intervention planning and cross-fertilization of
investments and has improved their productivity ideas, but rather than focusing on one point in
and competitiveness. For farmers, this is often the market chain, as is done with an exchange
the quickest way of transferring ideas, because visit, the learning journey approach can be used
they can relate more easily to people from a for a target group to observe how interlinked
similar background, there are no language or changes can be applied throughout a market
power relation issues, and they can ask detailed chain in order to make it more efficient, secure
questions about how changes in production and and more profitable. This systemic marketing
marketing systems were made, what were the approach is particularly important for groups
pitfalls and what should the new group focus on intending to invest in high-value market products,
to achieve success. and for situations where an investor is seeking to
develop new opportunities for business services to
The process of “exchange visit” is, not limited only various market chain actors.
to farmer-to-farmer exchanges, similar events can
be applied to local technology usage. Exchange 8.5 Identifying Chain Champions
visits can also be organized to expose local As part of the investigative nature of the RMA
business entrepreneurs about new processing process, team members should actively try
or storage equipment. Similarly, quality issues to identify people who are enthusiastic about
may be the focus of an exchange visit in order upgrading their market chain. Ideally these
to show farmers and local traders, the quality people should be influential or having investment
requirements of higher value, formal markets, capacity within the market chain, such as a large
compared with the quality of existing products trader, or a processor, who can devote some time
in local informal markets. The key point with to working on critical constraint in the chain.
exchange visits is that “seeing is believing,” and Often these people are already working on their
this can be a powerful way to transfer ideas own to support improvements in the chain and
quickly about how to upgrade activities within a they may see the RMA team and subsequent
business and within a market chain. project investments as a vehicle to aid them in
their quest for improved market performance.
8.3 Market visits for deal making Given this situation, the team may then be able
In the previous chapter, we considered market to develop a marketing scenario which provides a
visits as a tool for gathering information. In this win-win situation that holds prospects for public
context, the market visit can be adapted to seek and private sector investment in makes market
and establish trading relations between farmers chains work better for both producers, processors
and traders. This type of visit should focus on and sellers.
meetings with traders interested in establishing
business deals and in this case, the producer 8.6 Market linkage agent
groups should clarify the conditions of the deal “go-betweens”
in terms of quality, quantity, regularity of supply, An effective method that many market linkage
terms of payment being offered and details on projects have adopted is to train a local
packaging, etc., as required. Often the farmers community agent in collecting information about
85
markets and specific market chains. This person a bank to provide a loan or an NGO to provide
may work for a local input supply merchant, be credit or inputs.
a local collector, or be a person in the community
who is seeking part time work in supporting new For the group members, i.e., the farmers to
initiatives. fully understand the process, we recommend
that a business plan is complemented with an
To be an effective “go between”, or liaison between implementation plan. The implementation plan will
buyers and sellers, this person will need to provide information about specific activities putting
regularly visit buyers to ensure that they are detail about the goals of the business plan will be
happy with the goods they are receiving. If any operationalized and realized.
changes are required, this information needs to be
relayed back to the producers and suppliers, for 8.7.1 Writing a business plan
example so that changes can be made to improve Most business plans follows a general outline as
quality and increase sales. Very many business shown below. The written document needs to tell
deals fall apart because suppliers do not follow a story as well as presenting the cold facts.
up with their customers and may not be aware
of poor quality issues with their products, or new i. T
itle, contents, contacts and any definitions
innovations from competitors. ii. E
xecutive summary
iii. Introduction
In addition to maintaining existing clients, the iv. Business Organization
market go-between should also be on the lookout for v. Product
new business deals, links to other service providers vi. Marketing strategy
such as input dealers, market information, finance • Product
options and any new opportunities to help upgrade • Price
the production of a quality product. The go between • Place
also needs to watch out for changes in the market, • Promotion
such as price changes, competitor tactics and shifts vii. Market risks
in consumer demands. viii. Business Operation Plan
ix. Production Costs
As with all activities in the market chain, the role of x. Income Streams
a marketing go-between can only operate over the xi. Profit and Loss Analysis
medium to long term if there are some incentives xii. Financial requirements
to perform this task and therefore it is important xiii. Conclusion
that the marketing go-between or market liaison
person be paid a basic fee for their services and a The business plan does not need to be too long,
“top up” commission based on sales, particularly for it can be 2-3 pages or 30 pages. As you can see
finding new market opportunities. As this may be a from the business plan outline, the types of
part time off-farm activity, the commission should information required, are very similar to that
be commensurate with trade, for example 5% of gathered by an RMA. Therefore is should not take
sales prices. Trust is critical for this type of role and long to adapt the results from an RMA report, to
farmer groups should always be in a position to prepare a large part of the business plan.
monitor the activities of this person.
The business plan should essentially contain
8.7 Developing a business plan and an sufficient detail for a reader, who may be
intervention plan unfamiliar with your area, to understand the
This requires that information from analytical basic idea and be able to evaluate the viability of
reports be transformed into a series of basic steps the business venture. Be sure to clearly state the
that will realize a profitable business venture. The project activities and expected outcomes of the
plan must be clear, logical and well targeted to enterprise; provide an easily understood outline of
convince an investor to support a project, whether the financial requirements, including your costs
and expected returns on the investment over at
86
least a 1 year period. The business plan should be analysis should also provide clear information about
clear and transparent – do not attempt to impress expected returns and also options for re-investment
or confuse the reader, as this will be considered into the business. The plans should highlight what
as a tactic to gloss over areas of concern. can be achieved with the existing funds from the
market actors which will include their savings; and
The time required to write a business plan what can only be achieved with external funds.
depends upon the scale of the planned agro-
enterprise. For basic sales of an existing primary The outline costs of the new enterprise should be
crop into a nearby market, the RMA will provide complemented with a cash flow analysis. There
almost all of the information required for this are many methods for doing this type of analysis.
exercise. The timeframe to write a business plan The costs to develop an enterprise can be written
may be 2-3 days, but that is only when you have up as a basic input and output sheet for one
already undertaken an RMA, which may take two season or as a financial plan over a number of
to three weeks, to collect the information required. years.
Business plans may be shared as soon as available
but, in any case, will be presented and discussed at Depending on the sophistication of the project,
the final session with all market chain actors. For a this financial analysis can be done by a team
more detailed example of the format for a business consisting of the market research group
plan, see Annex 7. and the investors or with the help of a local
accountant. Some financial tools are now
8.7.2 Financial analysis available on Microsoft Excel, which has specially
One of the more challenging aspects of the RMA formulated macros and tutorials to explain how
is the financial analysis for the enterprise and the to undertaken this type of analysis. For more
investments required to enable target communities details about how to write out the financial
to enter into a new enterprise venture. The matrix analysis, see Seven Steps of marketing, http://
in Table 14 provides a starting point for planning www.crsprogramquality.org/publications/tag/
financial requirements. The financial plan should agriculture-manualsuser-guides
work out the costs for an individual farmer to
upgrade their activities to meet the requirements
8.7.3 Implementation plan
of the new business venture. These costs can then In addition to preparing a business plan,
be transferred to the group of people involved at the the team should work with the farmer group
production end of the process. There will be other members to develop an implementation plan.
costs associated with training, links to traders, The implementation plan details all of the
processing upgrades, meetings etc… activities that need to undertaken by the farmers,
throughout the planning, production and sales
The financial analysis should include costs for cycle. Developing the implementation plan,
each activity. The team should use basic financial should involve all the farmer group members, and
analysis such as the gross margin mentioned in may require additional meetings with traders.
section 5.4, to assess farm costs. The financial Attention to detail is important and the results
Table 14. Financial requirements and sequencing
Intervention financing Time frame

