Wallaga University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical engineering

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat Transfer Terminology
To understand and communicate in the thermal science field, certain terms
andexpressions must be learned in heat transfer.
EO 1.1 DESCRIBE the difference between heat and temperature.
EO 1.2 DESCRIBE the difference between heat and work.
EO 1.3 DESCRIBE the Second Law of Thermodynamics andhow it relates to heat transfer.
EO 1.4 DESCRIBE the three modes of heat transfer.
EO 1.5 DEFINE the following terms as they relate to heattransfer:
a. Heat flux
b. Thermal conductivity
c. Log mean temperature difference
d. Convective heat transfer coefficient
e. Overall heat transfer coefficient
f. Bulk temperature

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

In describing heat transfer problems, students often make the mistake of interchangeably using
the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct difference between the two.
Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance.
It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to predict the direction
of heat transfer. The symbol for temperature is T. The common scales for measuring
temperature are the Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales.
Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular level as a result
of a temperature difference. Heat is capable of being transmitted through solids and fluids by
conduction, through fluids by convection, and through empty space by radiation. The symbol
for heat is Q. Common units for measuring heat are the British Thermal Unit (Btu) in the
English system of units and the calorie in the SI system (International System of Units)
HEAT AND WORK
Distinction should also be made between the energy terms heat and work. Both represent energy
In transition. Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a force acting through a distance.
Heat is energy transferred as the result of a temperature difference. Neither heat nor work are
Thermodynamic properties of a system. Heat can be transferred into or out of a system and work
Can be done on or by a system, but a system cannot contain or store either heat or work. Heat
Into a system and work out of a system are considered positive quantities.
When a temperature difference exists across a boundary, the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Indicates the natural flow of energy is from the hotter body to the colder body. The Second Law
Of Thermodynamics denies the possibility of ever completely converting into work all the heat
Supplied to a system operating in a cycle. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, described by
Max Planck in 1903, states that:It is impossible to construct an engine that will work in a
complete cycle andproduce no other effect except the raising of a weight and the cooling of
areservoir.
The second law says that if you draw heat from a reservoir to raise a weight, lowering the weight
Will not generate enough heat to return the reservoir to its original temperature, and eventually
The cycle will stop. If two blocks of metal at different temperatures are thermally insulated from
Their surroundings and are brought into contact with each other the heat will flow from the
hotter
To the colder. Eventually the two blocks will reach the same temperature, and heat transfer will
Cease. Energy has not been lost, but instead some energy has been transferred from one block
To another.

Modes of Transferring Heat

Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two bodies. There are
Three basic modes of heat transfer:
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or molecules of a
Material through which the heat is being transferred.
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of macroscopic portions of a
fluid.
Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation
that arises due to the temperature of a body.
The three modes of heat transfer will be discussed in greater detail in the subsequent chapters
Of this module.

HEAT FLUX
The rate at which heat is transferred is represented by the symbol . Common units for heat Q˙
transfer rate is Btu/hr. Sometimes it is important to determine the heat transfer rate per unit area,
or heat flux, which has the symbol . Units for heat flux are Btu/hr-ft Q˙ 2. The heat flux can be
determined by dividing the heat transfer rate by the area through which the heat is being
transferred.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal
conductivity (k) measured in Btu/hr-ft-oF. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat
through a solid by conduction. The thermal conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with
temperature. For vapors, it depends upon pressure.

LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES

In heat exchanger applications, the inlet and outlet temperatures are commonly specified based
on the fluid in the tubes. The temperature change that takes place across the heat exchanger from
the entrance to the exit is not linear. A precise temperature change between two fluids across
the heat exchanger is best represented by the log mean temperature difference (LMTD or Tlm),
defined in Equation 2-2.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

The convective heat transfer coefficient (h), defines, in part, the heat transfer due to convection.
The convective heat transfer coefficient is sometimes referred to as a film coefficient and
represents the thermal resistance of a relatively stagnant layer of fluid between a heat transfer
surface and the fluid medium. Common units used to measure the convective heat transfer
coefficient are Btu/hr - ft2 - oF.

