Tracing Sustainable Agriculture in Mozambique

Tracing sustainable
agriculture in
Mozambique
From policy to practice
Rita Cammaer
Working Paper Food and Agriculture
Keywords:
March 2016 Mozambique, sustainable agriculture,
agroecology, food security
About the author
Rita Cammaer is an independent consultant who has worked
in the area of sustainable development and environmental
management for various organisations in Mozambique, Malawi
and Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]
Produced by IIED’s Natural Resources

Group
The aim of the Natural Resources Group is to build
partnerships, capacity and wise decision making for fair and
sustainable use of natural resources. Our priority in pursuing
this purpose is on local control and management of natural
resources and other ecosystems.
Partner organisation
CARE is a major international humanitarian agency delivering
emergency relief and long-term international development
projects. CARE’s programmes address issues such as
emergency response, food security, economic development,
climate change, agriculture, education, and health. Within these
areas, CARE focuses particularly on empowering and meeting
the needs of women and girls and promoting gender equality
and social justice.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Seth Cook and Barbara Adolph
of the Natural Resource Group in IIED for their support
and guidance in this study and for providing substantial
comments on the draft report. She also wishes to thank CARE
Mozambique, and Lilly Smines in particular, for providing
valuable information, reviewing the draft report and for
making the necessary arrangements for the field work. The
author further wishes to thank all the other people who were
contacted in IIED, Maputo and Inhambane Province (listed
in Appendix 1) for sparing their time. Their insights provided
valuable contributions to this study. The excellent editorial
assistance of Fiona Hinchcliffe and typesetting skills of
Judith Fisher are also greatly appreciated.
The contents and views expressed in the report remain the
author’s sole responsibility, unless otherwise stated in the text.
Published by IIED, March 2016

Cammaer, R (2016) Tracing sustainable agriculture in
Mozambique: from policy to practice. IIED, London.
http://pubs.iied.org/14658IIED
ISBN 978-1-78431-303-6
Printed on recycled paper with vegetable-based inks.
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IIED Working paper
This study examines the agricultural policies

and strategies that have influenced agricultural
development in Mozambique, the support
structures that have been put in place, and the
realities and challenges of their implementation. It
was found that key stakeholders understand the
concept of sustainable agriculture, that the most
important contributing components are covered in
the current policy framework, and that farmers are
keen to adopt and adapt to more sustainable and
profitable farming practices. A change in policy
direction is needed so that priorities and resources
favour support to the smallholder sector.
Contents
Summary4 3.3 Scaling up sustainable agricultural practices 19
3.4 Stakeholder involvement, communication
1 Background 6 and coordination 23
1.1 Agricultural production in Mozambique 6
1.2 Objectives and methodology 7 4 Implementation realities and challenges 25
1.3 Definition of sustainable agriculture 8 4.1 Understanding sustainable agriculture 26
1.4 The concept of sustainable agriculture in 4.2 Financial resources and variable action plans 26
Mozambique9 4.3 Extension services 27
4.4 Technology adoption 27
2 Policy framework for sustainable agriculture
in Mozambique 10 5 Conclusion and recommendations 29
2.1 Agricultural policies, strategies and plans
since independence 10 Acronyms32
2.2 Current policy framework for agricultural
development13 References33
2.3 A policy framework supporting
Appendix 1: List of people consulted 35
sustainable agriculture? 15
3 Approaches, strategies and support for

agricultural practices 17
3.1 From policy to action plans 17
3.2 Resource allocation and public
expenditure on agriculture 18
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Tracing sustainable agriculture in Mozambique | from policy to practice
Summary
Research trials and emerging evidence in Mozambique Sustainable agricultural approaches, such as
suggest that sustainable approaches help increase conservation agriculture, are increasingly being
yields while making production systems more resilient promoted through Farmer Field Schools. This system
and economically accessible. IIED has initiated research provides the necessary flexibility to adapt the initiatives
to help stakeholders in agricultural development arrive outlined in national policies and strategies to local
at a common understanding of sustainable agriculture, circumstances and needs. For example, the NGO
consider how this is reflected in policy and practice, and CARE has been working with smallholder farmers and
try to identify major constraints. has established Farmer Field and Business schools
(integrating skills development on marketing, gender
Mozambique is regarded as having great potential for
and nutrition) and Climate Field Schools (integrating
agricultural production. The government considers
aspects of climate scenario planning).
commercial agriculture to be a major driver of
transformation. However, the increase in agricultural Additional advantages of this system include the
production achieved over the past decade is unlikely creation of a multiplier effect by establishing farmer
to be sustainable, as it has been largely driven by groups and by training contact farmers. This helps
land expansion. Politically driven priorities have also to solve the problem of low extension coverage and
discriminated against the majority of smallholder encourages on-site and farmer-led research and
farmers, who continue to be poor and vulnerable. development of appropriate technologies. Research
at the CARE Farmer Field Schools found that farmers
Sustainable agriculture is a difficult concept to discuss,
first adopt the techniques that have a high degree of
as different actors emphasise different aspects of
‘observability’ and offer immediate benefits. It was
sustainability. Stakeholders in Maputo agree that it is
also observed that some farmers had adapted specific
not possible to define a single model or a technology for
technologies to suit their own capacity (such as labour
sustainable agriculture, but that technological solutions
availability) and preferences.
and approaches can help achieve the objectives of
the concept to varying degrees. Agricultural-related Progress in achieving sustainable agriculture is being
policies, strategies and plans in Mozambique emphasise made, but is still hampered by smallholder farmers’
various components of sustainable agriculture, poor access to inputs and markets. The involvement
including promoting production and productivity; market and interest of the private sector in marginal areas is
access; food and nutrition; natural resources; and limited, although there are a few encouraging reports of
institutional reform. successful and locally developed value chains, such as
for cashew nut.
While the policy framework supports initiatives to
scale up sustainable agriculture, implementation is Many institutions and organisations are involved in the
hampered by other priorities and by insufficient and agricultural sector in Mozambique, and while efforts
unpredictable resources that greatly affect service have been made towards institutional reform and donor
delivery. There is an acute shortage of advisory services coordination, the involvement of the private sector and
in Mozambique, and any additional staff are allocated NGOs has been more the exception than the rule.
to districts with the highest potential for growth, with
donors and international NGOs supporting the more
vulnerable areas.
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IIED Working paper
The recent developments in the approach to agricultural

development in Mozambique provide a sound basis for
scaling up sustainable agriculture in the country, thereby
increasing the contribution of smallholder farmers to
achieving national productivity and production targets.
The main weakness is the lack and unpredictability of
resources for implementation. It is suggested therefore
that, rather than change the policy content, the policy
direction could shift towards a stronger focus on the
smallholder sector through more predictable and longer-
term support for the provision of essential services.
Key stakeholders can assist by sharing information
and lessons learned to develop evidence-based
proposals for government prioritisation and resource
allocation. The government, meanwhile, can support
the involvement of key stakeholders, such as donor
agencies, NGOs and the private sector through the
recently established coordination groups and platforms
at national level. It is also suggested that coordination
mechanisms at provincial and district level are
encouraged and supported to coordinate and ensure
coherence of technology transfer and encourage joint
research and planning.
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1
Background
Agriculture is the main source of income in Mozambique. On the whole, efforts
to increase agricultural production have not been sustainable. IIED and CARE
initiated research to help stakeholders in agricultural development arrive at a
common understanding of sustainable agriculture, and investigate how this is
reflected in policy and practice.
1.1 Agricultural production the main constraints to smallholders’ productivity

(Silici et al., 2015).
in Mozambique Mozambique is regarded as having great potential for
agricultural production. The government considers
Agriculture is the main source of income in
commercial agriculture to be a major driver of
Mozambique, providing income for more than 70% of
transformation and has been promoting large-scale
the population, contributing 31.8% to Mozambique’s
investments in agriculture. This approach, however, can
gross domestic product (GDP) and absorbing 81% of
promote monocultures and technological packages that
the total workforce. The agricultural sector is dominated
are inappropriate and that can damage the environment,
by smallholder farmers using family labour (99%), most
and there is a great deal of uncertainty about the impact
of whom cultivate small plots of land ranging between
on smallholder farmer access to markets, land and
0.5 to 1.5 hectares (ha) (World Bank, 2015). The
employment. Smallholder agriculture, on the other hand,
main food crops grown include cereal crops such as
can be vulnerable and unsustainable in the long term
maize, rice, sorghum and pearl millet, root and tuber
due to low yields, labour-intensive technologies, and
crops such as cassava and sweet potato, and grain
exposure to climate shocks (Silici et al., 2015).
legume crops such as beans. Cash crops include
cotton, cashew, tobacco, sugar cane, coconut, sesame, Research trials, projects and emerging evidence in
soybean and fruit. The main livestock are cattle, goats Africa (AGRA, 2015a) and in Mozambique (CARE,
and poultry, although different livestock dominate in 2015) suggest that sustainable approaches can help
different regions. Low coverage of advisory services, increase yields while making production systems more
lack of storage infrastructure, high post-harvest losses, resilient and economically accessible. There is wide
poor transport facilities, high transaction costs and support for sustainable approaches by the Ministry of
difficult access to financial services are amongst Agriculture and Food Security (MASA),1 development
1
Ministério da Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar (MASA), previously called the Ministério de Agricultura (MINAG).
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IIED Working paper
agencies, civil society and farmers’ groups, but a was proposed, exploring the larger policy intentions for
consistent programme of work backed by adequate sustainable agriculture in Mozambique and their link with
funds is lacking. Farmer adoption rates for sustainable practices on the ground. The study aims to understand
agriculture practices remain low, and therefore links how policy and power dynamics at the national and
between the policies for sustainable agriculture and regional level are affecting the options that farmers have
farmers’ practices on the ground are unclear (Silici and the choices they make, and to identify the key levers
et al., 2015). This report aims to clarify these links. that could make a difference for promoting sustainability.
The study traces national policies from their content and
1.2 Objectives and
guidance for achieving sustainable agriculture to the
way they are funded and implemented. The emphasis is
methodology on smallholder farmers, and how they can be supported