Short-term activities Medium-term activities Long-term activities
Local resources •S
ufficient funds to buy local • Buy improved seed •U
pgrading traditional
seed farmers can afford $20 • Buy fertilizer irrigation channels
investments per acre
Local savings • None •S
et up savings and loan
clubs
Partner resources •A
ccess training in good
agricultural practices
External resources • Require loans to buy fertilizer
87
of this meeting may have important implications for the operational and financial plans. Each activity
should be linked to a cost and date when the activity should be completed.
Table 15. Planning matrix to identify key opportunities and challenges
Pre-production All activities and finances required to obtain inputs such as

market information, seeds, equipment purchase, irrigation,
chemical purchase, fertilizer, land and soil preparation, bags,
packaging, storage, factory site, utilities supply, etc., that are
required prior to setting up the intervention and production of
an identified product.
Production All activities and finances required to transform inputs into the
primary marketing product that will be sold to the client.
Post harvest All activities and finances required to supply product to the
client (customer) after harvesting or manufacture has taken
place. This includes, handling, packaging, storage, finances
related to storage, distribution, sales points
Marketing All activities and finances required to ensure that product
reaches identified clients, at the right time, place, price
and quality. Also, to ensure that promotional activities are
undertaken and that marketing strategy is followed within
budget
Intervention organization All management activities required to meet targets at each
stage of the intervention plan, from pre-production, production,
post-harvest and marketing. This element includes financial
targets and making sure that goods, services, information and
income proceed as planned and that intervention relationships
at all stages are being managed effectively. This aspect also
relates to monitoring intervention efficiency and identifying new
intervention opportunities as they arise.
The specific activities can be broken down into matrices to indicate roles and responsibilities in the major
intervention areas as shown in Tables 16 and 17.
Table 16. Planning matrix to identify key opportunities and challenges
Farmer group Trader/ Entrepreneur Government Retailer/ Processing

extension/NGO factory
Pre-production Old varieties lost Mrs. Rose is interested Farmers need access to
market share. in buying new new varieties.
New variety needed persimmon in bulk.
arrangement of savings Supply of inputs.
scheme.
Production New varieties needed.
Postharvest Storage facilities Bulk sales of 5 metric Linking farmer groups
tons. with contract buyer.
Need access to milling
machine.
Marketing Target local market. Sell to Mr. Rampresh in Experiment for next Contract with farmer
Collective action. first season. season. group for 50 tons of
produce to sell to Mr.
Kaijuka.
Business organization How will farmers be Prices agreed, payment What are the cost Contracts in place.
paid? structures. benefits? Is this work
Bank accounts in place. focused on direct
needs?
This process can also be applied to research opportunities if there are no readily available innovations
to meet the critical points. At all times, the service providers should consider BDS, contractual
arrangements and organizational needs within the selected market chains.
88
Table 17. Actions to be taken at specific points in the market chain.
What Who When Completed

Pre-production
Ensure seed potatoes are NFG management Jan
available for planting
Assign record keepers for costs NFG management Jan
Ensure seed supplies are FG management NARO 2 May
ready in the field for farmers
Prepare fields for planting FG management, NGO 5 May and ongoing
Production
Stagger planting schedule NFG members, NGO 10 Jul
within farmer group
Adjust planting spacing NFG members, Africare, NARO 10 Jul
practices to produce larger
potatoes
Train group members on NFG members, Africare, NARO 15 Sep–Nov
ware potato management
techniques
Link to research on seed of NFG management, NARO 12 Sep and ongoing
identified varieties for Nando’s
Multiply desired varieties NFG members 10 Oct
Identify and implement micro- NFG management, Africare 2 Dec and ongoing
irrigation on uplands
Post-harvest
Purchase weighing scale NFG management 3 Jul
Rent warehouse for storage NFG management 25 Jul
Train group members on NFG members, Africare 20 Jul and ongoing
sorting, grading, and packing
Marketing
Arrange transport and delivery John
first consignment to buyer
Review quality feedback from FG John, NGO Paul
buyers
Supply off-size products and John and Sydney
rejects to secondary markets
For the intervention planning process, the are dynamic, and the pilot process provides an
team preparing the report should consider the opportunity to test ideas on a small-scale.
following steps as an outline in the preparation of
information, Table 15. Changing conditions or technology performance
may require that the business plan needs to
If the process aims to link farmers to markets, the be adapted during the intervention phase. It is
planning process will include the following major particularly important that the people involved in
areas of intervention: the enterprise and the facilitators follow the market
closely so that producers maximize their gains.
8.8 Piloting and follow up Progress should be closely monitored by both the
Having developed an intervention plan and obtained investors and the intervention teams so that both
financial resources for implementation, the next parties can evaluate whether the new approach in
stage is often to move to a pilot test. During the fact yields the desired increase in market access
pilot stage, it is common to find that some of and income.
the assumptions made in the plan have slightly
different outcomes than expected. This is because A summary list of methods and tools used for
conditions change in the real world, markets analysis to action is provided in Table 18.
89
Table 18. Methods for Moving from Analysis to Action
Analytical Methods Why used

Visioning Process of community recognizing where they are now and
where they would like to be in 5 years, 3 years and 1 year.
Use this process to build a common plan of action, based on
aspirations
Exchange visits This method is used for one group of market chain actors to
observe how others have upgraded elements of their business.
Market visits for deal making This method provides an opportunity for farmers to visit
new markets and negotiate with traders for new business
opportunities
Learning Journeys revisited This method enables several market chain actors to work
together on upgrading their activities within a chain but
observing how more efficient chain actors have developed their
business relations and integrated new innovations in a more
systemic chain approach.
Identifying Chain champions Basic tool that all RMA researchers should use in their work
to identify people who are both influential and interested in
upgrading chain activities.
Market linkage agents Chain actors, often farmers or agents living in rural areas
that take on a new task of strengthening longer term linkages
between producers and buyers. Nascent BDS working on a
sales commission basis.
Developing an intervention plan Planning process that enables market researchers to work with
chain participants to integrate RMA findings into an investment
/ intervention plan
Piloting Option for small-scale testing of a new business opportunity,
prior to scaling up, provides a chance to test ideas in the real
world with limited investment and enable investors to fine tune
ideas before going commercial.
90
Step 9. Sharing results with farmers and stakeholders
Learning objectives plan. This presentation will lead to discussions

and initial reactions. The aim of this process
After this chapter, the participants are able to:
is to socialize ideas and work towards greater
(i) organize and facilitate a workshop to discuss
consensus about the recommendations. The
possible interventions, (ii) facilitate related
findings of the survey need to provide results that
stakeholders to develop the action plan for
can be easily understood by the main clients, and
the implementation of the interventions in the
the presentation allows the team to assess if the
participatory manner, (iii) use a series of methods
information meets their needs.
to move from analysis to action.
If you are presenting the findings to an NGO

