01 Reference Material HMT ME302 1 Introduction

Heat and Mass Transfer
ME302
Introduction
Dr Ramjee Repaka
Disclaimer
• This is a reference material only and refer to the text books for
complete details
• Material has been taken from different sources and efforts have been
made to cite the relevant material
References: Cengel and Ghajar, HMT
Incropera and Dewitt, Principles of HMT
Introduction
 What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature

difference.
 What is thermal energy?
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and

electronic states of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter.
It represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is

directly linked to the temperature of matter.
Introduction
Thermodynamics tells us:
• How much heat is transferred (δQ)
• How much work is done (δW)
• Final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:

• How (i.e. with what modes) δQ is transferred
• At what rate δQ is transferred
• Temperature distribution inside the body
DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal

Energy, Temperature and Heat Transfer
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units
Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic U or u J or J/kg

behavior of matter
Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in matter T K or °C
Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients
Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0
Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W
Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time and q W/m2
surface area
+
U  Thermal energy of system
u  Thermal energy per unit mass of system
Introduction
Some problems of interest on Heat transfer:
1. Heat loss through thermal insulation on a steam pipe
2. Heat Transfer to water flowing through a tube
3. Heat transfer in an electric furnace

Heat loss through thermal insulation on a steam pipe
Steam widely used in the industries
There should be no heat loss, and also condensation should not occur
Aim:
Thickness of insulation required for a certain value of heat loss
Or
Heat loss occuring for a certain value of thickness of insulation
Pipe
Heat loss rate, W/m2

Steam
5 bar, 150
0C
Thickness of insulation, cm
Insulation
Heat Transfer to water flowing through a tube
Steam condenser in a power plant (Rankine Power cycle)
Low pressure steam at the exit of the turbine that will be condensed with the cooling water
Aim:
If length, L = 2 m (say), then what would be To (= ?) of water leaving the tube?
Or
If To = 40 then what would be L ?
Condensing steam at 50 0C
Water at 30 0C
2.5 cm
2m
To = ?
Ti = 30
Heat transfer in an electric furnace
Annealing treatment is required. Sheet losses ductility, malleability, etc.
To heat the steel strip up to a temperature which is specified for steel and allowing it to
cool down slowly.
Aim:
What should be the length of the furnace in order that the desired exit temperature would
be 6500C?
Or
Given a certain length of the furnace, what should be the velocity with which the steel strip
should move so that the required exit temperature is attained?
Electric heaters
Steel strip
Roller
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to the random motion of
its constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and random motion for fluid
flow over a surface.
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron configurations
of its atoms or molecules and is transported as electromagnetic waves (or photons).
• Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material medium.
• Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material medium and occurs
most efficiently in a vacuum.
Applications of Heat Transfer
Energy production and conversion
steam power plant, solar energy conversion etc.
Refrigeration and air-conditioning
Domestic applications
ovens, stoves, toaster
Cooling of electronic equipment
Manufacturing / materials processing

welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
Automobiles / aircraft design
Nature (weather, climate etc)

Conduction
The transfer of energy from more energetic to the less energetic particles of
a substance due to interactions between the particles.
It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms
y
of appropriate rate equations.
These equations may be used to compute the amount of

energy being transferred per unit time.
T1
T(x)
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law (French scientist q →
J.B.F. Fourier, proposed in 1822): T2
x
q  k T L
Fig. 1 One-dimensional heat transfer

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient by conduction (diffusion of energy)
W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m
Heat rate (W):

qx  qx  A
Conduction
• Differential Form (application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity)
W
k = Thermal Conductivity, W/(m·K)
A = surface area normal to the direction of flow, m2
T = Temperature, K or oC
x = Heat flow path, m
q is the heat transfer rate in the x direction through a plane wall of area A and it is
proportional to the temperature gradient, dT/dx, in this direction.
The proportionality constant k is a transport property known as thermal

conductivity {W/(m·K)} and is a characteristic of the wall material.
Negative sign denotes heat transfer in the direction of decreasing temperature

Conduction
Difference Form
Heat flux: q” = k (dT/dx) W/m2
The heat flux (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate in the x direction per unit area A,
perpendicular to the direction of transfer, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient,
dT/dx, in this direction.
= k A ∆T/L = ∆T/ (L/kA) where L = (x1- x2)
ΔT = (T1- T2) is the driving potential that causes the flow of heat.
The quantity L/kA is equivalent to a thermal resistance Rk that the wall offers to the flow
of heat by conduction:
Rk = L/kA
Table: The thermal conductivities of some materials at room