to improve their practices and to enable smallholder
agriculture to provide larger quantities of nutritious food
IIED and CARE have initiated research to help
for their families and for the country as a whole. The
stakeholders in agricultural development arrive at a
research set out to answer these questions:
common understanding of sustainable agriculture,
consider how this is reflected in policy and practice, and • Policy content and quality: is policy content
try to identify major constraints. related to sustainable agriculture clear and sufficient
(recognising that it may not be ‘called’ sustainable
A previous scoping study and a stakeholder survey
agriculture)? What is the quality of the policy in
by IIED showed that the scaling-up of sustainable
terms of the change that is sought (sustainable
agriculture in Mozambique is limited by a mix of financial,
agriculture) and does it have sufficient guidelines for
technical and institutional constraints (Silici et al.,
implementation and support?
2015). Weak policy support was identified as another
major limitation. CARE Mozambique, which has also • Policy – how is it supported? What value do
been doing some work in this area, conducted a desk stakeholders at different levels place on sustainable
study with ActionAid Mozambique to explore the extent agriculture goals, and how much is implementation
to which smallholder farmer interests are captured a priority for them? What resources are available
in national agricultural policies, plans and strategies to them to support implementation and how are
(CARE and ActionAid, 2015). One of the aims was to they allocated?
assess whether the existing policy framework promotes
• Implementation – what are the realities? Are the
sustainable agriculture practices, with a particular focus
reasons for adoption or non-adoption of sustainable
on climate resilience.
agricultural practices by smallholder farmers linked to
A workshop in May 2015 aimed to bring together CARE policy? If so, what are the key factors in the policy or
and IIED’s work in this area (see Section 1.4). It enabled policy process that influence their decision making?
representatives of key agricultural institutions to discuss
The research involved a combination of deskwork and
what type of policies, investments and incentives
fieldwork. The deskwork concentrated on answering
were needed to overcome constraints to scaling-up
the above questions on policies related to sustainable
sustainable practices, and what the various actors
agriculture, how they are supported in strategic plans,
could do to achieve the necessary changes. Through
work plans and resource allocation. The fieldwork took
these exchanges it became clear that constraints
place between 25 November and 4 December 2015
for implementing sustainable agriculture policies in
and was hosted by CARE Mozambique. It consisted of
Mozambique have to be analysed in the context of
a number of consultations with stakeholders at national
the socio-economic transformations taking place in
level and semi-structured interviews with government
rural areas.
officials at provincial and district level, and advisory staff
To build upon and deepen collaboration along these and farmers from Homoíne and Funhalouro districts in
lines, a joint research study between IIED and CARE Inhambane Province.
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1.3 Definition of sustainable The FAO also further suggests that sustainable

agriculture requires the development of strategies
agriculture leading to wise choices in order to achieve those
multiple objectives. However, they also point out
The concept of sustainable agriculture is difficult that because of different contexts and scales, key
to discuss and comprehend by key stakeholders, stakeholders need to share a common understanding of
as it is the result of the interaction of a multitude of what sustainable food and agriculture mean, and agree
components. In an attempt to describe the concept, on the most appropriate strategies and approaches to
the following formulation is usually used: ‘from a its implementation (FAO, 2014).
holistic perspective, sustainable agriculture should
be economically viable, environmentally sustainable,
climate resilient, culturally sound and socially just’
(Silici et al., 2015).
Earlier research by IIED found that whilst this definition Box 1. Five principles for
is generally accepted and used, it is difficult to put into a transition towards
practice, as different actors will emphasise different
aspects of sustainability. While some stress the need for
sustainable food and
agriculture that meets the food demands of a growing agriculture
population and provides economic opportunities for
Principle 1: Improving efficiency in the use of
all, others emphasise aspects of social justice, such as
resources is crucial to sustainable agriculture
food sovereignty and land tenure security. Still others
focus more on environmental and conservation issues Principle 2: Sustainability requires direct action to
(Silici et al., 2015). conserve, protect and enhance natural resources
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) adds Principle 3: Agriculture that fails to protect and
a few other dimensions to the concept, such as food improve rural livelihoods, equity and social well-being
security and the rights of future generations. It states is unsustainable
that ‘to be sustainable, agriculture must meet the needs
Principle 4: Enhanced resilience of people,
of present and future generations for its products and
communities and ecosystems is key to sustainable
services, while ensuring profitability, environmental
agriculture
health, and social and economic equity. Sustainable
agriculture should contribute to all four pillars of food Principle 5: Sustainable food and agriculture
security – availability, access, utilization and stability – requires responsible and effective governance
in a manner that is environmentally, economically and mechanisms
socially responsible over time’ (FAO, 2014). (FAO, 2014)
The FAO proposes a set of five interconnected
principles that can guide a transition towards
sustainable food and agriculture. The five principles,
The above discussion demonstrates that sustainable
listed in Box 1, can ‘balance the social, economic and
agriculture is a concept that cannot be captured in
environmental dimensions of sustainability in agriculture,
a single definition. However, for the achievement of
and provide a basis for developing policies, strategies,
the multiple objectives an agreement or common
regulations and incentives to guide the transition to
understanding is needed by the various stakeholders on
sustainability, while promoting resilience through
the various components.
an adaptive response to shocks and opportunities’
(FAO, 2014).
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IIED Working paper
1.4 The concept of The results of this survey were later presented and
discussed in a workshop organised by IIED and CARE.
sustainable agriculture in The workshop, ‘Scaling up sustainable agriculture
in Mozambique: challenges and opportunities’, took
Mozambique place in Maputo in May 2015 and aimed to find out
if stakeholders working in the agricultural sector in
In order to investigate the concept of sustainable Mozambique could reach a consensus on the concept
agriculture in Mozambique, IIED undertook a survey of of sustainable agriculture, what it has to offer to the
38 stakeholders to assess how local and national actors country and what the challenges and constraints are to
define ‘sustainability’ and how it is put it into practice. the diffusion and adoption of sustainable practices. The
The survey concluded that government institutions, participants agreed that it was not possible to define
including the National Institute of Agricultural Research a single model or a technology, but that technological
institute (IIAM),2 the Directorate of Extension Services solutions and farming approaches can be considered
(DNEA),3 and several development organisations sustainable when they help achieve the objectives
such as FAO and CARE, see sustainable agriculture mentioned above to varying degrees. Examples
in Mozambique as ‘an opportunity to improve the mentioned included biological pest control, integrated
productivity of smallholder farmers, while promoting pest management, integrated soil management and
sustainable use of available resources and limiting the organic agriculture. Participants also agreed that that
effects of drought and other climatic vulnerabilities’ these practices are not mutually exclusive – they can
(Silici et al., 2015). The majority of the stakeholders be combined to create synergies and multiply benefits
interviewed see sustainability mainly from the (Silici et al., 2015).
perspective of the environment and climate change.
There were others, however, who also stressed socio-
economic issues, such as the affordability of inputs, the
degree of labour intensiveness, and working conditions.
Some also stressed aspects of justice, access and
above all control over natural and economic resources,
as well as the need to pursue food sovereignty. These
answers clearly demonstrate that in Mozambique,
as elsewhere, different actors have different
understandings of what sustainability means. In general,
however, they feel that all dimensions are important and
that the concept of sustainable agriculture is complex
and dynamic.
2
Instituto de Investigação Agraria de Moçambique (IIAM).
3
Direcção Nacional de Extensão Agrária (DNEA).
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2
Policy framework
for sustainable
agriculture in
Mozambique
Agricultural-related policies, strategies and plans in Mozambique include various
components of sustainable agriculture. However, studies suggest that efforts
made so far are unlikely to be sustainable, as progress made has largely been
driven by land expansion, and implementation has not considered smallholder
farmers’ needs and interests.
Mozambique is a multiparty democracy, and despite is based on existing studies by CARE International
its abundance of natural resources, its agricultural Mozambique and ActionAid Mozambique, by the
potential is largely untapped. The sector has broadly International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
underperformed since Independence in 1975. While the and the World Bank, as well as the original policy
policies, strategies and plans that have been developed documents. The main policies and strategies are
since Independence have all the ingredients, and the summarised in Box 2.
recipe, for transforming the agricultural sector into a
2.1 Agricultural policies,

productive and sustainable base for economic growth
and poverty reduction, the country has not been able to
strategies and plans since