The process of moving from analysis to action
supervisor committee, a local council committee
involves two main steps,
or another type financial investor, it is often best
(i) s
haring information with the clients including to share the report as a draft before the meeting.
farmer group members, and with interested This will allow people to digest the information
stakeholders and before the meeting. If there is a formal
(ii) u
sing the results from the RMA with specific presentation meeting, the results can be shared
groups as a means to progress the findings at a stakeholders’ workshop so that a broader
into investments and on the ground activities. view and reaction can be gained about the results
found and the recommended actions.
The first step is to socialize the information
gained through the RMA. This enables the RMA 9.1 Presentation of results to farmers
team to present the survey results to the clients. Having completed the report, the RMA team
In many cases this will be a target set of farmer should organize a meeting of the farmers, and
group(s), and other stakeholders in the marketing present the main findings. This presentation
should highlight the most critical points about
91
market opportunities and any major risks. The 9.2 Facilitating a general stakeholders’
presenter should make sure farmers understand meeting
the main points and spend time on questions and
In some cases, the findings of the more detailed
answers.
market survey report may be presented to a
broader audience, such as a cooperative, or at a
The presentation of results should be supported
general stakeholders’ workshop. These meetings
by basic information written up with pictures on
may also include representatives from NGOs,
a flip chart paper, as shown in Figure 20. The
agricultural project staff, donors, government
type of information that farmers will want to know
agencies from research and trade, and private
include things like,
sector representatives from farmer associations,
traders, retailers and processors. Essentially all
•P roducts, with details such specific variety,
the market chain actors and service providers
•M arket, with details such market types and
who have shown interest in being involved.
distance from production site
• Prices being offered at target market(s)
The purpose of this meeting is to:
• Costs of production
• Profit, what is the level of profit
•S hare more detailed information – to encourage
• Production cycle, length of season
broad usage of the results and involve more
• Key risks
people in potential intervention planning
• Build support from outside – people who were
The written information should be complemented
not involved in the RMA get to know, and
with pictures so that illiterate farmers get a better
discuss openly about the findings as well as
understanding of the results.
recommended solutions
• Gain consensus – use the meeting to gain
wider agreement on key recommendations and
prioritized interventions
Figure 20. Presentation of RMA findings to farmers
92
•G
uide priority interventions – work with Participants who have shown an interest in being
members of this group to guide next steps in involved in more detailed intervention planning
initiating new partnerships and developing should be provided with details for subsequent
action plans intervention meetings.
Preparation Posting: Where possible, the report should also

The following things should be done: be made available on a website so that others can
use the results in their market planning.
Timing and objectives: The best time to organize
the general stakeholders meeting is 1-2 weeks 9.3 Facilitating investor meetings
after completing the RMA survey, i.e., when the In addition to sharing information with farmers
results are still fresh in the minds of people. It and project participants, another set of meetings
is important to select an appropriate day and can be organized that focus on attracting
time during the week so that most of people additional investments. These presentations will
can participate. The invitation should be sent not only present the basic market information,
several days or one week before the workshop. but spend more time to outline possible financial
If the bias of the meeting is towards the private scenarios and investment recommendations
sector, early meetings are often preferred, e.g. from the RMA. If the team has developed more
invite participants for a breakfast meeting or than one business option or scenario, separate
lunch meeting. If the focus of the meeting is meetings may be required to discuss these
more towards public sector, then a mid-morning options with relevant target groups.
meeting may be better attended.
As with the stakeholders’ meeting, the workshop
The duration of the workshop should not be more should begin with the RMA team making a
than 1-2 hours. Aim for a 20 min presentation presentation of the RMA results. However, in
followed by 20-30 minutes of questions and this case, only the most relevant details from the
answers. In some cases, you may want detailed survey should be presented to this more select
feedback from the group in which case allow group of market chain actors that have shown
sufficient time for a presentation followed by a interest in being involved in developing specific
short break, an hour for group work and then a intervention plans.
final hour for presenting results and ideas back
to the plenary session. In some cases, group work The objectives of the intervention workshop are:
may not be desirable and then the meeting will be
confined to a presentation followed by a question •T o share information – focusing on the
and answer session. information most relevant to the proposed area
of intervention.
Content preparation: Select and present key • To discuss and prioritize interventions and to
results by an appropriate means (flipchart or develop an intervention plan of action.
PowerPoint). Use appropriate illustrations when
presenting the results. Emphasis should be given Time and solution: The intervention meetings
to the key constraints and possible interventions should be held after the general stakeholders
from the survey. meeting, taking into consideration the same
issues as with the general stakeholders meeting
Follow up: Suggestions from this meeting (appropriate day and time, advance notice, etc.)
should be captured by the RMA team and used
in revising the draft report. Once completed, The duration of the workshop should be based
the report should then be circulated to key on the product and scale of intervention. In
stakeholders, making sure to include all those some cases the timeframe required will depend
who attended the presentation workshop. upon the number of planned interventions that
need to be discussed. It is recommended that
the meeting should not be shorter than half a
93
Figure 21. Presentation of the RMA findings to investors, policy makers and project managers
day and no longer than two days. In some cases, Organizing the workshop and prioritizing
the workshop can be divided into two sections interventions
and organized over a two-week period with the
first workshop focusing on sharing information, Example for meeting program
and the second on decision making. In this (1) Introduction: The chairman should provide
way, participants have more time to “digest” the opening talk, explaining the workshop
information and to consult with their colleagues objectives and program.
or leaders regarding possible commitments.
(2) P
articipants’ introduction: Each member
Content preparation: Select and present key should introduce him/herself and explain his/
results by an appropriate means (flipchart or her expectation from the workshop.
PowerPoint). Use simple but clear illustrations
when presenting specific results. Emphasis (3) P
resentation: The RMA team should
should be given to the key constraints and present the key findings and problems or
possible interventions from the survey. constraints in the marketing system, with
clear illustrations of findings with results from
Chairing and facilitating the workshop: The the survey. This presentation can be enhanced
chairmanship of the workshop should be given by using simple visual tools such graphs, and
to a representative of the communities or local tables. If a PowerPoint projector is available,
authorities to explain the objectives and program. the team should make full use of pictures to
The RMA team should present the findings, convey findings from the survey, indicating
with support from partner field agents or project good and bad practices.
facilitators.
94
It is important to give time for the participants • hat needs to be achieved?
W
to contribute information and comments to • What needs to be done in order to achieve it?
support and enrich the findings by the RMA • How long will it take?
team. This type of interaction helps to gain • When will it finish?
buy-in from the meeting participants and • W
hat resources are required in terms of
involves them in the learning process. In many finance, human resources, and materials?
cases, the experience of this group can provide • Where will these resources come from?
new insight and information that may have • Who will take the main responsibility?
been missed in the rapid survey. • Who will implement each specific activity?
• Where will the activity be implemented?
(4) P
rioritizing recommended interventions: • Who will monitor progress?
The RMA team should present clear
recommendations for interventions and a During this stage, it is important to identify
basic feasibility analysis for solutions to and gain agreement on which institutions or
the participants to get their comments and individuals should take the main responsibility
contributions. for leadership and management in the
intervention stage. This will help to avoid any
Use methods such as the scoring matrix potential conflicts that may emerge in the
shown in Table 4 to identify and prioritize implementation phase.
interventions and actions.
It is advisable to establish or formalize
(5) G
roup discussion: Time should be allocated new or existing community groups and/or
for group work so that participants can organizations to implement any plans that are
discuss ideas and integrate their views into an agreed. These organizations play important
action plan. role in implementation of solutions and
actions later on.
The RMA team can also use methods such as
the “problem tree” to define key constraints (7) Monitoring. A checklist is required to monitor
and then use the “solution tree” to provide progress and quality of outputs. This should
intervention steps to address identified be a process that includes monitoring by
constraints or take advantage of a new market both investors and an oversight team. The
opportunity. Time should be given to enable monitoring should however, be commercially
ideas to be discussed fully by participants. orientated, with emphasis place on sales,
income and innovation.
During each phase of the planning process,
care should be taken to record all the answers To support the planning process, the facilitator
and key points made by the workshop should use the tools and methods outlined in
participants. the previous chapter.
When all participants have agreed upon