temperature
Numerical 1
A common way of measuring the thermal conductivity
of a material is to sandwich an electric thermofoil
heater between two identical samples of the material,
as shown in the figure. The thickness of the resistance
heater, including its cover, which is made of thin silicon
rubber, is usually less than 0.5 mm. A circulating fluid
such as tap water keeps the exposed ends of the
samples at constant temperature. The lateral surfaces of
the samples are well insulated to ensure that heat
transfer through the samples is one-dimensional. Two
thermocouples are embedded into each sample some
distance L apart, and a differential thermometer reads
the temperature drop T across this distance along each
sample. When steady operating conditions are reached,
the total rate of heat transfer through both samples Apparatus to measure the thermal
becomes equal to the electric power drawn by the conductivity of a material using two
heater, which is determined by multiplying the electric identical samples and a thin resistance
heater
current by the voltage.
In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples of diameter 5 cm and length 10 cm are used.

The two thermocouples in each sample are placed 3 cm apart. After initial transients, the
electric heater is observed to draw 0.4 A at 110 V, and both differential thermometers
read a temperature difference of 15°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the sample.
Convection
The transfer of heat due to random molecular
motion (diffusion) and due to bulk, or
macroscopic motion of the fluid.
Customarily,
 convection is the heat transfer due to
cumulative (random molecular motion and
bulk motion) effect and
 advection is the heat transfer due to bulk fluid

motion.
The main interest is the convection heat transfer which occurs between a fluid in
motion and a bounding surface when the two are at different temperatures.
Convection
Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the
flow.
Forced convection
Free or natural convection
Forced convection occurs when the flow is caused by external means,

such as a fan, a pump or atmospheric wind.
Free convection occurs when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces,

which arise from density differences caused by temperature variations in
the fluid.
Convection
Regardless of the particular nature of the convection heat transfer process, the
appropriate rate equation is of the form
Where is the convective heat transfer rate (W), is proportional to the

difference between the surface and fluid temperatures, Ts and T∞ respectively.
This expression is known as Newton’s law of cooling
The proportionality constant h (W/m2 · K) is termed as the convection heat

transfer coefficient.
It depends on the conditions in the boundary layer, which are influenced by

surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion and an assortment of fluid
thermodynamic nature and transport properties.
Table: Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient

Numerical 2
2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends
across a room at 15°C, as shown in the figure. Heat is
generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating,
and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to
be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and
electric current through the wire are measured to be 60
V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer
by radiation, determine the convection heat transfer
coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface
of the wire and the air in the room.
Radiation
Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body.
The energy of radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves

(or alternatively photons).
The quantity of energy leaves a surface as radiant heat depends on the

absolute temperature and the nature of the surface.
Characteristics:
1) The rate of emission increases with temperature level

2) Do not require any material medium for energy transfer to occur
Radiation
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form
of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays,

gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not
related to temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids

that are opaque to thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks since the
radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the
surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a
few microns from the surface.
Radiation
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as
Where  = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody
radiation.
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as
where  is the emissivity of the surface
Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of radiation

that can be emitted from a surface at a specified temperature.
Radiation
The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0 
  1, is a measure of how closely a surface Emissivities of some materials at 300 K
approximates a blackbody for which  = 1.
Another important radiation property of a surface is its

absorptivity, which is the fraction of the radiation
energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the
surface.
Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0    1.
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it.

That is, a blackbody is a perfect absorber ( = 1) as
it is a perfect emitter.
In general, both  and  of a surface depend on the

temperature and the wavelength of the radiation.
Radiation
Kirchhoff’s law of radiation: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface
at a given temperature and wavelength are equal.
In many practical applications, the surface temperature and the temperature of

the source of incident radiation are of the same order of magnitude, and the
average absorptivity of a surface is taken to be equal to its average emissivity.
The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from
is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface

 is the absorptivity
For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the portion of

incident radiation not absorbed by the surface is
reflected back.
The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque
surface of absorptivity .
Radiation
Net radiation heat transfer = -
Surface gains energy if >

Surfaces looses energy if <
Note:
In general, the determination of the net rate of heat transfer by radiation between
two surfaces is a complicated matter.
Since, it depends on
the properties of the surfaces,
their orientation relative to each other, and
the interaction of the medium between the surfaces with radiation.
The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the two

surfaces is given by
where
•  is the emissivity of the bottom surface of surface area As
maintained at an absolute temperature Ts.
• Tsurr is the absolute temperature of the larger (or black) surface Radiation heat transfer between a
completely enclosing the smaller surface surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
• Surfaces are separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation.
Additional assumption: The emissivity and the surface area of the surrounding
surface do not have any effect on the net radiation heat transfer
Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs
parallel to conduction (or convection, if there is bulk gas motion) between the
surface and the gas.
Thus the total heat transfer is determined by adding the contributions of both heat
transfer mechanisms.
For simplicity and convenience, this is often done by defining a combined heat transfer
coefficient hcombined that includes the effects of both convection and radiation.
Then the total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by convection and radiation is
expressed as
where
Note: The combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a convection heat transfer
coefficient modified to include the effects of radiation.
Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural convection, but