deliver these results as yet.
This section first studies the agricultural policies and
strategies that have influenced agricultural development independence
in Mozambique since Independence and explains the
key factors that have been at play in implementation. After Independence, President Chissano initiated
This is followed with a description and discussion of the development of Agenda 2025 in 1988, a
the current agricultural policy framework. Information participatory process involving citizens of all regions
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IIED Working paper
and representatives of all interest groups to reflect on new, the value of this document is that it provides a
the future of Mozambique. In this document, published more concrete and practical guide and sets specific
in 2003, the ideal scenario for agricultural development production targets for the main crops. It also identifies
was based on a number of pillars (Republic of the agro-ecological zones that have the highest potential
Mozambique, 2003): for the major food and cash crops.
• the commercialisation and development of agro- A year later, in 2007, the Alliance for a Green Revolution
industry in Africa (AGRA), initiated by former Secretary
General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, encouraged
• a more efficient extension service to respond to the
African nations to advance a green revolution in
immediate needs of farmers
the continent. Apart from supporting traditional
• increased productivity through improved varieties intensification strategies to increase food production
and cut food insecurity by half in 2015 (to meet the
• initiatives to increases access to essential services
Millennium Development Goal), AGRA also strongly
(such as infrastructure, education, credit) to facilitate
defended policies that support small-scale farmers,
the production, conservation and export of agricultural
rural development, environmental sustainability, and
products.
marketing that is favourable to poor farmers (AGRA,
The Agricultural Policy and Implementation Strategy 2015b). With the formulation of its own Green
(PAEI)4 was developed in 1995, also under Chissano’s Revolution Strategy (MINAG, 2007c), intensification
presidency. This policy is still in place and is part of of agriculture was looked at in a wider context than it
the current policy framework. While on paper the had been previously. It included a greater focus on the
policy aimed at fighting food insecurity and poverty family farming sector, the promotion of associations,
and achieving sustainable economic growth through the development of markets for inputs and agricultural
support to smallholder farmers (among others), commodities and the conservation and sustainable use
commercial farming was also a government priority of natural resources. In its outline for implementation it
(CARE & ActionAid, 2015). Foreign direct investment also emphasised the need for an integrated approach
was considered to be the main engine of development and encouraged the involvement of other state actors,
and the government aimed to facilitate this process the private sector and non-governmental organisations
by providing land-obtaining mechanisms and other (MINAG, 2007c).
opportunities. The production of cash crops was
The agricultural programmes PROAGRI I (1998–2005)
seen as a source of government revenue, but it also
and PROAGRI II (2005–2009), developed with the
provided an opportunity for rent extraction by the ruling
government’s donor partners, supported strategies for
elite and for consolidating Frelimo’s power over the
improved service delivery. However, during PROAGRI I
economy, state and rural space. At the same time,
5
support was targeted to institutional reforms within the
smallholder agriculture interests were neglected and
Ministry of Agriculture. Although this was an important
services for smallholder farmers were confined to basic
development, results and impact at local level were
technical assistance for high commercial-value crops
poor and demand for agricultural services have been
such as tobacco, cotton, tea, sesame and sugar (Do
largely unmet (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). Objectives
Rosário, 2011).
in PROAGRI II tried to turn this round by focusing on
Another attempt to guide the development of an impact rather than institutional development. Although
agricultural sector that was ‘integrated, sustainable, the strategy intended to involve broad stakeholder
competitive, diversified and the basis for wellbeing’ consultations and involvement, it never managed to
was the formulation of Priorities for Development of reach beyond government-donor relationships (CARE &
the Agricultural Sector (2006–2009) by the Ministry of ActionAid, 2015).
Agriculture and Food Security in 2006. In this document
The government objective to improve service delivery,
the ministry states that it will prioritise interventions and
especially at district level, triggered the formulation of
resources for those activities that have the potential for
the Law of Local Institutions (LOLE),6 approved in 2005.
market competition (local, regional and international), for
The law supports a process of decentralised planning,
poverty reduction, for promoting diversification for food
resource allocation and management, and aims at
security, for building resilience to climate and market
integrating local communities in the decision-making
fluctuations, and for adopting improved technologies
process. A Supplemental Local Initiative Investment
(MASA, 2006). Although these objectives are not
4
Politica Agricola e Estratégia de Implementação.
5
Frelimo, the ruling party, has been in power since Independence.
6
Lei dos Orgão Locais do Estado (LOLE).
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Budget (OIIL)7 was established to finance district PARP)10 became an integral part of the National
development projects. Since 2006, the government Planning System and had a special budget which was
provides over 7 million metais annually (approximately requested each year through the state budget (IMF,
US$300,000) from the State Budget to each of the 2011). The overall target of the PRSP was to reduce
country’s 128 districts for projects to combat poverty. the incidence of food poverty from 54.7% to 42% by
The District Development Fund, which was created in 2014. It aimed to achieve these targets by increased
2009 to manage the funds, helped to finance hundreds production and productivity in the agriculture and fishery
of thousands of farming and small industry projects, and sectors, promotion of employment, improvements in
to build Frelimo’s reputation in rural areas. However, human and social development, and macro-economy
it did not produce any tangible results in terms of the and financial management. The last progress report
development of smallholder agriculture or processing indicated that up to 2013 most progress was made
facilities. The explanation given for this was that the towards the human development objectives, and that
government was not involved in the implementation of the main challenges facing Mozambique still relate to
those community projects, so financing and technical increasing production and productivity in agriculture and
support were disconnected from central government, fisheries (IMF, 2014). While the fisheries sector seems
who could have provided the technical expertise through to have achievable targets, results have been less
the district agriculture offices (Do Rosário, 2011). encouraging in agriculture, especially the production
of cereals. One encouraging sign has been the slight
The decentralised autonomy of the districts raised
increase in productivity of roots and tubers – an
the need for a proper framework and vision for rural
important component of poor people’s consumption
development: in 2007 the Rural Development Strategy
(IMF, 2014).
(EDR) 8 was approved. The strategy stresses that its
additional value to the existing strategic framework In recognition that sustainable farming practices should
is its focus on a rural development that is sound and be environmentally sound and climate resilient, the
sustainable in the long term (EDR, 2007). It is intended Ministry of Land, Environment and Rural Development
as an instrument that triggers action and mobilisation (MITADER)11 has developed a number of instruments
of the various actors for promoting rural development. and strategies to promote environmental sustainability
The main goal is to reach a level of human development and climate resilience. These include the Environmental
in rural areas by 2025 that is three times greater than Law (1997), the Environmental Strategy for Sustainable
2005 through the promotion of a rural economy that is Development (2007), the Action Plan for Prevention
more competitive, sustainable, environmentally friendly and Control of Soil Erosion (2007), the Action Plan for
and socially attractive (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). the Prevention and Control of Uncontrolled Burning
(2007), the National Action Plan to Adapt to Climate
The arrival to power of President Armando Guebuza in
Change (2007–2010) and the national Climate Change
2005 did not change the general rhetoric of promoting
Adaptation and Mitigation Strategy (2012) for the
investments in (mostly) large-scale commercial
period 2013–2025 (Silici, 2015). Coordination between
agriculture. However, the global food price crisis in
the two ministries MASA and MITADER and the
2007 triggered a change in direction from market-
harmonisation of their strategies and plans has been a
oriented cash and food crops to the production of
struggle, especially at national level.
food crops such as wheat, rice, cassava, potatoes
and oilseeds for national consumption and to reduce A development that has strongly influenced the latest
dependence on imports. This strategy was outlined in agricultural development strategies is Mozambique’s
the 2008 Plan of Action for Food Production (PAPA).9 commitment to the Comprehensive African
Initiatives under this plan did not produce the expected Development Program (CAADP) in 2003. This is an
results, however, as priority areas that were chosen initiative of African governments to accelerate economic
for the production of food crops did not always have growth and development in their countries. It provides
the right agro-ecological conditions, or issues such as a common framework and an opportunity for policy,
post-harvest and marketing were not considered (Do technical and financial support to countries with
Rosário, 2011). strategies and investment plans aligned with CAADP
principles. African Heads of State and governments,
Agricultural development in Mozambique is expected
including Mozambique, adopted the Maputo Declaration
to contribute to poverty reduction. The Mozambican
in 2003, in which they aim to achieve a 6% annual
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2010–2014 (PRSP/
7
Orçamento de Investimento para Initiativas Locais (OIIL).
8
Estratégica de Desenvolvimento Rural (EDR).
9
Plano de Acção para a Procução de Alimentos (PAPA).
10
Plano de Acção par Reducão de Pobreza (PARP).
11
Ministério da Terra, Ambiente e Desenvolvimento Rural (MITADER).
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IIED Working paper
growth rate for the agricultural sector and commit to Five-Year Government Plan (PQG)12
an allocation of at least 10% of the state budget to the
The five-year electoral cycle requires each new
agricultural sector. Mozambique signed its CAADP
government to submit to Parliament a five-year
compact in 2011, which is currently implemented
government plan. This presents the vision of the sitting
through the Strategic Plan for the Development of
government and sets out the priorities for each sector.
Agricultural Sector and the National Investment Plan for
The current plan runs from 2014 to 2019, but at the time
the agricultural sector (Republic of Mozambique, 2011b)
of writing this report, it was not clear if the government
of the new President Filipe Nyusi would make any
2.2 Current policy significant changes in the priorities and direction for
the development of the agricultural sector. The previous
framework for agricultural PQG (2010–2014) was developed under President
Guebuza and envisaged a structural transformation from
development subsistence agriculture to an integrated, prosperous,
competitive and sustainable agricultural sector.
While the strategy documents described above provide Traditional smallholder farmers were not however at the
overall direction, when it comes to implementation, centre of the plan; initiatives supported under Guebuza
government agencies base their plans on the following continued to have a strong focus on attracting private
medium-term strategic documents (summarised in domestic and foreign investments in the agricultural
Box 2). sector (CARE & ActionAid, 2015).
Box 2. POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PLANS GUIDING

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MOZAMBIQUE
Agricultural policy has been influenced and supplemented by a number of strategies and plans that have
provided the structure and direction for future agricultural development in Mozambique. This list is not exclusive
and more laws, strategies and plans have influenced the current agricultural policy framework, including
regional initiatives.
POLICY Agricultural Policy and Implementation Strategy (1995) (PAEI)
National strategies Agenda 2025

and plans that have Priorities for Development of the Agricultural Sector (2006–2009)
influenced content and Green Revolution Strategy
direction of current PROAGRI I (1998–2005) and PROAGRI II (2005–2009)
policy framework Law of Local Institutions (LOLE)
Rural Development Strategy (EDR)
2008 Plan of Action for Food Production (PAPA)
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2010–2014 (PARP)
CURRENT POLICY Five-Year Government Plan 2014–2019 (PQG)

FRAMEWORK The Strategic Plan for the Development of the Agricultural Sector 2011–2020
(PEDSA)
The National Investment Plan for the Agricultural Sector 2014–2018 (PNISA)
Regional development Comprehensive African Development Program (CAADP)
12
Plano Quinquenal do Governo (PQG).
www.iied.org 13
The Strategic Plan for the Development 2011). Through this strategy the government tries to
of the Agricultural Sector, 2011–2020 (i) increase the availability of food through growth in
smallholder producer productivity and emergency
(PEDSA)13 response capacity; (ii) enlarge the area of land under
sustainable management and the number of reliable
Incorporating the priorities of the PQG, the last PARP
water management systems; (iv) increase access to the
and CAADP, and based on the principles of the
market through improved infrastructure and interventions
Green Revolution Strategy and the vision of Agenda
in marketing; and (iv) improve research and extension
2025, the PEDSA is currently the main guiding
for increased adoption of appropriate technologies by
document for the development of the agricultural sector
producers and agro-processers (Suit et al., 2015).
(MINAG, 2011). It has replaced the former PROAGRI
programmes (Benson et al., 2014). PEDSA has a 10‐
year perspective, and is implemented through the
The National Investment Plan for
government’s five-year plans and annual agricultural the Agricultural Sector, 2014–2018
sector plans. (PNISA)14
The government’s response to meeting immediate food
This plan was developed in 2013 to operationalise
security needs through the Green Revolution approach
the PEDSA, while at the same time implementing the
and intensification for rapid yield increases has not
CAADP. The PNISA’s goals are to:
delivered the expected results and is not sustainable.
The government has therefore introduced the concept • achieve an average growth rate of at least 7% per year
of sustainability in its new strategy. Its vision for the over the next 10 years
agricultural sector is now one ‘that is prosperous,
• reduce chronic malnutrition in children under 5 years
competitive and sustainable, capable of offering
of age from 44% in 2008 to 30% in 2015 and 20%
sustainable responses to the challenges of national
in 2020
food and nutrition security and global agricultural market
targets’ (MINAG, 2011). • reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer
from hunger by 2015 (MINAG, 2013).
The PEDSA aims to transform the agricultural sector
from predominantly subsistence agriculture to a more To achieve this, the plan has formulated 21 programmes
competitive agriculture, integrating the vision of key and 65 sub-programmes under five components, which
stakeholders in the sector, fighting the factors that are aligned with the main strategic objectives of the
undermine investor confidence, while also doing more PEDSA and pillars of the CAADP and PARP (Table 1).
to encourage self-sufficiency. It mentions explicitly the The five components are production and productivity;
sector’s dependence on fertiliser imports, which is market access; food and nutrition; natural resources;
unsustainable, and encourages in-country production and institutional reform and strengthening. In line with
and provision of the necessary factors of production. the PEDSA, investment priority is given to farmers and
It also intends to harmonise sectoral activities so as to areas with the potential to produce for the market, and
introduce significant improvements in the sustainable to enterprises that market agricultural inputs and/or
use of land, water and forests (MINAG, 2011). technologies (MINAG, 2013).
Implementation priority is given to areas that have PNISA’s vision for achieving sustainable agriculture is
agricultural potential or that have comparative illustrated in Box 3. Sustainable production systems,
advantages for productivity in terms of agro-ecological as formulated in the PNISA, depend on the efficient
conditions, infrastructure and access to services, use of natural resources (amongst others), should
as well as areas that have market potential. On the have site-specific applications, and integrate natural
other hand – in line with the PARP – priority is also biological cycles and controls. PNISA also expects that
given to areas that have high chronic malnutrition and sustainable production systems will enhance the quality
food insecurity and where increased yield and job of life for farmers and society. All of these are sound
creation will contribute to poverty reduction (MINAG, components of sustainable agriculture.
13
Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento do Sector Agrário (PEDSA).
14
Plano Nacional de Investimentos para o Sector Agrário (PNISA).
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IIED Working paper
Table 1: Components of the PNISA and PEDSA and their links with the PARP and CAADP
PNISA PEDSA PARP CAADP

Component 1: Strategic Objective 1: Objective I.1.: Improve Pillar I: Extend the area under
Production and Agricultural production and increase access to sustainable land management
productivity and productivity and production factors and irrigation
its competitiveness Pillar III: Increase food
increased production and availability
and reduce hunger, increase
productivity and response to
emergencies.
Pillar IV: Agriculture research,
dissemination and adoption of
technologies
Component 2: Market Strategic Objective Objective 1.2: Facilitate Pillar II: Access to markets
access 2: Infrastructures and access to markets through improved infra-
services for markets and structures
marketing improved
Component 3: Natural Strategic Objective 3: Objective 1.3: Improved Pillar I: Extend the area under
resources Land, water, forest and management of natural sustainable land management
wildlife resources used resources and irrigation
sustainably
Strategic Objective 4: Crosscutting pillars I,II,III,IV
Legal framework and
policies conducive to
agricultural investment
in place
Component 4: Strategic Objective 5: Support to all pillars I,II,III,IV
Institutional reform and Agricultural institutions
strengthening strengthened
Crosscutting
Component 3: Food and
nutrition security
Adapted from CAADP compact 2011 (Republic of Mozambique, 2011b) with PEDSA (MINAG, 2011), PNISA (MINAG, 2013)
2.3 A policy framework