a course of action, it may be useful to
draft a memorandum of collaboration that
summarizes the key points discussed.
(6) D
ecision making: The next step in the
planning workshop is to make decisions about
specific activities and responsibilities, i.e.,
who does what, where, when and by whom?
The following questions need to be addressed
(See also previous chapter for more detailed
planning matrix.)
95
(8) M
eeting outputs: The planning and
investment meetings should end with a draft
of commitments and conclusions. Members
from the group should present the basic
outline of the plan to the full group. The aim of
these presentations is to help all participants
to understand the main conclusions,
relationships and activities that will take place.
(9) C
losing the workshop: The meeting should
ideally end with brief final comments and an
agreement to take the plan forward.
(10) F
ollow up: The project teams will
require additional meetings to finalize
implementation plans and to make any
financial agreements. Once this is done, the
groups should invest and put into practice
the ideas developed from the RMA.
96
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Agriculture: Making markets work for the Developing Partnerships, Resource
poor Theme 1: Building linkages and Assessment and Planning Together. 2007.
enhancing trust between small-scale Centro Internacional de Agricultura
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Making markets work for the poor. Analysis for Smallholder Producers; 130pp
in prep In print CIAT publication in print.
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Systems” Abt Associates, Maryland, USA.
97
Annex 1
Criteria for
Product Selection
Criteria Rationale Examples
1. Agro-climatic conditions A region or country can only develop low-cost River deltas areas have suitable conditions for rice
and good quality production of an agricultural and fish production.
commodity, and therefore compete in the Many upland areas are appropriate for the
market place, if natural conditions (rainfall production of tree crops and non-timber forest
patterns, underground water, soil quality, products. In many of these areas, the availability
temperature levels and distribution throughout of grass may enable the development of livestock.
the year) are suited to the production of that
commodity.
2. Market Size Large markets have greater capacity to absorb Local markets in rural areas are generally small.
additional supplies than small markets. It Urban markets and export markets have much
is critical to avoid a situation where farmers greater absorption capacity.
are supported to produce and sell a certain
The market for most traditional export
commodity, but end up facing low and
commodities is saturated. For example, there is
declining prices because the market is too
excessive supply and very intense competition in
small and therefore unable to absorb new
the world market for coffee, tea, and cotton.
supplies.
However, market size alone is not sufficient to
ensure absorption capacity. Some markets may
be large in size but already oversupplied.
3. Market growth Growing markets have much greater potential Global demand for staples (e.g. rice) and
for absorbing additional supplies and traditional export commodities (e.g. cotton, coffee
generating remunerative opportunities than and tea) is relatively stagnant.
stagnant markets. Products sold in medium
Export markets for organic and “ethical” products,
to high growth markets therefore merit special
fresh vegetables and fruits, flowers, cashew,
consideration.
spices, essential oils, and aromatic and medicinal
A product for which demand is expanding at an plants are expanding rapidly.
annual rate of 5 percent or more can be listed
Domestic markets for milk, fish, meat, fruit and
in the high-growth category. Products enjoying
vegetables also enjoy high growth rates.
a growth rate of 3 to 5 percent per annum
belong to an intermediate category, while those
for which demand is growing by less than 3
percent belong to the low-growth category.
4. Potential for targeting Products sold in high-value markets should be Examples of high-value markets include organic
high-value market considered for possible selection. Even when and ethical trade products, medicinal herbs,
opportunities the overall demand for the product is stagnant, spices, and exotic fruits and vegetables.
there may be remunerative and growing
opportunities in certain market segments, such
as the organic and ethical trade niches.
However, some high-value markets may be
small and have very high entry barriers,
including the need to grow the right varieties,
meet stringent quality specifications and
standards, certify the product, and trace its
origin and source down the market chain.
5. Potential for import- Some products may enjoy good market Off-season opportunities are more obvious in the
substitution or off-season prospects, even when overall demand case of seasonal and perishable produce, provided
marketing is stagnant. For example, there may be the required production technologies (e.g. seed)
opportunities for substituting imports with are available.
locally grown produce. Likewise, there may
be remunerative opportunities for off-season
production and marketing.
98
Criteria Rationale Examples
6. Current importance to Products that play an important role in the Fish and seafood products play a critical role in
rural livelihoods livelihoods of the rural population merit special the livelihoods of coastal areas.
consideration. Improvements in the production
Rice is of critical importance to the population of
and marketing of these commodities can
Vietnam as a whole, including both producers and
generate significant employment and income
consumers.
benefits.
Perishable products enjoying strong demand in
urban areas (such as meat, milk, and vegetables)
are often very important to the economy of peri-
urban areas.
NTFPs, cattle, poultry, tree crops, cassava, and
maize (amongst many other products) can be very
important to the livelihoods of farming households
in upland areas.
7. Potential for involving Generally, the stronger the participation of Examples of agricultural commodities where there
the poor the poor in the production and marketing of a is wide participation of the poor include rice,
commodity, the greater its poverty reduction cassava, maize, groundnuts, poultry, handicrafts,
potential. and NTFPs.
The poor are more likely to be involved in
the production and marketing of agricultural
commodities that have relatively limited
investment and input needs, require traditional
skills, can be produced on marginal land, are
important for household consumption, and/or
have low production and marketing risks.
It is important to note, however, that some
agricultural commodities that are not grown by
poor farming households can still contribute
significantly to poverty reduction through wage
employment generation.
8. Potential for involving The potential for involving women in Women are often more involved in the production
women production and marketing can be an important and marketing of food crops than cash crops.
criterion for product selection, especially when Their role in cash cropping will depend very much
the agencies involved in the RMA have clear on the local cultural and socio-economic context.
gender equity concerns.
The current and potential future importance
of certain products to the livelihoods of women
will depend on the traditional division of labor
within the household and local economy.
9. Potential for Agro-climatic conditions, availability of labor
diversification and skills, access to inputs, and links to
potential markets could enable adoption
of new products with potential to generate
employment and income and contribute to
poverty reduction.
However, diversification into new commodities
is generally riskier and more challenging
than the development of existing production,
especially as far as the poor are concerned.
10. Potential for value In some cases, an agricultural commodity Milk production, cassava starch or coffee
addition is produced locally but processed in other processing, and the development of local honey
regions. There could be potential for income brands are all examples of activities that add
generation and poverty reduction through the value to local production.
development of local processing.
11. Potential contribution Sustainability and environmental conservation Live barriers of forage grasses may be
to the conservation of issues should also be taken into consideration. economically feasible due to strong demand for
natural resources Products directly or indirectly related to livestock and animal products.
conservation may have good market potential
and economic feasibility.
99
Annex 2
List of Possible Issues for