OVER ALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

In the case of combined heat transfer, it is common practice to relate the total rate of heat
transfer ( ), the overall cross-sectional area for heat transfer (A Q˙ o), and the overall temperature
difference ( To) using the overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo). The overall heat transfer
coefficient combines the heat transfer coefficient of the two heat exchanger fluids and the
thermal
conductivity of the heat exchanger tubes. Uois specific to the heat exchanger and the fluids that
are used in the heat exchanger.
BULK TEMPERATURE
The fluid temperature (Tb), referred to as the bulk temperature, varies according to the details of
The situation. For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, Tb is the temperature of the fluid that
Is "far" from the surface, for instance, the center of the flow channel? For boiling or
Condensation, Tb is equal to the saturation temperature.
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION:
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interaction between adjacent molecules of a
material. Heat transfer by conduction is dependent upon the driving "force" of temperature
difference and the resistance to heat transfer. The resistance to heat transfer is dependent upon
the nature and dimensions of the heat transfer medium. All heat transfer problems involve the
temperature difference, the geometry, and the physical properties of the object being studied.
In conduction heat transfer problems, the object being studied is usually a solid. Convection
problems involve a fluid medium. Radiation heat transfer problems involve either solid or fluid
surfaces, separated by a gas, vapor, or vacuum. There are several ways to correlate the geometry,
physical properties, and temperature difference of an object with the rate of heat transfer through
the object. In conduction heat transfer, the most common means of correlation is through
Fourier’s Law of Conduction. The law, in its equation form, is used most often in its rectangular
or cylindrical form (pipes and cylinders), both of which are presented below.
Conduction-rectangular coordinates
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
It is possible to compare heat transfer to current flow in electrical circuits. The heat transfer rate
may be considered as a current flow and the combination of thermal conductivity, thickness of
material, and area as a resistance to this flow. The temperature difference is the potential or
driving function for the heat flow, resulting in the Fourier equation being written in a form
similar to Ohm’s Law of Electrical Circuit Theory. If the thermal resistance term ∆x/k is written
as a resistance term where the resistance is the reciprocal of the thermal conductivity divided by
the thickness of the material, the result is the conduction equation being analogous to electrical
systems or networks. The electrical analogy may be used to solve complex problems involving
both series and parallel thermal resistances. The student is referred to Figure 2, showing the
equivalent resistance circuit. A typical conduction problem in its analogous electrical form is
given in the following example, where the "electrical" Fourier equation may be written as
follows.
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
CONDUCTION-CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
Heat transfer across a rectangular solid is the most direct application of Fourier’s law. Heat
transfer across a pipe or heat exchanger tube wall is more complicated to evaluate. Across a
cylindrical wall, the heat transfer surface area is continually increasing or decreasing. Figure 3
is a cross-sectional view of a pipe constructed of a homogeneous material.
Example:-
A stainless steel pipe with a length of 35 ft has an inner diameter of 0.92 ft and an outer
diameter of 1.08 ft. The temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is 122 F and the
o

temperature of the outer surface is 118 F. The thermal conductivity of the stainless steel
o

is 108 Btu/hr-ft-oF.
Calculate the heat transfer rate through the pipe.
Calculate the heat flux at the outer surface of the pipe.
Example:-
A 10 ft length of pipe with an inner radius of 1 in and an outer radius of 1.25 in has an
outer surface temperature of 250°F. The heat transfer rate is 30,000 Btu/hr. Find the
interior surface temperature. Assume k = 25 Btu/hr-ft-°F.

The evaluation of heat transfer through a cylindrical wall can be extended to include a composite
body composed of several concentric, cylindrical layers, as shown in Figure 4.
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer by the motion and mixing of the molecules of a liquid or gas iscalled convection.
EO 1.9 Given the formula for heat transfer and the operating
conditions of the system, CALCULATE the rate of heat
transfer by convection.

CONVECTION
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and mixing of "macroscopic" portions of
a fluid (that is, the flow of a fluid past a solid boundary). The term natural convection is used
if this motion and mixing is caused by density variations resulting from temperature differences
within the fluid. The term forced convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by an
outside force, such as a pump. The transfer of heat from a hot water radiator to a room is an
example of heat transfer by natural convection. The transfer of heat from the surface of a heat
exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped through the heat exchanger is an example of
forced convection.
Heat transfer by convection is more difficult to analyze than heat transfer by conduction because
no single property of the heat transfer medium, such as thermal conductivity, can be defined to
describe the mechanism. Heat transfer by convection varies from situation to situation (upon the
fluid flow conditions), and it is frequently coupled with the mode of fluid flow. In practice,
analysis of heat transfer by convection is treated empirically (by direct observation).
Convection heat transfer is treated empirically because of the factors that affect the stagnant film
thickness:
 Fluid velocity
 Fluid viscosity
 Heat flux
 Surface roughness
 Type of flow (single-phase/two-phase)
Convection involves the transfer of heat between a surface at a given temperature (T s) and fluid
at a bulk temperature (Tb). The exact definition of the bulk temperature (Tb) varies depending
on the details of the situation. For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, Tb is the temperature
of the fluid "far" from the surface. For boiling or condensation, T b is the saturation temperature
of the fluid. For flow in a pipe, Tb is the average temperature measured at a particular
crosssection of the pipe.
The basic relationship for heat transfer by convection has the same form as that for heat transfer
by conduction:
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is dependent upon the physical properties of the fluid
and the physical situation. Typically, the convective heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow
is relatively low compared to the convective heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow. This is
due to turbulent flow having a thinner stagnant fluid film layer on the heat transfer surface.
Values of h have been measured and tabulated for the commonly encountered fluids and flow
situations occurring during heat transfer by convection.