The question is, can the current policy framework
correct this? CARE and Action Aid have studied this
supporting sustainable question in detail. They have formulated a set of 14

indicators (Box 4) representing the main elements and
agriculture? criteria that a policy should include and/or consider

to effectively capture smallholder farmers’ needs
and serve their interests (CARE & ActionAid, 2015).
The PNISA states that ‘there is need to develop
Indicator 10 is particularly targeted at sustainable
sustainable production systems capable of doubling
agricultural techniques.
output’, and ‘this requires attacks on all fronts…’ (Box
3). It is doubtful if this is possible, especially during The study observes that the PEDSA fails to clearly
the lifespan of the PNISA. Progress in agriculture over define and identify smallholder farmers as a target
recent decades has been impressive; however, it is group, including the most vulnerable groups such as
unlikely to be sustainable. A major reason for this is traditional farmers, informal workers and women. The
that it was largely driven by land expansion (Mogues PEDSA distinguishes between small, medium and
et al., 2012). In addition, politically driven priorities large farms according to the area of land, as well as
since Independence have discriminated against the quantity of livestock owned. It defines smallholder farms
majority of agricultural producers, who continue to as those cultivating less than 10ha. The study argues
be poor, vulnerable and dependent on handouts from that this does not highlight the heterogeneities of the
government, donors or NGOs (Do Rosário, 2011). group and – more importantly – is not representative
www.iied.org 15
Box 3. PNISA’s vision for sustainable agriculture

‘The sustenance of production systems would require an efficient utilization of natural resources. This implies
“an integrated production system having a site-specific application that will last over the long term” in terms
of satisfying human food and fibre needs, enhancing environmental quality and the natural resource base,
making the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where
appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls, sustaining the economic viability of farm operations and
generally enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole. There is need to develop sustainable
production systems capable of doubling output; this requires attacks on all fronts, ecology, soils, agronomy,
breeding, farm management, pest management, etc.: all in a systematic way which increases the productivity
of complex farming systems. Productivity improvements in cereals, root and tubers, livestock, and high-value
export crops may have significant effects on poverty reduction and economic growth. However, increasing
productivity is better achieved through investments in agricultural research, roads, farm credit, and irrigation
than through input and output subsidies.’
PNISA 2013 Component 1, Production and Productivity (MINAG, 2013).
of smallholders, as their average landholding is only seem to target the most vulnerable smallholder farmers
1.1 ha. In the PNISA, the family sector, defined as specifically, nor do they focus on nutrition, traditional
combining small and medium farms, is the target group or indigenous crops. Priority areas are also clearly
for initiatives under the conservation agriculture sub- not targeted to the needs of smallholder farmers and
programme (see Section 3.3). This focuses on food vulnerable groups, but to areas with potential for
production and subsistence agriculture and places agricultural growth. The study questions what will
special emphases on women and the arid and semi- happen to the zones with less potential, such as arid
arid areas of the southern region. However, beyond and semi-arid sandy land areas in the southern region,
the component of conservation agriculture, extension if they get even less support from government (CARE &
services and technology transfer initiatives do not ActionAid, 2015).
Box 4. Indicators for assessing and comparing how

agricultural policies, strategies and plans target
the most vulnerable smallholder farmers
1. An explicit definition of smallholder farmers, taking 10. Promotes sustainable agricultural practices, with
into account their heterogeneity and vulnerability a particular focus on climate resilience.
2. A clear goal targeting smallholder farmers. 11. Promotes access of agricultural technologies to
smallholder farmers through quality extension
3. Clear identification of the government and other
services.
actors´ roles to meet smallholder needs.
12. Encourages research focused on developing new
4. The promotion of inter-sectorial coordination and
knowledge, practices and technologies adapted
collaboration
to vulnerable smallholder needs.
5. The promotion of intra-sectorial coordination and
13. Promotes access to credit and financing for
collaboration.
smallholder farmers.
6. Clear system of monitoring and evaluation with
14. Encourages conservation/storage, processing
some indicators on smallholder farmers.
and the access to markets for smallholder food
7. Considers local specificities (local knowledge, production.
attitudes and practices). Source: CARE & ActionAid, 2015
8. Considers the different agro-ecological regions.
9. Is sensitive to gender issues and promotes the
empowerment of women through special focus on
women smallholders.
16 www.iied.org
3
IIED Working paper
Approaches, strategies
and support for
agricultural practices
Initiatives to scale up sustainable agriculture are hampered by various factors,
including insufficient and unpredictable financial resources and an acute
shortage of advisory services. The promotion of conservation agriculture and
establishment of Farmer Field Schools in Mozambique offer solutions to some
of the problems identified and provide opportunities for smallholder farmers to
improve their livelihoods.
3.1 From policy to action and in turn is meant to feed into the annual National
Socio-Economic Plan (PES)16 (Mogues et al., 2012).
plans Due to Mozambique’s substantial dependence on
foreign aid, the action plan preparation process includes
The list of policies and strategies that provide a basis consultations with the main bilateral and multilateral
or have a bearing on the development of the agricultural development partners, who provide support either
sector is long, and the current policy framework directly to the government budget (budget support), to
expresses the vision and provides an elaborate list a particular sector (sector-wide approach or SWAP) or
of initiatives to achieve a transformation to a more to particular projects and programmes.
sustainable agricultural sector. Annual operational plans
At provincial level a similar process takes place.
form the basis of the implementation of the strategies.
The provincial government prepares its annual Socio-
At national level, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food economic Plan (PESP)17 based on its own strategic
Security prepares its Annual Action Plan in Agriculture plan (PEP)18 and on the priorities and activities
(PAAO).15 This plan is based on the contributions it has proposed by the various district plans. Consultations
received from the offices in the provinces and districts, with development partners also take place at the
15
Plano Annual de Actividades e Orçamento (PAAO).
16
Plano Económico Social (PES).
17
Plano Económico Social da Provincia (PESP).
18
Plano Estratégico Provincial (PEP).
www.iied.org 17
provincial level as donors, NGOs and the private opportunity to voice their concerns and to present
sector make a considerable contribution to provincial project proposals on any subject, but it is ultimately the
development. The development partners, such as District Administrator – a political appointment – who
bilateral donors and international NGOs, typically decides which projects will be funded by the special
provide support to programmes and projects in a fund which is referred to as ‘7 millioes’.21
specific number of focus provinces.
The above illustrates the point that although structures
At district level, the 10-year District Development Plan are in place to respond to the immediate needs of
(PEDD)19 sets the tone for the annual district Socio farming communities and to correct failures in the
Economic Plan (PESOD).20 At this level, however, not support mechanism, political support is needed to
all sectors are represented, and the smaller sectors make the system work. Other factors are also at play, as
are integrated into the larger departments, such as illustrated in next section.
agriculture, that have a full resident representation and
3.2 Resource allocation
can take on the extra responsibilities.
The planning process in Mozambique is, in theory,
bottom up. District proposals are prepared after a
consultation process with the local authorities, who
and public expenditure on
provide local content in terms of concerns and priorities. agriculture
All district plans are presented to the province, where
they feed into the national sectoral plans which are to For implementing the PEDSA, budgets were
be presented in June. The overall national PES is then established for each of PNISA’s programmes and
presented, discussed and approved by the Mozambican sub-programmes. At the time of formulation, the total
Parliament or Assembly of the Republic. At this point, financial resources required to implement the PNISA
the process feeds back down the levels. Priorities and between 2013 and 2017 came to around 4 billion
budget ceilings are determined, influencing resource United States dollars (USD). While some financing was
allocation to the various sectors, which in turn set secured through existing or planned donor projects,
the ceilings and priorities for implementation in the when PNISA was launched it still had a financing gap
provinces and districts. of 78% of the total budget. This financial gap remains a
challenge for its implementation (Benson et al., 2014).
It cannot be disputed that resource shortages mean
that actions have to be prioritised. It is difficult to Mozambique’s dependence on external funding is
prepare a plan that perfectly balances all the initiatives high. Between 2001 and 2007, donor funding for
to meet the immediate needs and demands expressed the agricultural sector was either through traditional
in the provincial and district plans. Prioritising can, on projects or channelled through the common donor fund
the other hand, be an opportunity to focus on those established under PROAGRI. The external contribution
components that have a profound impact on and to the total investment budget for the agricultural sector
contribution to sustainable farming systems. amounted to an average of 76% between 2005 and
2007 (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). A recent FAO study
An opportunity to fill in the gaps and respond to the
found that over the period 2009–2014, the externally
immediate needs of the rural communities was created
financed budget for agriculture showed a downward
by the Mozambican Government through the Law of
trend, but that donor funding still made a very significant
Local Institutions, which was approved in 2005. It
contribution. In 2014, donor funding reached 53% of
designates district administrations as the focal point for
budgeted expenditures (CARE & ActionAid, 2015).
socio-economic development of the country. A direct
transfer of public funds supports the decentralised While it is clear that there are not enough financial
decision making and management by district officials. resources available, of even greater importance is
Use of these funds is to be strictly based on the how these scarce resources are allocated. Public
priorities of the district. They are decided upon by the expenditures in agriculture reflect the clear impact
District Administrator after a series of consultative of donors, but analysis of the use of the budget and
meetings held in each locality of the district, wrapped investments in rural areas points to geographical
up by a general consultative meeting at district targeting, and indicates political influence and gain
level. Members of the community therefore have the (Mogues et al., 2012).
19
Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento Distrital (PEDD).
20
Plano Económico Social do Distrito (PESOD).
21
Seven million, reflecting the amount of meticais (national currency) initially dedicated to be transferred directly to each district (see Section 2.1).
18 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
A budget and expenditure primarily dominated by It is well documented that the use of improved
external funds and by politics is not sustainable. technologies can scale up sustainable agriculture,
Service providers are especially affected, as they but introducing improved technologies requires
have no indication when funds will become available, knowledge, management and external inputs. They
and what proportion of the budget they can count on. will only contribute to sustainable agriculture if they
This is reflected in expenditure rates, as an indication are appropriate and attractive to farmers, and if there
of implementation. Between 2009 and 2013, public is sufficient support available. In addition, political
expenditure on agriculture averaged 93%, indicating will is needed to provide the incentives to make such
that all (scarce) resources were used, while execution efforts sustainable.
rates for activities funded by external sources were
At the IIED/CARE workshop in May 2015,
only 62%, due to the often erratic nature and complex
representatives from key agricultural institutions
procurement procedures followed by donors (CARE &
discussed the constraints to scaling-up sustainable
ActionAid, 2015).
practices and the type of incentives that were needed
to overcome them. They suggested that sustainable
3.3 Scaling up sustainable agriculture could be enhanced by:
agricultural practices 1) ensuring immediate benefits