Investigation in an RMA
Areas for Issues Reasons for investigating
investigation
1.Commodity a. Grades and end uses i. C
ommodity characteristics influence the performance
characteristics b. Degree of bulkiness, perishability of the whole marketing system, including the type
c. Handling and storage requirements of marketing functions performed, how they are
d. Degree/type of processing performed, and the relative cost at which they are
e. Type and magnitude of post-harvest losses performed.
f. Packaging methods and materials ii. T
he nature of the production process influences the
timing and magnitude of producer sales and marketed
flows.
iii. P
ost-harvest losses are high in many countries.
Identification of the causes and means of reducing
these losses can expand food availability and improve
the incomes of all participants in the marketing
chain.
2. Consumption a. S
easonal and long-term trends in domestic and i. D
emand drives (or pulls) production, processing and
patterns export markets. marketing.
b. C
onsumption patterns for different socio-economic ii. T
he strength and seasonality of demand affect
and ethnic groups. production and storage incentives, as well as the
c. Future market prospects. direction and size of product flows.
iii. L
ong-term consumption trends and opportunities
affect investment decisions by all participants in the
marketing system.
3. Supply a. P
roduction by year and by region for recent years, i. P
roduction levels and variability affect prices and risk
situation noting trends and variability. levels.
b. F
lows from major supply areas to major markets, ii. S
hifts in supply over time may indicate response
including exports and imports. to policies, technological change, the institutional
environment, and so on.
4. Prices a. L
ong-term trends in real prices at the farm-gate, i. P
rices provide a measure of incentives (profitability)
wholesale and retail levels. facing participants in the marketing system.
b. Long-term trends in real export prices. ii. C
hanging input and output prices may indicate shifts
c. Seasonal and cyclical trends in prices. in production and marketing incentives.
d. C
hanges over time in input and output prices. iii. T
he domestic pricing structure relative to
international prices provides insight into regional and
national comparative advantage.
5. Organization a. Marketing channels and stages. i. T
he structure of the marketing system influences
of marketing b. Important assembly, wholesale and retail markets. the conduct of participants, which in turn affects
systems c. Types, numbers, and geographical distribution of performance.
firms at key stages in the marketing system. ii. A
nalysts need to examine the benefits and costs of
d. E xistence and importance of alternative alternative institutional arrangements.
institutional arrangements, such as contracts,
vertical integration, direct marketing, cooperatives
or associations, and open market sales.
6. Operation a. P ractices and strategies of market participants i. T
he behavior of market participants affects the
of marketing regarding input purchases, and product sales, performance of the marketing system.
systems processing and storage. ii. A
ccess to information affects the ability of differet
b. V ertical coordination mechanisms: sale market participants to respond to changing market
arrangements, risk sharing, information conditions.
dissemination. iii. B
etter vertical coordination can improve the matching
c. Sources, uses and distribution of production and of supply and demand and reduce risk.
marketing information.
d. R esponsiveness of market participants to shifting
supply and demand and policy changes.
e. Evidence of monopolistic or oligopolistic situations.
100
Areas for Issues Reasons for investigating
investigation
7. Marketing a. T
ransport infrastructure (roads, ports, airports, i. In many countries, infrastructural constraints
infrastructure waterways, railway). constitute severe bottlenecks to marketing.
b. Market places. ii. E xcess, underutilized capacity suggests uneconomic
c. Storage and processing facilities. investments and deficient allocation of resources.
d. Communications.
e. Electricity.
f. Water supply.
g. Infrastructure adequacy and bottlenecks (evidence
of excess or unutilized capacity).
8. Government, a. R egulations: rules, input and product regulations, i. T
he regulatory environment affects the incentives
marketing laws affecting marketing and trading, property facing market participants and their behavior.
institutions and rights. ii. P
ublic marketing institutions influence the
policies b. Public marketing institutions. organization, operation and performance of marketing
c. Macroeconomic policies: price policies, exchange systems.
rate policies, labor policies, fiscal and monetary iii. M
acroeconomic policies condition and shape the
policies. envirnment in which market participants make
d. Banking and credit policies. production and marketing decisions.
iv. B anking and credit policies determine who has access
to formal credit.
9. International a. Commodity exports and world market situation. i. International trade affects production and marketing
trade and b. Imports of the commodity or substitutes, and their incentives and opportunities, consumption patterns
commodity impact on production, markets and prices. and preferences, and the behavior of market
competitiveness c. Trends in exports and imports. participants.
d. Likely changes in exports and imports, and ii. International market conditions influence a country’s
emerging market opportunities or dependencies. comparative advantage in production and export of
e. Competitiveness of exports in particular foreign agricultural commodities.
markets.
101
Annex 3
Advantages and Disadvantages of

Different Key Informants
Key informant Advantages Disadvantages
1. Farmers a. K
nowledge of input sources, production practices, i. S
ubsistence-oriented farmers may have limited
production technologies, prices and marketed knowledge of marketing opportunities.
surplus in their own area.
b. K
nowledge of production and marketing
constraints faced by producers in a given area.
2. Collectors a. D
etailed knowledge of exchange arrangements with i. K
nowledge rarely extends beyond relatively small
producers and wholesalers. geographical areas.
b. K
nowledge of marketing opportunities, production,
stocks, and prices in particular areas.
3. Wholesalers a. Broad perspective of marketing systems. i. E
xtremely busy and often difficult to interview for more
b. K
nowledge of production, stocks, product flows, than a short period.
prices, and demand in different rural and urban ii. M
ay be uncooperative informants for fear that the
areas. information provided may be disclosed to government
c. Good understanding of marketing constraints. officials or competitors.
4. Institutional a. O
ften major buyers of high-value commodities, i. A
s buyers of final products, they may have limited
buyers such as fruit, vegetables, and livestock products. knowledge of the upstream marketing system.
(supermarket b. M
ay have negotiated contractual arrangements ii. O
ften constitute a small proportion of final demand
chains, schools, with large wholesalers, processors or importers. for staple commodities.
hospitals,
military)
5. Retailers a. H
ave better knowledge of consumer wants and i. In many countries small retailers are relatively
needs than most other market participants homogeneous, conservative and lack a perspective of
b. K
nowledge of wholesaler-retailer exchange the whole marketing system.
arrangements.
6. Importers/ a. K nowledge of magnitude, timing and prices of i. M

ay know little about how commodities are
exporters imports and exports. assembled for export, or how they are distributed after
b. D etailed understanding of import and export importation.
practices, procedures and regulations. ii.May be unwilling to report export/import volumes and
c. Some knowledge of wholesale and retail prices if involved in smuggling and under- or over-
distribution systems. invoicing.
d. G ood understanding of the potential and iii. M ay be unwilling to share business practices if
constraints for success in export markets. informal payments were made to obtain export or
import rights.
7. Managers a. Have a broad perspective of marketing systems. i. M

ay be uncooperative respondents due to fear that the
of processing b. K nowledge of production and prices in selected information provided might be disclosed to government
firms rural areas, and demand for processed products in officials or competitors.
urban markets. ii. W
ill often under-report production in order to evade
c. D
etailed knowledge of marketing arrangements taxation.
and risk-sharing mechanisms with producers,
producer groups, and buyers of processed
commodities.
8. Transporters a. K
nowledge of direction and magnitude of product i. D
o not actually participate in trade, so may lack
flows. knowledge of trading practices and commodity prices.
b. F
amiliar with the structure of commodity trade.
Can often identify large-volume traders and
processors.
c. C
an provide transport cost data, which are often a
significant proportion of total marketing costs.
102
Key informant Advantages Disadvantages
9. Input a. Knowledge of input demand in different regions. i. S
uppliers who adulterate inputs (e.g. fertilizer) may be
producers and b. K nowledge of input supply, flows and prices at the uncooperative informants.
suppliers wholesale and retail level. ii. L
ack knowledge about marketing systems for
agricultural commodities.
10. Extension a. A
re familiar with farmers’ production and i. L
imited knowledge of marketing systems beyond the
officers marketing practices and strategies. local area.
ii. M
ay be a biased source of information regarding
b. M
ay have good information about marketing
production practices and technology utilization.
arrangements between producers and input
iii. M
ay have limited knowledge due to poor pay
suppliers, and between producers and buyers.
conditions and low mobility within their area of
c. D
etailed knowledge of local farms, including size, operation.
distribution, production technologies adopted,
food security situation, and range of marketed
products.
d. M
ay have good understanding of the production
and marketing constraints affecting farmers in the
local area.
11. Government a. G
ood knowledge of the policy and regulatory i. O
ften lack detailed knowledge of agricultural
officers framework. commodity sub-sectors.
b. C
an provide an understanding of government ii. M
ay hold pre-conceived ideas of the constraints
strategies and priorities for the development of affecting the sub-sector and the solutions required to
specific commodity sub-sectors. address them.
c. M
ay have an historical perspective of the
commodity sub-sector.
12. Bank Have detailed knowledge of the factors constraining i. M

ay not have much contact with, and understanding
officers access to formal credit by different market of, most participants in the market chain.
participants.
13. Academics a. K
nowledge of literature and secondary data May have a narrow perspective and biased perceptions
and Researchers sources, and their reliability. linked to their discipline.
b. M
ay have a good understanding of marketing
May lack detailed knowledge of the business objectives,
systems and conceptual issues.
practices, and problems of participants at different
stages of the marketing system.
103
Annex 4
Examples of Question Checklists for