negligible relative to forced convection.
Thus radiation in forced convection applications is usually disregarded, especially

when the surfaces involved have low emissivities and low to moderate temperatures.
Numerical 3
It is a common experience to feel “chilly” in winter and “warm” in summer in our homes
even when the thermostat setting is kept the same. This is due to the so called “radiation
effect” resulting from radiation heat exchange between our bodies and the surrounding
surfaces of the walls and the ceiling.
Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C at all times. The inner surfaces of
the walls, floors, and the ceiling of the house are observed to be at an average
temperature of 10°C in winter and 25°C in summer. Determine the rate of radiation heat
transfer between this person and the surrounding surfaces if the exposed surface area and
the average outer surface temperature of the person are 1.4 m2 and 30°C, respectively.
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanism
There are three mechanisms of heat transfer, but not all three can exist simultaneously in
a medium.
E.g.:
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by conduction and radiation in
semitransparent solids.
Thus, a solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection.
However, a solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or radiation on its surfaces
exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
E.g.: For example, the outer surfaces of a cold piece of rock will warm up in a warmer
environment as a result of heat gain by convection (from the air) and radiation (from the
sun or the warmer surrounding surfaces).
But the inner parts of the rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the inner region
of the rock by conduction.
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanism
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is either by conduction or

convection, depending on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Thus, when we deal with heat transfer through a fluid, we have either conduction or
convection, but not both.
Also, gases are practically transparent to radiation, except that some gases are known to
absorb radiation strongly at certain wavelengths.
E.g.: Ozone strongly absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
But in most cases, a gas between two solid surfaces does not interfere with radiation and
acts effectively as a vacuum.
Liquids, on the other hand, are usually strong absorbers of radiation.
Finally, heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation only since conduction or

convection requires the presence of a material medium
Numerical 4
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of heat
transfer from this person if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface
temperature of the person are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the convection heat
transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2·K.
Numerical 5
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant temperatures
of T1 = 300 K and T2 = 200 K that are L = 1 cm apart, as shown in the figure. Assuming the
surfaces to be black (emissivity  = 1), determine the rate of heat transfer between the
plates per unit surface area assuming the gap between the plates is (a) filled with
atmospheric air, (b) evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation, and (d) filled with
superinsulation that has an apparent thermal conductivity of 0.00002 W/m·K.
Different ways of reducing heat transfer between two isothermal plates, and their effectiveness.
References
• Yunus A. Cengel and Afshin Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th edition, McGraw-
Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2016.
• Frank P. Incropera and David P. Dewitt, Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th
edition, Wiley India Private Limited, 2012.
• J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill College, 1996.

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Heat and Mass Transfer

 What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature

 What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and

It represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is

Heat transfer tells us:

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal

Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic U or u J or J/kg

Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

1. Heat loss through thermal insulation on a steam pipe

2. Heat Transfer to water flowing through a tube

3. Heat transfer in an electric furnace

Heat loss rate, W/m2

Modes of Heat Transfer

Refrigeration and air-conditioning

Cooling of electronic equipment

Manufacturing / materials processing

Automobiles / aircraft design

Nature (weather, climate etc)

These equations may be used to compute the amount of

Fig. 1 One-dimensional heat transfer

Heat rate (W):

The proportionality constant k is a transport property known as thermal

Negative sign denotes heat transfer in the direction of decreasing temperature

Heat flux: q” = k (dT/dx) W/m2

= k A ∆T/L = ∆T/ (L/kA) where L = (x1- x2)

Table: The thermal conductivities of some materials at room

In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples of diameter 5 cm and length 10 cm are used.

 advection is the heat transfer due to bulk fluid

Forced convection occurs when the flow is caused by external means,

Free convection occurs when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces,

Where is the convective heat transfer rate (W), is proportional to the

This expression is known as Newton’s law of cooling

The proportionality constant h (W/m2 · K) is termed as the convection heat

It depends on the conditions in the boundary layer, which are influenced by

Table: Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient

The energy of radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves

The quantity of energy leaves a surface as radiant heat depends on the

1) The rate of emission increases with temperature level

• It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays,

• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids

Where  = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

where  is the emissivity of the surface

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of radiation

approximates a blackbody for which  = 1.

Another important radiation property of a surface is its

Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0    1.

A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it.

In general, both  and  of a surface depend on the

In many practical applications, the surface temperature and the temperature of

The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from

is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface

For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the portion of

Surface gains energy if >