2) providing intermediate, appropriate technology
The PEDSA and PNISA have listed a number of
3) carrying out research and technical assistance
initiatives that could scale up sustainable agriculture
for large, medium and small farms. These include 4) increasing coordination and planning
training in the safe use of agro-chemicals, and in water
5) increasing policy support and leadership.
management, including the collection, conservation and
management of rainwater to expand irrigation in drier The following sections will look in more detail at some
areas for agriculture and animal production. Farmers of these, and other key factors that have been identified
are expected to benefit from initiatives that provide during the fieldwork for this study.
access to improved seeds, veterinary care and credit.
Natural resource management and practices such as Appropriate technologies and
conservation agriculture, agro-forestry for regenerating approaches
degraded land, biological methods for pest and disease
control, and the use of drought-resistant crops are Initiatives to enhance the sustainability of agriculture
also specifically mentioned. There is also provision for in Mozambique have increased, with research and
post-harvest storage, including training, the construction advisory services trying to keep up in providing
of improved granaries and the rehabilitation and appropriate and attractive packages that are adapted
maintenance of public silos (MINAG, 2011). to the local agro-ecological circumstances and, of
increasing importance, climate variability. The approach
The government has reported in the PNISA that
that has gained most support in Mozambique is
Mozambique’s cultivated area increased by 45%
conservation agriculture. It is also the approach that
between 1999 and 2010 to reach about 15.7% of the
is most articulated in policies, strategies and plans in
estimated 36 million ha of arable land in the country.22 It
Mozambique. Other approaches – such as agroforestry,
recognises that more than 97% of the cultivated area is
integrated pest management and, to a lesser extent,
worked by the family sector, which is characterised by
biological pest control – are also researched and
the low use of improved technologies (MINAG, 2013).
promoted (Silici et al., 2015). Mozambique’s vulnerability
Between 2000 and 2011 agricultural value added
to climate change has seen a growing a focus on the
grew at an average rate of 8.4% per year, surpassing
development and promotion of drought-resistant crops
the Africa-wide CAADP target of achieving 6% annual
in the last decade, and interest in new approaches such
average growth. While this may give the impression that
as climate smart agriculture is growing too. Each of
continuing on this pathway may be desirable, evidence
these is described in turn below.
suggests however that it is unlikely to be sustainable,
as agricultural growth in Mozambique has been driven Agroforestry initiatives in Mozambique gained a new
largely by factor (particularly land) expansion, with very impetus from late 2002 when the World Agroforestry
little or no technical change (Mogues et al., 2012). Centre initiated its activities in the country. Mozambique
22
Mozambique has a vast land area; much of the farmland had fallen out of use as it was abandoned during the war. People returning from the war and gifts by
the government to demobilised soldiers have meant more land is now being farmed, leading to increased production.
www.iied.org 19
was part of the Zambezi Basin Agroforestry project, Results from CA interventions that were applied in the
covering five countries in Southern Africa. After having Farmer Field Schools established by CARE International
tested the technologies on-station, participatory Mozambique, show substantial increases in yields,
research with farmers was initiated. This saw the project increased crop diversification and greater efficiency in
scaled up, with knowledge and planting materials more water use and conservation. The impacts on labour are
widely disseminated (Silici et al., 2015). Since 2013 less clear, however. In spite of the positive outcomes,
Mozambique has also been a beneficiary of the Large there has not been widespread adoption of CA by
Evergreen Agriculture Network for Africa (BLEANSA),23 farmers. Common lessons learnt include difficulties in
aimed at building research and development capacity preparing land to switch from conventional methods
and supporting tree seed production by smallholder to alternative agricultural practices. There were also
farmers in a number of selected provinces.24 difficulties retaining crop residues in the field due to
the traditional practice of free grazing, particularly in
Most integrated pest management initiatives in
areas where large numbers of cattle are raised (Silici
Mozambique are addressed through basic research
et al., 2015).
projects and are concentrated in the central and
northern provinces. Ongoing research is trying to Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is also gaining
develop potential training and education strategies to increasing interest in Mozambique as farmers face
enhance farmers’ knowledge and overcome constraints growing challenges from climate change. Adaptation to
to adoption (Silici et al., 2015). climatic changes mostly tends to be spontaneous rather
than reflecting a conscious response to climatic change.
Sustainable soil fertility practices have been
Coping strategies consist of expanding the area of
promoted through dissemination projects undertaken by
cultivation; reducing fallows; switching crops; engaging
several national and international organisations working
in wage employment; vegetal charcoal, timber and brick
in Mozambique. The practices have been applied mostly
production; and temporary or permanent migration
in maize-based farming systems. The type of practices
to access land or markets (Mucavele, 2014). CSA
promoted and the point of view of some project co-
addresses the interlinked challenges of food security
ordinators indicate a focus on economic sustainability,
and climate change by working simultaneously towards
seeking soil fertility enhancing measures that are locally
three objectives: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural
available at lower costs than inorganic fertilisers, and
productivity, to support equitable increases in farm
reducing input costs (Silici et al., 2015).
incomes, food security and development; (2) adapting
Conservation agriculture (CA) is an approach rather and building resilience of agricultural and food security
than a particular technology. All of the approaches listed systems to climate change at multiple levels; and
above can be part of or integrated into conservation (3) reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
agriculture. Typically, it is based on minimum or no (FAO, 2013). The major stakeholders in promoting
mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil CSA activities in Mozambique are the government, the
cover, mixed cropping and crop rotations (Silici et al., FAO and other international multilateral organisations
2015). CA has been promoted by various organisations and NGOs.
as an approach with tremendous potential for all sizes
of farms and agro-ecological systems to combine Extension services26
profitable agricultural production with environmental
Extension services are the backbone of rural
concerns and sustainability. It has been proven to
development. A widely available and good quality,
work in a variety of agro-ecological zones and farming
working extension service is essential for scaling
systems. The Government of Mozambique and several
25
up sustainable agriculture. However, there is a huge
national and international organisations have promoted
shortage in Mozambique. In 2013 only 11% of the
CA through different combinations over the past ten
4.9 million farm families in the country were covered
years. Technological packages combine technical
by extension services (MINAG, 2013). The PEDSA
assistance for existing or new crops and improved
envisages an increase in extension services through
varieties of food and cash crops, training of both farmers
both public and non-public channels, including the
and advisory staff, and promotion of research and
private sector and NGOs, so that public extension
experimentation (Silici et al., 2015).
workers can be mainly allocated to districts with
23
Building a Large Evergreen Agriculture Network for Southern Africa.
24
From World Agroforestry website: http://blog.worldagroforestry.org/index.php/2015/04/20/bleansa-the-makings-of-an-evergreen-agriculture-hub-for-
southern-africa/
25
From the FAO website: http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/
26
Some organisations and sources have replaced ‘extension services’ by ‘advisory services’, to reflect the change in approach from the linear ‘transfer of
technology’ to a more ‘participatory’ approach. Extension is used in this study, as it is still commonly used in Mozambique.
20 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
highest potential for growth (PEDSA, 2013). This also requires the necessary skills for operation and
system has already been in place for a while, with maintenance. Subsidised energy that in the past was
donors and international NGOs providing the service promised but not delivered is another reason that
through their own programmes. In addition, they provide existing irrigation schemes are no longer in use. The
substantial support for training and the supply of inputs capacity of farmers and farmer associations to manage
and equipment. irrigation infrastructure is often inadequate to justify
investment in such techniques. The policy should
This is not a sustainable situation. PEDSA however
therefore make a clear distinction between commercial
also promotes the establishment of farmer groups and
and non-commercial farmers.
associations. These can make extension services more
efficient and provide the opportunity for a multiplier With the high share of external contributions to
effect. In each group or association, a ‘chefe do grupo’ extension services, especially from NGOs, there is
or chairperson is selected to act as the contact person need for coordination. Approaches and techniques
for the extension agent. In addition, the more advanced promoted by NGOs are not always consistent with
farmers in each group are trained to be ‘productores those promoted by government. The lack of coordination
de contacto’ or contact farmers. They receive extra is a problem that is felt and expressed both by the
training to assist the community with new techniques, government and other stakeholders and has been
the multiplication of plant material, vaccinations of given attention in the PEDSA and also in the National
chickens, etc. In turn, these farmers are given some Extension Master Plan (MINAG, 2007a).
incentives, ranging from labour assistance for preparing
multiplication plots to a bicycle to allow them to easily Research
visit other members of the community. This farmer-to-
The main agricultural research organisation is the
farmer approach to creating training and monitoring
Mozambique Institute for Agricultural Research (IIAM).27
capacity within the community is a strong building block
Apart from traditional research into techniques to
for advancing agricultural development. Continued
increase production and productivity, the PEDSA
monitoring of this system is needed, however, to
expresses the need to develop locally suited techniques
ensure that the principles are respected when external
and varieties. In this context, the Ministry of Agriculture
assistance is no longer available. Personal interests
has established – in addition to a series of specialised
and gain, and the exclusion of more vulnerable or timid
technical departments – four location-specific research
members of the community, need to be avoided.
centers in the south, centre, northeast and northwest
The training & visit approach to promoting new of the country. They have been a real asset for the
technologies has been abolished in Mozambique and development and adaptation of new technologies
replaced by an approach involving three key principles: and crop varieties to local agro-ecological conditions.
de-concentration, participation and partnership (DNEA, They also offer a key opportunity for initiating research
2007). The use of approaches such as CA and the based on local priorities and demands. The main
establishment of Farmer Field Schools (Box 5) have priority, however, for research funding is mostly for the
significantly increased over the past few years. adaptation of commercial, market-oriented crops rather
than the adaptation of local varieties traditionally used
The techniques that are promoted by extension services
by smallholder farmers.
are in general those that are promoted in the national
policy. They aim to improve productivity, profitability and Related to the above, and one of the weaknesses also
food security. The techniques suggested for achieving recognised in the PEDSA, is the lack of coordination
these objectives, however, are not always suited to the and coherence between research and extension
local context. In Inhambane Province, the multiplication services. Several structural and organisational
of certified improved seed, demonstration of and reforms have been introduced to strengthen the
support for mechanisation and irrigation, which are all links. These include the creation of the Mozambique
priorities for the Mozambican Government, can only Platform for Agricultural Research and Technological
work for a selected number of private farmers. And Innovation (PIAIT)28 and the Directorate for Training,
even so, such techniques are not always suited to the Documentation and Technology Transfer (DFDTT).
local agro-ecological conditions. For example, water is At the moment, the IIAM, DFDTT and Directorate
in short supply in some areas, hence techniques such of Agricultural Extension (DNEA) are all based in
as irrigation or growing crops with improved certified the Ministry of Agriculture, making coordination and
seeds are not suitable. Promoting such techniques communication easier (CARE & ActionAid, 2015).
27
Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (IIAM).
28
The Agriculture Research and Technological Innovation Platform (PIAIT) is an instrument to support the management of agricultural research programmes
and projects, and to improve coordination between the various research institutions in the country. It was established in October 2009.
www.iied.org 21
At local level, adaptive research has been encouraged The first FFS in Mozambique was established in 2001.
through the Farmer Field Schools approach (described The next four years saw 243 schools established, and
below). These provide a forum to bring research and more than 158 facilitators and approximately 1,605
extension together, and more importantly, encourage farmers trained (Braun and Duveskog, 2008). A project
farmer participation. In Mozambique, CARE, the Ministry supported by the FAO and implemented by the Ministry
of Agriculture, and local partners have used Farmer of Agriculture between 2004 and 2009 established a
Field Schools to identify combinations of local crops total of 907 FFSs, involving 26,000 farmers. It trained
that are tolerant to drought, provide more food and build 930 facilitators, of whom 823 were farmers (MASA,
up soil fertility and organic matter with minimal financial 2015). Recently the Ministry of Agriculture and FAO
and labour inputs (Silici et al., 2015). announced a new project aimed at the further extension
of the FFS approach in four provinces, incorporating
Farmer Field Schools new approaches and practices targeted to cope with
climate change. This project is expected to benefit
There has been a growing interest in Farmer Field
80,000 farmers through the establishment of 3,200
Schools (FFS) in Mozambique. The approach was
FFSs and through the training of 1,500 facilitators and
developed by the FAO and partners nearly 25 years
200 extension workers (FAO, 2015b).
ago in Southeast Asia as an alternative to the prevailing
top-down extension method of the Green Revolution CARE International is one of the NGOs that has
(Box 5). been using and developing the FFS approach for its
development programmes in various countries, including
Mozambique. Recognising that strong local institutions
Box 5. What are Farmer are a critical element of adaptive capacity at community
Field Schools? level, they have adapted the FFS model and also
developed a number of other schools in Mozambique,
According to the FAO, ‘In a typical FFS a group of such as the Farmer Field and Business Schools,
20–25 farmers meets once a week in a local field which integrate agriculture, marketing, gender and
setting and under the guidance of a trained facilitator. nutrition components; and the Climate Field Schools,
In groups of five they observe and compare two which integrate aspects of climate scenario planning
plots over the course of an entire cropping season. (CARE, 2015b)
One plot follows local conventional methods while
It is positive that not only is the number of FFSs
the other is used to experiment with what could be
increasing in Mozambique, but there is also a
considered “best practices”. They experiment with
realisation from the government that coordination in
and observe key elements of the agro-ecosystem
this area is important. In this context, in July 2015 the
and at the end of the weekly meeting they discuss
Department of Extension of the Ministry of Agriculture
findings in a plenary session, followed by discussion
organised a workshop to review the strategies and
and planning for the coming weeks. It is up to the
implementation of the FFS approach in the country
farmers to decide what works best through his or
and to reflect with partners on its further development
her testing and observations. What the FFS does
to harmonise strategies and share experiences. As a
is provide a risk-free setting in which to discuss,
result of this workshop it was decided to establish a
dissect, modify and experiment with new agricultural
team of representatives to work on the development
management ideas. Hence, the learning-by-doing
and approval of a common approach and action plan
approach promotes farm-based experimentation,
(MASA, 2015).
group organization and decision-making; thereby
increasing the likelihood that farmers will eventually Such developments offer a number of opportunities
“own” and adopt improved practices’ to support and further develop the FFS approach in
Source: FAO, 2015a Mozambique, and to scale up sustainable agriculture.
Joining efforts to develop a curriculum for FFSs,
22 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
designing common indicators and forging a much Access to inputs and markets by smallholder farmers is
stronger programme to replace parallel FFS projects still one of their main constraints in Mozambique. Apart
can for example result in a better use of existing from the informal markets and stalls along the main
resources. They also offer the opportunity for non-public roads, farmers can avail of the special local markets or
extension staff at provincial and district level to work ‘feiras’ organised by the government in rural areas. They
more closely with public extension staff. While both have the dual objectives of seed distribution and as a
work more regularly together and are involved in each venue for smallholders to sell their produce. In most
other’s annual planning and training work, there is still a cases there are two such markets organised each year
large gap in harmonisation and cooperation at that level – the first at the start of the agricultural season, when
(CARE & ActionAid, 2015). Another aspect that can improved seeds are offered, and the second at the end
be worked on is participatory technology development of the season so farmers can sell their produce. Where
and inclusiveness (especially for women and vulnerable relevant, extra market days are organised, such as for
groups). Training in this area is needed for farmers horticultural crops to avoid them from getting spoilt.
and extension workers to become better adapted These markets have the potential to attract external
to the teaching methodology and in field monitoring agricultural traders and local entrepreneurs, whose
(Ljungkvist, 2012). interest encourages farmers to invest and increase their
production for sale. This development can shift the
Other support focus of smallholder farmers, especially those who have
been able to produce enough for home consumption
The PEDSA promotes partnerships with the private
but lack the incentives to increase productivity. The
sector. It sees their value in various areas, such
development of value chains for certain locally grown
as complementing the public advisory services,
crops and livestock has been promoted and supported
construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of rural
by various donors and NGOs.
infrastructure, seed multiplication and distribution.
Private sector investments in agriculture have largely
been for export cash-crop production such as sugar,
cotton, cashew and tobacco. Medium-scale private
3.4 Stakeholder
producers have mainly targeted the urban centres and
invested in the production of horticultural crops, potato
involvement,
and cattle (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). There has been a communication and
coordination
growing number of out-grower schemes, but these have
had mixed results.
Communities do in some cases benefit directly from Although the Ministry of Agriculture is the main
private investment through fees and fines. For example, institution responsible for the agricultural policy
under the Forestry and Wildlife Law, 20% of all annual process in Mozambique in terms of formulation,
fees from timber cutting licences have to be returned implementation, monitoring and evaluation, there are
to the communities. These funds are paid to the district many other public institutions involved in implementing
governments, who then allocate them to the Community or supporting agricultural activities. These include the
Management Committees. These funds are expected to National Directorate of Water; and the Ministry of Land,
finance projects that will improve the well-being of the Environment and Rural Development. In addition, the
inhabitants. While they could be used to contribute to Ministry of Agriculture itself includes a large number of
and invest in technologies for sustainable agriculture, specialised directorates and institutes responsible for
as these funds originate from deforestation or timber supporting the planning and implementation of activities.
cutting, caution has to be taken with this approach. With so many public institutions involved in the
More research is needed into how to involve the private agricultural sector in Mozambique, good coordination,
sector in sustainable enterprises. collaboration and cooperation are needed. While some
efforts have been made, collaboration to date has
www.iied.org 23
been more the exception than the rule, and should be There are only a few private agricultural sector providers,
practised more consistently (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). but they have been underrepresented in agricultural
policy discussions. The Federation of Economic
Coordination and collaboration with donors have
Associations of Mozambique (CTA),31 a confederation
been on the national agenda for a long time, and were
of small private agricultural service providers, has
the main outcome of PROAGRI, the predecessor
been promoting the interests of these groups in policy
of PEDSA. Coordination mechanisms encouraged
making. However, the national private sector and
included coordination workshops and meetings
civil society organisations seldom play a leading role
and sectoral working groups for joint programming.
and consultations are seen more as obligatory and
Another tool that was created in 2006 is the Official
rarely result in significantly new perspectives (Benson
Development Assistance to Mozambique Database
et al., 2014).
(ODAMOZ),29 which lists all externally funded projects
and programmes. At provincial and local level coordination is easier,
but also needs strengthening. At this level it is also
Other initiatives by the Ministry of Agriculture
more important that the programmes of the various
that encourage involvement and participation of
directorates and external stakeholders such as NGOs
stakeholders, including NGOs and private sector, are
are complementary. The messages and approaches
the Conservation Agriculture Working Group (CAWG)
of the public advisory services and those provided by
and the Platform for the Development and Transfer of
NGOs need to be streamlined.
Technologies (PIAIT).30
29
The database was created in response to the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, and advocates for strengthened coordination and harmonisation among
donors and their alignment with the Government of Mozambique.
30
Plano Estratégico da Plataforama de Geração e Transferência de Tecnologias Agrárias (PIAIT).
31
Confederação das Associações Económicas de Mozambique (CTA).
24 www.iied.org
4
IIED Working paper
Implementation
realities and
challenges
Field visits revealed that farmers are keen to practise more sustainable
and profitable farming practices if they have the necessary support. The
‘appropriateness’ of techniques does not always guarantee adoption; changes
in practice have to be attractive and bring clear benefits to the farmer. Their
impact will be more sustainable if they have been developed by and decided
upon by the farmer him or herself, taking traditional and cultural aspects into
account. Public services and those provided by NGOs and the private sector
need to be streamlined and coordinated.
Policy has content, and it also has process – policy CARE, for example, has been combining implementing
making, implementing and reviewing. There is a need development projects and programmes with research
to understand the complicated area between policy and using the results to improve techniques and
pronouncements and practice and to explain the approaches. The information in this section is based
difference between ‘what people say they will do and on a visit, hosted by CARE, to Inhambane Province
what people actually do’ (Mayers and Bass, 1999). between 25th November and 5th December
Formulating policies and plans has its challenges, 2015, which aimed to understand the realities of
but it is only when it comes to implementation that implementation. Questions explored included: Are the
the factors that influence progress or failure become reasons for adoption or non-adoption of sustainable
clear. More studies and research are needed into the agricultural practices by smallholder farmers linked to
realities and challenges for small, medium and large- policy? If so, what are the key factors in the policy or
scale farmers. The results should be disseminated policy process that influence their decision making?
so that they can encourage policy makers and other The visit consisted of discussions with officials of the
stakeholders to reinforce or change ‘the way things Ministry of Agriculture of Inhambane Province and of
can be done’. Homoíne and Funhalouro districts, and with farmers
and extension workers from a number of Farmer Field
Schools in those two districts.
www.iied.org 25
4.1 Understanding 4.2 Financial resources and