Different Actors and Service Providers
Input Traders
1. Background a. Location
information b. Y ears in operation
c. T
ype of inputs and other products traded
2. Procurement a. V
olumes traded per type of input (month, year)
and sale of inputs b. S
easonality in input sales
c. S
uppliers of inputs and their location
d. B
uyers of inputs and their location
e. C
urrent wholesale and retail prices for different inputs
3. Trends a. T
rends in input sales (say over the past 3 years) and reasons behind these trends
b. P
erception of future input demand trends (say over the next 3 years) and key driving factors
c. T
rends in input prices (say over the past 3 years) and reasons behind these trends
d. P
erception of future price trends (say over the next 3 years) and key factors that are likely to drive these
trends
4. Transactions a. B
uying arrangements/conditions: e.g. sales on credit, prompt cash payment, etc
b. S
elling arrangements/conditions: e.g. sales on credit, prompt cash payment, payment in kind, etc
5. Policies and a. K
ey policies and regulations, and their influence on the development of input trading
regulations
6. Constraints a. K
ey constraints to the development of the input trading business
and opportunities b. S
olutions to these problems
c. K
ey opportunities to develop the wholesale business
d. F
actors that could enable this development
e. R
ecommendations for improving access to inputs by farmers
104
Farmers
1. Production a. T
otal cultivated areas across different farming household types
b. Cultivated areas for the commodity studied per type of farming household
c. Production technologies and practices (e.g. input use) across different types of farming household
d. Typical production volumes across different types of farming household
e. Seasonality in production
f. Gender division of labor in production
2. Post-harvest a. Post-harvest practices and technologies at farm level (drying, cleaning, sorting, storage, etc)
and marketing b. Share of production typically sold in the market across different types of farming household
c. Seasonality in marketing and underlying reasons
d. B
uyers (neighbors, collectors, assembly traders, wholesalers, processors, retailers, etc) and their relative
importance
e. Places of sale (farm-gate, village market, commune market, district market) and their relative importance
f. Advantages and disadvantages of different markets and buyers
g. Gender division of labor in post-harvest and marketing activities
3. Production and a. Production trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
demand trends b. Demand trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
c. Major changes in demand (e.g. with regards to variety, quality, etc)
d. Expectations regarding future production and demand trends (say over the next 3 years
4. Prices a. Current selling prices at different locations (farm-gate, village markets, etc)
b. Influence of produce quality (variety, moisture content, cleanliness, grades, etc) on prices
c. Degree of price volatility within seasons
d. Degree of price variations across seasons
e. Price trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind price trends
f. Perception of future price trends (say over the next 3 years) and key driving factors
5. Transactions a. Selling arrangements (cash or barter basis, prompt or delayed payment, etc)
b. Bargaining position vis-à-vis buyers
c. Horizontal coordination/cooperation between producers (individual versus group sales)
d. Buyer requirements (product quality, regularity of supply, volumes, place of delivery, etc)
e. E
mbedded service provision by buyers (market information, credit, inputs, technical assistance, contracts,
etc)
6. Access to a. Input supply (sources, quality and affordability of inputs, problems, etc)
services b. Market information (sources, reliability, problems, etc)
c. Technical advice on production, post-harvest and marketing (sources, reliability, problems, etc)
d. Processing (availability, problems, etc)
e. Storage (availability, cost, problems, etc)
f. Transport (availability, cost, problems, etc)
g. Finance (sources, cost, problems, etc)
h. Other services
7. Policies and a. P
erception of key policies and regulations, and their impact on production and marketing of the commodity
regulations under study.
8. Constraints a. Key constraints to production of the commodity under study.
and opportunities b. Key constraints to marketing of the commodity under study.
c. Key opportunities in the production and marketing of the commodity under study.
d. Proposed solutions to address constraints and enable access to opportunities.
105
Wholesalers
1. Background a. Location
information b. Years in operation
c. Number and type of commodities traded
d. Number of employees
2. Sources of a. Geographical origin of produce purchased.
produce b. Relative importance (in terms of volumes) of different supplying areas by season.
c. Differences between supplying regions with regards to quality of produce.
d. M
ajor suppliers (individual producers, farmer groups or cooperatives, collectors, assembly traders, other
wholesalers, etc).
e. Relative importance of different suppliers according to volumes and regularity of supply.
f. Differences between suppliers with regards to quality.
g. Advantages and disadvantages of different supplying areas and suppliers.
3. Destination of a. Destination markets for the produce.
produce b. Relative importance (in terms of volume) of different destination markets.
c. Major buyers (other wholesalers, retailers, processors, supermarkets, exporters, etc).
d. Relative importance of major buyers according to volumes purchased and regularity of purchase.
e. Product requirements according to type of buyer.
f. Advantages and disadvantages of different markets and buyers.
4. Demand and a. Production and supply trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
supply trends b. Differences between different areas with regards to production trends.
c. Demand trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
d. D
ifferences between different markets (urban/rural, regional/national/export) with regards to demand
trends.
e. Expectations regarding future supply and demand trends (say over the next 3 years).
5. Prices a. Current wholesale purchasing prices.
b. Current wholesale selling prices.
c. Degree of price volatility within the season.
d. Influence of produce quality (variety, moisture content, cleanliness, grades, etc) on prices.
e. Seasonal pricing patterns and factors behind seasonality.
f. Price trends (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind price trends.
g. Perception of future price trends (say over the next 3 years) and key driving factors.
6. Transactions a. Volumes purchased (per week, month, season, and year).
b. Value added to produce (cleaning, drying, sorting, grading, packaging, etc).
c. Places of purchase (farm, assembly market, warehouse, etc).
d. Places of sale (warehouse, wholesale markets, ex-factory, etc).
e. Use of buying agents (other traders, such as collectors and assembly traders).
f. P
ayment procedures, both when purchasing and selling (cash or barter basis, prompt or delayed payment,
etc).
g. Other terms and condition for purchases and sales.
7. Storage a. Type of storage facilities.
b. Storage capacity.
c. Storage management practices.
d. Normal storage period.
e. Reasons for storing produce.
f. Profitability of storage activities.
g. Ownership of storage facilities (owned or rented).
106
Wholesalers
8. Support a. T
ransport (means of transport used and capacity; ownership of transport vehicles; availability and cost of
services rented transport; etc).
b. Market information (sources; reliability; problems; etc)
c. Credit (sources and their relative importance; frequency; cost; problems; etc)
d. Other support services.
9. Support a. Quality of road infrastructure.
infrastructure b. Quality of market infrastructure.
c. Quality and cost of power supply and other utilities.
d. Assessment of other key support infrastructure.
ey policies and regulations (foreign exchange, labor, land, credit, taxation, registration, fees on produce
regulations flow, imports and exports, etc).
b. Impact of policies and regulations on the marketing system.
c. Necessary policy and regulatory changes.
11. Marketing a. Main marketing costs (labor, transport, credit, communications, product losses, etc).
costs and risks b. M
arketing costs per unit of produce (say 100 kilograms): collection, handling, transport, storage, credit,
packaging, taxes, etc.
c. M
ain marketing risks (product losses, availability and quality of produce, contract default, price
fluctuations, etc).
12. Key a. Key constraints to the development of the wholesale business.
constraints and b. Solutions to these problems.
opportunities c. Key opportunities to develop the wholesale business.
d. Factors that could enable access to opportunities.
107
Agro-Processors
1. Background a. Location.
information b. Years in operation.
2. Scale of a. Type of processing technology.
operation b. Processing capacity (per shift, numbers of shifts).
c. Volumes processed (per month, season, annum).
d. Number of workers (permanent, seasonal, casual, and part-time).
3. Sources of a. Geographical origin of produce purchased.
produce b. Relative importance (in terms of volumes) of different supplying areas by season.
c. Differences between supplying regions with regards to quality of produce.
d. M
ajor suppliers (individual producers, farmer groups or cooperatives, collectors, assembly traders, other
wholesalers, etc).
e. Relative importance of different suppliers according to volumes and regularity of supply.
f. Differences between suppliers with regards to quality.
g. Advantages and disadvantages of different supplying areas and suppliers.
4. Destination a. Destination markets.
of processed b. Relative importance (in terms of volume) of different destination markets.
produce c. Major buyers (wholesalers, small retailers, supermarkets, exporters, etc).
d. Relative importance of major buyers according to volumes purchased and regularity of purchase.
e. Product requirements according to type of buyer.
f. Advantages and disadvantages of different markets and buyers.
5. Demand and a. Trends in raw material supply (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
supply trends b. Differences between supplying areas with regards to production trends.
c.Demand trends for the processed product (say over the past 3 years) and key factors behind these trends.
d. D
ifferences between different markets (urban/rural, regional/national/export) with regards to demand
trends.
e. Expectations regarding future supply and demand trends (say over the next 3 years).
6. Prices a. Current prices for purchased (unprocessed) produce.
b. Current prices for processed product.
c. Degree of price volatility for unprocessed and processed produce within the season.
d. Influence of quality (variety, moisture content, cleanliness, grades, etc) on the price of purchased
(unprocessed) produce.
e. Influence of quality on the price of processed produce
f. Seasonal pricing patterns and factors behind seasonality for unprocessed and processed produce.
g. P
ast price trends (say over the past 3 or 5 years) for unprocessed and processed produce, and key factors
behind these trends.
h.Perception of future price trends (say over the next 3 to 5 years) for unprocessed and processed produce, and
key driving factors.
7. Transactions a. Volumes of produce purchased (per week, month, season, and year).
b. Volumes of processed product sold (per month, season, and year).
c. Places of purchase (farm, assembly market, wholesale market, factory, etc).
d. Places of sale.
e. Use of buying agents.
f. Use of selling agents.
g. Payment procedures, both when purchasing and selling (prompt or delayed payment, etc).
h. Other terms and condition for purchases and sales.
8. Storage a. Type of storage facilities.
b. Storage capacity.
c. Storage management practices.
d. Volumes stored.
e. Normal storage period.
9. Support a. T
ransport (means of transport used and capacity; ownership of vehicles; availability and cost of rented
services transport; etc).
b. Technology (access to and cost of equipment, spare parts, maintenance and repair services, etc).
c. Utilities (quality and cost of power and water supply).
d. Consultancy services (access and quality).
e. Market information (sources; reliability; problems; etc)
f. Credit (sources and their relative importance; frequency; cost; other conditions; problems; etc)
g. Other support services.
108
Agro-Processors
ey policies and regulations (foreign exchange, labor, land, credit, taxation, registration, fees on produce flow,
regulations imports and exports, etc).
b. Impact of policies and regulations on the whole marketing system.
c. Necessary policy and regulatory changes.
11. Processing a. M
ain processing costs (produce, labor, transport, credit, energy, water, repairs, communications, product
costs losses, taxes, etc).
b. Processing costs per unit of output.
12. Constraints a. Key constraints to the development of the processing activity.
and b. Solutions to these problems.
opportunities c. Key business opportunities.
d. Factors that could enable access to these opportunities.
109
Annex 5
Key Points to be Evaluated

in a Market Chain Study
Dimensions • Map of area, market chain, channel, product flows in selected study
of the market • Rapid Overview of the Economic Status of the Countries
study • Macro-Economic Developments
• Trade and Competitiveness: Recent Reforms, Performance and Market Access
Product Case • Production zones
Studies and • Importance of the product to earnings, rural livelihoods, poverty alleviation and economic growth
Analyses: • Principle production and marketing constraints limiting the product export expansion
• Medium and long term market outlooks across the product, for national, regional and export trade
Clients for • Exporter, commercial buyers, processors, farmer association, service provide
study
Demand • Growth categories (exponential growth, steadily increasing demand, stagnant)
analysis • Market size (estimate volume of the market, key segments products, segments buyers)
• Market opportunities identified by market type, (local, district, national, regional, export)
• Price trends over past 5-10 years
• Volume trends over similar period
• Principal buyers of this product, competitors and the advantages they enjoy
• Market barriers
• Market requirements in this product area what customers / importers will pay for
• Quality and health standards that have to be met
• Processing and packaging requirements
• Volume and delivery time requirements
• Product differentiation needed to succeed.
Supply analysis • Analyze the market chain including:-
•P roduction costs, and margins down the market chain and assess possible changes that would overcome any
bottlenecks within the system
• Principle constraints to production of this commodity
• Costs of production
• Finance / credit
• Quality control measures
Major • Organization
challenges to • Technology
market entry • Services
within markets • Policy
identified
Institutional • Marketing barriers (local, national and regional)
and market • Finance
barriers • Price information
• Grades and standards, health certifications
• Market linkages
Institutional • Private sector organization / institutional set-up along the production / marketing chain
and policy • Government barriers
constraints • Trade barriers
Regional • Highlight most competitive areas and products
comparison of •P rovide an analysis of areas with comparative advantage, that is being exploited and other areas that may have
comparative comparative advantage but is not able to realize this potential
/ competitive •G iven that future R&D investment is limited, provide suggestions of where specific types of investment would
advantages provide most economic gain.
The way • Development strategies for the sub-sector on national and regional advantage basis:-
forward: • Growth markets and product areas
Production and •P riority requirements (changes in production, processing and quality control and enhancement, product
market growth differentiation, technology and investment.
strategies for • Respective roles and actions of private and public sectors
the product • Short term and longer term actions needed (balancing poverty reduction and growth objectives)
market chain
110
Priority • Areas where government / donors will have greatest impact growth from this market chain
Government • Infrastructure development
intervention • Improved planting material / product improvement
to support the • Processing and processing efficiency
production • Market information
and export • Attracting foreign investment and technology
development • Policy, legislative and institutional support
strategy • Indicative costing / timing / phasing/ prioritization of these proposals
• Areas where donor assistance might be best applied.
Conclusions • Major finding, recommendations and steps in interventions for future R&D / commercial applications
111
Annex 6
Example of
RMA Report Structure
Acknowledgments In the acknowledgements, the authors of the report credit the contribution that different people have
made to the study, for example by funding it or by providing documentation, information, and comments.
Special thanks are due to people who have made a particularly significant contribution to the success of the
appraisal.
Table of Contents The Table of Contents lists the different sections and chapters of the report in sequential form, including
the annexes, and the starting page for each section/chapter.
List of Tables List of the different tables presented in the report and the respective pages.
List of Figures List of the different figures presented in the report and the respective pages.
List of Diagrams List of the different diagrams presented in the report and the respective pages.
Acronyms Abbreviations or acronyms are should be listed for easy reference.
Glossary Several technical terms are used in RMA reports. It is useful to include a glossary with a brief explanation
of key terms and expressions to enhance understanding of the text.
Executive Summary The summary of findings is one of the most important sections of a report. Many readers face significant
time constraints and therefore will only read the Executive Summary. This section should provide a clear
summary of the report. While a brief description of the RMA purposes and the methods used should be
provided, the emphasis should lie in the key findings, conclusions and recommendations.
Introduction The introduction provides background information regarding the RMA. It describes the context of the
study, including funding and implementing agencies, the team involved, and the duration of the exercise.
In addition, the introductory section should include a problem statement and outline the purpose and
objectives of the RMA. The structure of the report is also summarized in the introduction.
Methodology This chapter explains the RMA methodology, with a particular emphasis on the methods or tools used for
data collection and analysis. The chapter should describe the sources of secondary and primary data and
information; the methods and procedures for selecting markets and key informants (sampling); the number
and type of markets and facilities visited; and the number and type of interviews conducted.
Middle sections Analysis and findings
Conclusions The key findings of the RMA and their implications are summarized in this chapter. It is important that
these conclusions are based on hard evidence gathered during the appraisal, rather than on the subjective
opinions of team members or key informants.
Recommendations These should be presented to meet the needs of clearly identified clients of the rapid market survey. If
the study is being done for an entrepreneur, the study should provide clear evidence of opportunities and
challenges for his or her business investment options. Similarly, if the target beneficiaries are farmers, the
market opportunities should be presented in a way that makes sense to their investment bracket. Typically
recommendations are made, in three areas, (i) market opportunities (given by market type, local, national,
regional, export, (ii) technical, and policy related. The recommendations should be concise and easily
interpreted.
References Secondary information sources should be listed in a references’ section. These sources may include studies,
reports, data time series, and web pages. Sources should be listed by author or organization, and in
alphabetical order.
Annexes The number of annexes will vary according to the information that the report authors wish to make
available. RMA reports normally include one annex listing the people interviewed and another outlining
the fieldwork schedule. Additional annexes may contain interview checklists and questionnaires, statistical
data, figures, graphs, copies of legislation, case studies, photos, and other material.
112
Annex 7
Basic
Business Plan
Subsections Related questions
Project Name:
Name of the agro-enterprise
team and goal of the business
1. Introduction
Address: What is your contact address
Phone number: What is your phone number
Vision or Goal: What is the Vision or objective of the enterprise? With SALES
TARGETS
Describe business: How long has this group been in existence? Is the group
registered?
Name key positions in Chair, treasurer, secretary, lead farmer, market agent, other
2. Business Organization
business:
Number of members by Number of men and number of women
gender:
Current savings/ bank Latest financial statement, savings levels,
statement:
Product Name: What product will you sell? Drop Down
Existing / New: Is this an existing product or new product for your group?
3. Product
Benefits to buyer: Why is the buyer interested in product? Is it cheaper, better
quality, local, other benefit or advantage?
Define Target Market: Define target market (local, district, national, supermarket)
4. Marketing strategy Location: How far is this market from the production site (km)
Introduction Market type: Is this an existing market or a new market for your group?
Describe Customers Type of trader, or processor, who is your buyer?
Describe key product What are the attributes of the product (variety, quality,
Product
attributes: packaging, etc.)?
Price Describe price setting: How will the price be established? Offer price, contract price,
How will you get product to Sales team, street vending, carry, pick up, cycle, lorry, donkey
Place
market:
How will you promote your Voice, phone, through trader, person to person contacts, other
Promotion
product:
Identify key risks to plan: Indicate key challenges to the action plan? And how can they be
5. Market RISKS overcome?
What risk mitigation plans: Are there ways of minimizing the risks?
Describe you business flow: Describe the stepwise activities from production to sale
Pre-production activities: Pre-production: input procurement, nursery,
Production activities: Production activities: plowing, sowing, weeding,
Post harvest activities: Postharvest activities: drying, sorting storage etc.
6. Business Operation Plan
Marketing activities: Marketing activities: buyer linkage, negotiation, transport
Essential partners: Partners may include extension, input supplier, transporter
What assets are essential to Key assets include land, labor, staff, crops, processing methods,
plan:
Total material costs Calculate costs / season / year
7. Production Costs
Total Labor costs Calculate costs / season / year
113
Subsections Related questions
Project sales volumes Planned Sales volumes / Give clear units of sale bag – 100kg
Project sales price Selling price of product Give dollar conversion, 250 shillings /
8. Income Streams
bag $1 =
Estimate season income: Estimate seasonal sales
9. Profit and Loss Analysis Gross Margin: Calculate Gross Margin and Net Income
Strategies to increase profit: What changes can be made to increase Gross Margin and Net
Fine tuning
Income?
Start up capital requirements: How much capital do you need to start the business?
Capital funds available: How much capital do you and your members/partners have?
10. Financial requirements
Capital funds required: How much capital are you lacking?
Method to raise funds: How can raise the funds that you are lacking?
114