sustainable agriculture variable action plans
District-level contact with and support to smallholder Financial resources to support activities at provincial
farmers begin with the extension staff. Hence, it is and district level are provided by the national
important to find out how they understand and interpret government based on annual plans and budgets, but
the concept of sustainable agriculture. Provincial and adjusted to national priorities. These are supplemented
district staff in Inhambane did not hesitate when asked by direct funding to the budget or for particular
to explain the concept of sustainable agriculture and programmes from donor agencies and NGOs. Usually
how it is supported through their efforts in the province. the total amount received is not sufficient to cover the
Their views on the various components of sustainable proposed annual action plan and initial priorities have
agriculture were as follows: 32 to be discussed and decided upon again. The various
sectoral departments harmonise their own action plans
Economic viability. Staff felt that economically
with the Provincial Plan, and with the financial resources
profitable agriculture is only for a minor part of the
that are available for the year from various sources.
communities. Most farmers cannot survive on agriculture
Plans continue to be revisited and readjusted during the
and only a small part will make a profit from agriculture.
year in response to local circumstances and events.
Productivity is low and is in the first place to satisfy the
basic needs, to achieve food security. New perspectives In terms of agricultural expenditure in the province, on
are being introduced at central level, new ways of average the highest expenditures are on agricultural
doing agriculture, new high producing varieties, but production, functional support, and advisory services.
these techniques and varieties have been developed Under the category of agricultural production, most is
for commercial agriculture, high-input agriculture, not spent on commercial and market-oriented agriculture in
for smallholders. the form of inputs, purchase of poultry and treatment of
cashew. There is a limited amount of resources spent on
Environmental sustainability. Smallholder agriculture
drought-resistant seed varieties that are distributed to
is always ‘environmental’, as it is mainly targeted to rural
the districts with highest potential.
households who respect nature and have close links
with it. Intensification is pursued by techniques such At district level, priorities are aligned with the priorities of
as mulching and zero tillage. The government plays the province and with the financial and human resources
their part by promoting organic farming, with hardly available. In addition, the District Development
any use of pesticides or herbicides. The only non- Fund provides credit to individual projects for food
environmentally sound technique that is practised widely production, as well as job and income generation.
in the province is uncontrolled burning; while efforts are National guidelines state that 50% of the funds should
being made to explain the damaging effects, it remains a be used to finance agricultural initiatives, but projects
common practice. benefitting from this fund are usually those that ensure
a good return on investment. Climate change means
Climate resilience. Smallholder farming systems are
that agricultural projects have not been considered as a
being developed to be climate resilient. The techniques
good investment.
promoted – such as mulching, and intercropping with
short duration varieties – are targeting adaptation to The problem with the current financing process is
drought and climate resilience. that while in principle it is bottom up, requests are
consistently adjusted on the way down, so that at the
Cultural appropriateness and social justness. New
end of the process it is the national targets which
varieties are mostly improved local varieties, those that
are primarily supported. To make things even more
farmers like to use for consumption. These varieties
complicated, funds are not made available in a timely
are not developed by national research institutes but
way. The public agricultural budget is only available in
through local selection and by NGOs. They are adapted
March, which is in the middle of the growing season
to local circumstances.
when activities and support for farmers are most
Smallholder agriculture can be sustainable, according critical (CARE & ActionAid, 2015). Those activities and
to local stakeholders. What is lacking is economic programmes funded externally by donors, either through
viability, which is only possible when farming systems budget support or direct funding, are often delayed or
raise production above subsistence level, and farmers the timing of funding release is uncertain. This has a
can participate in more commercial and market-oriented direct impact on implementation, meaning the timing of
production as promoted and supported by current activities must often be adjusted. A particular example
agricultural policies. of how people cope with this situation is the chemical
32
The statements are those of staff interviewed and are not necessarily the opinion of the author.
26 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
treatment of cashew trees. This treatment needs to In line with government policy, and to facilitate their
be done three or four times a year. Whereas the first work, extension staff have been promoting the
treatment is done for all trees, the second treatment is establishment of farmer groups and associations.
only done for those trees that are doing well; treatment Fixed field days and phone communication with the
is excluded for trees that are not likely to produce chairperson of the groups or associations mean
enough. The same principle is used for the next two that extension staff are less likely to arrive after
treatments. At the end of the season, only the healthy a long journey and find no farmers are available.
and high-potential trees get the full treatment. The assistance of contact farmers has also greatly
improved service delivery to farmers. Following their
Such experiences underline the ad hoc nature of
training they have been assisting with treating cashew
financing activities and projects that support sustainable
trees and vaccinating chickens against Newcastle
agricultural practices: public and donor priority setting
Disease, providing these services to their own
is inconsistent and resource flows are unpredictable.
community members.
The long-term nature of approaches and techniques
that support sustainable agriculture demands a more
strategic and long-term approach to essential services
and support. Instead, flows of funds are usually erratic
4.4 Technology adoption
and insufficient and end up being used to respond to As we have seen, conservation agriculture is the
immediate needs, rather than for longer-term support approach that has gained most support in Mozambique.
and follow up. CARE Mozambique has been actively promoting CA
in the two provinces in which they work, Nampula and
4.3 Extension services
Inhambane provinces. They promote this system through
the establishment of Farmer Field Schools.
Extension services are in short supply. Resource The Farmer Field Schools that we visited in Homoíne
constraints mean there is not sufficient provision for district had not yet benefitted as this was the first year
recruiting new staff, or for housing, extra training, or they had received any external support. Insufficient
transport. As mentioned earlier, extension services by rain over the past couple of years has caused farmers’
public extension staff are complemented by the services production to decline considerably. This had not
of other extension workers supported by donors, the only affected food security, but also meant they
private sector and NGOs. The 2010 annual report of had no seeds to plant. Farmers were eager to learn
Inhambane Province for example mentions that in total, about new techniques, approaches and alternative
109 public advisory workers were active in the province. crops or varieties of crops, especially those that are
Of these, 56 were government staff and 53 were drought resistant. The farmers who we interviewed
provided by NGOs. In 2009, NGOs provided more than in Funhalouro district, on the other hand, had been
50% of extension staff – 56 advisory workers compared members of the CARE Farmer Field Schools for two
to 42 provided by the government (MINAG, 2010b). years. They are now seeing positive results in their
own fields after trying some of the techniques that
The extension services in Inhambane Province have
they had learned. For example, they had observed that
concentrated on three areas over the last few years:
mulching had increased the humidity in the soil. It was
conservation agriculture, cashew production and
too early to draw any conclusions about the adoption
promotion of small livestock. This is in line with the
of CA techniques, but the extra support in terms of
national policy to promote the increase of market-
vaccinations of chickens and the supply of improved
oriented production and productivity. Taking into
seeds had had an immediate impact on their livelihoods.
account the arid and semi-arid conditions in the
province, extension staff have strongly encouraged These observations confirm that it is important that
farmers to use drought-resistant food crops as part techniques that show benefits over a longer timeframe
of the conservation agriculture package. Production are complemented with practices that provide
of cashew and raising small livestock are considered immediate benefits. A student at the Lund University
viable commercial options for smallholder farmers in in Sweden who worked with CARE in Nampula has
the area. Natural resource management and reducing documented the adoption of conservation agriculture in
uncontrolled fires are also on the programme, but are CARE’s FFS in Nampula Province. The purpose of her
more difficult topics to tackle due to the many traditional study was to gain an in-depth understanding of farmers’
and cultural aspects associated with them. perceptions and decisions as to why they adopt or
reject CA. She concluded that farmers adopt those CA
www.iied.org 27
technologies that have a high degree of ‘observability’. Technology adoption is also influenced by cultural and
These are techniques whose advantages can easily be traditional factors, as observed during the field visit:
observed, such as increased yield or improved quality.
• In Funhalouro district, advisory staff had been
Other techniques that have no immediate benefit or
promoting short duration (three-month) varieties of
whose advantages are harder to understand (such as
cassava. These varieties are very appropriate for this
improved soil structure of improved soil fertility) have a
area, due to the lack of rain and very short cropping
lower rate of adoption (Ljungkvist, 2012).
season. However, this short duration variety is not
Ljungkvist also observed that the CA techniques are sweet, and uptake has been low as it is less attractive
not always practised exactly as they were introduced to the farmer.
by CARE. Instead, they are implemented according
• Maize is the other staple crop, and is the favoured
to farmers’ individual preferences and capacities. She
crop for consumption. Unfortunately, it does not yield
found that farmers who have not learned CA via the
well in these semi-arid conditions, and without access
programme, but have learned the techniques through
to fertilisers and irrigation it can only be grown at
observation of association members, have made
subsistence level. Despite advice to stop growing it,
adaptations. She also found that some techniques were
farmers are likely to continue to grow it unless they
no longer applied. This was the case for mulching.
have the income to purchase it from other sources.
Various reasons were given, but the main challenge
seems to be the increased labour requirements. This • Extension staff have also found it difficult to change
is also the case for the technique of planting crops in the traditional technique of slash and burn. This
lines and using seed spacing. To reduce the labour technique is used by communities as a method to
requirements of this technique, many farmers use what increase access to uncultivated land for creating
is referred to as ‘mental lines’ instead of applying ropes “hunting corridors”, to clear land of long grasses
and seed spacing when intercropping. She concluded and bushes, and to control pests such as the TseTse
that labour constraints have not necessarily generated fly and bovine tuberculosis parasites. It serves
a rejection of CA, but instead encouraged farmers to multiple objectives, so replacing it with a mix of other
experiment and adapt those techniques which suit them techniques (such as cutting and using pest control)
best. The author suggests that farmers’ adaptations is not attractive to farmers because it would involve a
should be considered for future CA implementation as huge increase in labour or costly inputs.
a means to improve uptake. Care should, however, be
These findings and examples show that
taken that soil conservation is not negatively affected by
‘appropriateness’ of techniques does not, on its own,
such adaptations.
guarantee adoption, and that adaptive research needs
Another finding of interest in Ljungkvist’s study is how to take traditional and cultural aspects into account.
the further diffusion and adoption of CA by other non- Changes in practice have to be attractive, bring extra
member farmers can be limited by the communities’ benefits to the farmer, and be seen as a stepping stone
social network. Farmers who are not members of the towards a more sustainable system with potential for
association and who have a lower socio-economic growth. Impact and results will also be more sustainable
status felt hesitant about seeking advice from those when new or alternative techniques are developed by
members of the community who have adopted CA. and decided upon by the farmer him or herself.
To ensure that such farmers do not become late
Reporting and research by the extension workers
adopters, lead farmers have a role to play in actively
who work directly with farmers are needed. These are
promoting CA.
being promoted in Mozambique through the Farmer
At the other end of the spectrum, she found that non- Field School approach. There is however much more
adoption of CA by farmers of higher socio-economic training needed in participatory research, especially for
status was due to a lack of incentives. Households extension staff.
which already meet their food requirements had no
direct incentive to change farming practices or invest in
more labour-intensive technologies, unless by increasing
yields they could sell more produce and earn higher
incomes. However, poorly functioning markets constrain
them from earning higher incomes and from adopting
new technologies (Ljungkvist, 2012).
28 www.iied.org
5
IIED Working paper
Conclusion and
recommendations
Recent developments in the approach to agricultural development, its support
and coordination mechanisms provide a sound basis for scaling up sustainable
agriculture in Mozambique. At the same time, a shift in policy direction
towards the smallholder sector is needed, together with more predictable and
coordinated service delivery.
This study has tried to understand how policy and The policies, strategies and plans that have been
power dynamics at the national and regional level formulated do, in terms of content, contain the
are influencing farmers’ choices and to identify components to achieve sustainable agriculture. They
the key levers that could make a difference in encourage the conservation and sustainable use of
promoting sustainability. natural resources, the promotion of farmer associations,
the involvement of other stakeholders (Green Revolution
The review of agricultural policies and strategies
Strategy), and the cultivation of crops that are suited
influencing agricultural development in Mozambique
to specific agro-ecological zones and climate and
since Independence reveals that the overarching priority
to market fluctuations (Priorities for Development of
and drive of the Mozambican Government has been
Agricultural Sector). They also plan for an improvement
for rapid production increases. To achieve this, the
in service delivery (PROAGRI). Mozambique’s
government is prioritising support and investment in
decentralisation and rural development policies further
high-potential production areas and for a select number
encourage human development in rural areas through
of cash crops, as well as attracting foreign investment.
local decision making and resource management,
Yet despite the impressive results in terms of production
while the action plans for food production and poverty
figures, this system does not provide a solid base
reduction promote agricultural production for the local
for sustainable agriculture. Agricultural growth has
market. However, different interpretations and priority
been driven by the expansion of the cultivated land
adjustments during implementation have hindered
area, rather than by increases in productivity. More
progress in some essential areas and agricultural
importantly, government support only benefits a small
development continues to move in a direction that is
minority of commercial farmers and political elites, rather
not sustainable.
than the majority of the rural population.
www.iied.org 29
The national strategic plan (PEDSA) and its investment by many factors, such as the achievement of clear
plan (PNISA) serve as the main guiding instruments and immediate benefits, or the lack of markets that
for Mozambique’s agricultural development planning. prevent these benefits from being captured and the
They include an impressive list of initiatives and technologies from being adopted.
components, which underline several of the principles
• Involve key stakeholders. Information and research
required for a transition to sustainable agriculture.
on the impact of agricultural policies have not been
Approaches to scaling up sustainable agriculture are
able to influence government’s priority setting. It
being discussed and implemented, and increasingly
is therefore proposed that such information be
involve conservation agriculture, which is listed as one
presented and discussed with the government before
of the initiatives under the PEDSA. Extension staff
new priorities are decided upon. This should involve
are being trained in the concept and it is increasingly
key stakeholders at all levels, not only at national
implemented through the Farmer Field School
level. At national level, the Directorate for Training,
approach. The shortage of extension staff makes the
Documentation and Technology Transfer (DFDTT)
FFS approach attractive through its ability to create
provides such an opportunity. The general objective
a multiplier effect by organising farmers into groups
of its recently launched second strategic plan for
and associations and training farmers as facilitators
2015–2020, is ‘to promote the development, transfer
in extension work. International agencies and NGOs
and adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies
such as CARE have been supporting and using the
and policies through dialogue and active participation
approach for a while in their own programmes, and the
of its stakeholders.’ At provincial and district level,
government recently established a special CA working
structures and modalities to involve key stakeholders
group and will also establish a FFS working group to
are not clear, and it is recommended that the
harmonise interventions and exchange information
involvement of key stakeholders at these levels is also
and experiences.
reinforced and supported, either through the DFDTT
These recent developments in the approach to or other forums.
agricultural development, together with the support and
• Ensure longer-term and more reliable funding.
coordination mechanisms that have been put in place,
Financial resources for activities and projects
provide a sound basis for a significant improvement and
supporting sustainable agriculture are not enough
scaling up of sustainable agriculture in Mozambique.
and are unpredictable. The National Investment
The greatest weakness is the scarce and unpredictable
Plan for the Agricultural Sector (PNISA) began
nature of resources for implementation. Hence, the most
with a financing gap of 78%. Ideally funding should
urgent need is not for a change in policy content, but
be based on a solid medium to long-term plan or
for a shift in policy direction towards the smallholder
roadmap, but it might be more feasible for financing
sector and towards a more predictable and longer-
to be allocated to a couple of strategic actions for
term series of events and resources for implementing
improving agricultural sustainability. Such funding
essential services.
is especially needed at provincial and district level,
The following may be considered to support this: where efforts will have more direct impact.
• Introduce evidence-based proposals for • Increase the coordination and coherence of
prioritisation. The standard monitoring and appropriate technologies and technology
evaluation of policy implementation is based on a transfer. Conservation agriculture is gaining support
set of quantitative monitoring indicators that provide in Mozambique and is being promoted by both
little evidence on the impact of policy interventions. public and private advisory services. Coordination
Independent studies by international research and coherence are needed so that efforts are
organisations, donors and international NGOs provide complementary and do not cause confusion due to
more evidence-based and qualitative information on inconsistencies in the approach or techniques being
the impact of agricultural policies. More evidence and promoted. It is also recommended that public advisory
research are needed, especially on the extra support staff are more involved in training and implementation,
needed for smallholder farmers to increase production so that they are informed of new approaches and
and productivity: the potential is there, but the support technologies, and that the FFS approach is integrated
is not sufficient. As the CARE research shows, into the curriculum of advisory training programmes.
adoption of improved technologies is influenced
30 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
• Develop the role of the Conservation