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A Guide to Rapid Market Appraisal

(RMA) for Agricultural Products

The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)

Since 1943, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) has held

ETSP (Extension and Training Support for Forestry

Tiago Wandschneider is an international development consultant specializing in economic analysis

• Collective Marketing for Smallholder producers

• Marketing basics for field agents

• Seven steps of marketing for field agents

PART 1. Concepts and theory 1

PART 2. Practical RMA Work 38

Business Development Services

Who will use this manual?

Chapter 2. Basic Marketing Concepts

Learning objectives agricultural marketing, these activities include

As such, the market process ensures that

• in the right place

To be successful in the marketplace farmers need

you have produced products which are sold to willing consumers. It

There are two distinct categories of “needs” that

Consumers make purchases based on their

• Production costs. An increase in the

Product Price Place Promotion

2.3 The 4 Ps of Marketing

As product markets are highly varied and

Table 1. The marketing mix – product, price, place, promotion.

Marketing Definition Aspects of this variable include Actions to be considered

Figure 2. Levels within a Value Chain

Figure 3. Market segments

Figure 4. Marketing Functions and Services

Storage: Storage facilities are needed at In many countries, business development

attachment of sales instructions and product Collective • farmer marketing •v

Figure 5. Strong government or public sector dominating service provision

Project sustainability: The provision of free

Figure 6. Public sector facilitating private sector service provision

In rural areas, one of the most reliable service 2.9.1 Infrastructure

Figure 7. Market mapping method to assist in expressing market chains

Market channel: refers to the production and

Value chains: refers to the series of marketing

Market webs: term used to explain the complicated

For many field agents and farmers, drawing out a

Alternatively, marketing maps can be much more

Degree of organization of producers. 2.14 Intervention in Agricultural Mar-

• Legal enforcement of contracts and protection

2.15 Market Research

By now, it should be clear to readers that market

2.17 Preparing for risk

Tools such as the Ansoff matrix, illustrated in

Objective Improve understanding of basic marketing

Task Draw the market chain for a specific product,

- Identify one specific product.

Expected outputs A diagram of the marketing chain.

Due Each group has forty-five minutes for preparation

Chapter 3. Key Features of Agricultural Markets

Learning objectives have a particularly strong impact on the price of

Figure 12. Farm-gate paddy prices in Red River Delta (1994-

Farmers’ reaction to these shocks may exacerbate

3.5 High Risk When information is gathered on prices along a

3.7 Incomplete Information Rapid growth and increasing household incomes,

• Collective Marketing for Smallholder producers

• Marketing basics for field agents

• Seven steps of marketing for field agents

• in the right place

• Production costs. An increase in the

attachment of sales instructions and product Collective • farmer marketing •v

• Legal enforcement of contracts and protection

Learning objectives • Focus groups

- Identify who should be involved in your RMA