Agriculture Working Group. Although this working
group has been created, it does not yet play a
prominent role. It is suggested that the working group
encourages its members to come up with a number
of strategies and actions to support and encourage
efforts in the area of conservation agriculture and
liaise with other coordination groups and platforms,
such as the Mozambique Platform for Agricultural
Research and Technological Innovation.
• Encourage and support joint research, planning
and programming. Last but not least, more research
is needed by national and international research
institutes, local and international NGOs, and farmers,
to provide the necessary information to guide decision
making and priority setting at all levels. More research
is especially needed on appropriate technologies,
farmers’ traditional knowledge and innovations, crop
productivity and suitability for local circumstances,
and the development of value chains at local level,
just to name a few. It is suggested that research gaps
and priorities should be discussed at the coordination
forums so as to avoid overlap and to encourage
cooperation or joint research, programming and
planning by various key stakeholders.
www.iied.org 31
Acronyms
AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa
BLEANSA Building a Large Evergreen Agriculture Network for Southern Africa
CA Conservation agriculture
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme
CAWGN Conservation Agriculture Working Group of Mozambique
CTA Federation of Economic Associations of Mozambique (Confederação das Associações Económicas
de Mozambique)
DNEA National Directorate of Agricultural Extension (Direcção Nacional De Extensão Agrária)
DFDTT Directorate for Training, Documentation and Technology Transfer
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FFS Farmer Field Schools
GDP Gross domestic product
Hectares ha
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IIAM National Institute for Agricultural Research (Instituto de Investigação Agraria de Moçambique)
IIED International Institute for Environment and Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
MASA Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (Ministério da Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar)
MINAG Ministry of Agriculture (former name)
MITADER Ministry of Land, Environment and Rural Development (Ministério da Terra, Ambiente e
Desenvolvimento Rural)
NGO Non-government organisation
ODAMOZ Official Development Assistance to Mozambique Database
OIIL Supplemental Local Initiative Investment Budget (Orçamento de Investimento para Initiativas Locais)
PAAO Annual Action Plan in Agriculture (Plano Annual de Actividades e Orçamento)
PAEI Agricultural Policy and Implementation Strategy (Politica Agricola e Estratégia de Implementação)
PARP Poverty Reduction Action Plan (Plano de Acção par Redução de Pobreza)
PEDSA Strategic Plan for the Development of the Agricultural Sector (Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento
do Sector Agrário)
PIAIT Platform for Agricultural Research and Technological Innovation of Mozambique
PNISA National Investment Plan for the Agricultural Sector (Plano Nacional de Investimentos para o Sector
Agrário)
PQG Five Year Government Plan (Plano Quinquenal do Governo)
SWAP Sector-wide approach
USD United States dollars
32 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
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projects and investments in Mozambique benefit the
Ministry of Agriculture, Maputo.
poorest smallholder farmers, particularly women.
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Agriculture, Maputo
CARE International in Mozambique. 2015. Climate
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FAO, Rome. and what drives investment decisions? IFPRI Working
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FAO. 2014. Building a Common Vision for Sustainable
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Rome. Mucavele, F. 2014. Comprehensive Scoping and
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34 www.iied.org
IIED Working paper
Appendix 1: List of
people consulted
Name Organisation Position
Seth Cook IIED Senior Researcher – Natural Resources Group
Barbara Adolph IIED Principal Researcher – Natural Resources Group
Lila Buckley IIED Senior Researcher – Natural Resources Group
Laura Silici - Independent Consultant
MOZAMBIQUE – Maputo
Cathy Riley CARE Mozambique Assistant Country Director
Dan Mullins CARE Mozambique Director of Research
Lilly Sofie Smines CARE Mozambique Advocacy and Research Intern
Vivaldino Obadias Banze CARE Mozambique Research Officer
Calisto Bias Independent Consultant
Prunch Murray Irish Aid Senior Development Specialist
Palmira Vincente (Ms) Irish Aid Rural Development Advisor
Koeti Serodio (Ms) Irish Aid Rural Development Advisor
Kemal Vaz (Mr) Verde-Azul Consult, Lda Director
Monika Branks (Ms) Verde-Azul Consult, Lda Senior Partner
MOZAMBIQUE – Inhambane
Julio Simão CARE-Maxixe Agricultural Officer
Maniz Jose Samp Mahlahle-Maxixe PROSAN Project Officer
Floriana Pascoal Macucule Mahlahle-Maxixe CA Extension Officer
Thosse Chilangulo Macubele Mahlahle-Maxixe Extension Officer
Bhavita A. Geantilal Agri Ali Province of Inhambane Director of Agriculture
Cremildo Joaquim Province of Inhambane Head of Department of Extension Services
Francisco Fenaõ Majanganhete Province of Inhambane Head of Department for Economics and Finance
Gonçalo Tanda Bata District of Homoine Director of Agriculture
Ananias Tingane Ngale District of Funhalouro Head of Department of Extension Services
Anibal Zacanas Nhanombe District of Funhalouro Extension Officer
Eugénio Xavier Nramuave District of Funhalouro Topographer
FARM FIELD SCHOOLS
FFS Mbone in Mucuine District of Funhalouro
FFS 25 de Junho in Mucuine District of Funhalouro
FFS Guija District of Homoine
FFS Fanha Fanha District of Homoine
FFS Chirrenguete District of Homoine
www.iied.org 35
This study examines the agricultural policies and
strategies that have influenced agricultural development
in Mozambique, the support structures that have been
put in place, and the realities and challenges of their
implementation. It was found that key stakeholders
understand the concept of sustainable agriculture,
that the most important contributing components
are covered in the current policy framework, and
that farmers are keen to adopt and adapt to more
sustainable and profitable farming practices. A change
in policy direction is needed so that priorities and
resources favour support to the smallholder sector.
IIED is a policy and action research

organisation. We promote sustainable
development to improve livelihoods
and protect the environments on which
these livelihoods are built. We specialise
in linking local priorities to global
challenges. IIED is based in London and
works in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the
Middle East and the Pacific, with some
of the world’s most vulnerable people.
We work with them to strengthen their
voice in the decision-making arenas that
affect them — from village councils to
international conventions.
International Institute for Environment and Development

80-86 Gray’s Inn Road, London WC1X 8NH, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 3463 7399
Fax: +44 (0)20 3514 9055
email: [email protected] Knowledge
www.iied.org Products
Funded by:
This research was funded by UK aid from the
UK Government, however the views expressed
do not necessarily reflect the views of the UK
Government.

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Tracing sustainable

Working Paper Food and Agriculture

Produced by IIED’s Natural Resources

Published by IIED, March 2016

International Institute for Environment and Development

This study examines the agricultural policies

3 Approaches, strategies and support for

The recent developments in the approach to agricultural

1.1 Agricultural production the main constraints to smallholders’ productivity

methodology on smallholder farmers, and how they can be supported

1.3 Definition of sustainable The FAO also further suggests that sustainable

2.1 Agricultural policies,

strategies and plans since

Box 2. POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND PLANS GUIDING

POLICY Agricultural Policy and Implementation Strategy (1995) (PAEI)

National strategies Agenda 2025

CURRENT POLICY Five-Year Government Plan 2014–2019 (PQG)

Regional development Comprehensive African Development Program (CAADP)

PNISA PEDSA PARP CAADP

2.3 A policy framework

supporting sustainable question in detail. They have formulated a set of 14

agriculture? criteria that a policy should include and/or consider

Box 3. PNISA’s vision for sustainable agriculture

Box 4. Indicators for assessing and comparing how

agricultural practices 1) ensuring immediate benefits

4.1 Understanding 4.2 Financial resources and

• Develop the role of the Conservation

IIED is a policy and action research

International Institute for Environment and Development

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