Example:
A 22 foot uninsulated steam line crosses a room. The outer diameter of the steam line
is 18 in. and the outer surface temperature is 280oF. The convective heat transfer
coefficient for the air is 18 Btu/hr-ft2-oF. Calculate the heat transfer rate from the pipe
into the room if the room temperature is 72oF.

Many applications involving convective heat transfer take place within pipes, tubes, or some
similar cylindrical device. In such circumstances, the surface area of heat transfer normally given
in the convection equation (Q˙- h A ∆T ) varies as heat passes through the cylinder. In addition,
the temperature difference existing between the inside and the outside of the pipe, as well as the
temperature differences along the pipe, necessitates the use of some average temperature value
in order to analyze the problem. This average temperature difference is called the log mean
temperature difference (LMTD), described earlier.
It is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger minus the temperature
difference
at the other end of the heat exchanger, divided by the natural logarithm of the ratio of these two
temperature differences. The above definition for LMTD involves two important assumptions:
(1) the fluid specific heats do not vary significantly with temperature, and (2) the convection heat
transfer coefficients are relatively constant throughout the heat exchanger.

Over all heat transfer coefficient

Many of the heat transfer processes encountered in nuclear facilities involve a combination of
both conduction and convection. For example, heat transfer in a steam generator involves
convection from the bulk of the reactor coolant to the steam generator inner tube surface,
conduction through the tube wall, and convection from the outer tube surface to the secondary
side fluid.
In cases of combined heat transfer for a heat exchanger, there are two values for h. There is the
convective heat transfer coefficient (h) for the fluid film inside the tubes and a convective heat
transfer coefficient for the fluid film outside the tubes. The thermal conductivity (k) and
thickness (∆x) of the tube wall must also be accounted for. An additional term (Uo), called the
overall heat transfer coefficient, must be used instead. It is common practice to relate the total
rate of heat transfer (Q˙) to the cross-sectional area for heat transfer (Ao) and the overall heat
transfer coefficient (Uo). The relationship of the overall heat transfer coefficient to the individual
conduction and convection terms is shown in Figure 6.
Using the figure representing flow in a pipe, heat transfer by convection occurs between
temperatures T1 and T2; heat transfer by conduction occurs between temperatures T2 and T3; and
heat transfer occurs by convection between temperatures T3 and T4. Thus, there are three
processes involved. Each has an associated heat transfer coefficient, cross-sectional area for heat
transfer, and temperature difference. The basic relationships for these three processes can be
expressed using Equations 2-5 and 2-9.
Equation 2-10 for the overall heat transfer coefficient in cylindrical geometry is relatively
difficult to work with. The equation can be simplified without losing much accuracy if the tube
that is being analyzed is thin-walled, that is the tube wall thickness is small compared to the tube
diameter. For a thin-walled tube, the inner surface area (A1), outer surface area (A2), and log
mean surface area (A1m), are all very close to being equal. Assuming that A1, A2, and A1m are
equal to each other and also equal to Ao allows us to cancel out all the area terms in the
denominator of Equation 2-11.
This results in a much simpler expression that is similar to the one developed for a flat plate heat
exchanger in Figure 6.

The convection heat transfer process is strongly dependent upon the properties of the fluid being
considered. Correspondingly, the convective heat transfer coefficient (h), the overall coefficient
(Uo), and the other fluid properties may vary substantially for the fluid if it experiences a large
temperature change during its path through the convective heat transfer device. This is especially
true if the fluid’s properties are strongly temperature dependent. Under such circumstances, the
temperature at which the properties are "looked-up" must be some type of average value, rather
than using either the inlet or outlet temperature value.
For internal flow, the bulk or average value of temperature is obtained analytically through the
use of conservation of energy. For external flow, an average film temperature is normally
calculated, which is an average of the free stream temperature and the solid surface temperature.
In any case, an average value of temperature is used to obtain the fluid properties to be used in
the heat transfer problem. The following example shows the use of such principles by solving
a convective heat transfer problem in which the bulk temperature is calculated.
Example:-
A flat wall is exposed to the environment. The wall is covered with a layer of insulation
1 in. thick whose thermal conductivity is 0.8 Btu/hr-ft-°F. The temperature of the wall
on the inside of the insulation is 600°F. The wall loses heat to the environment by
convection on the surface of the insulation. The average value of the convection heat
transfer coefficient on the insulation surface is 950 Btu/hr-ft2-°F. Compute the bulk
temperature of the environment (Tb) if the outer surface of the insulation does not exceed
105°F.
RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER
Radiant heat transfer is thermal energy transferred by means of electromagnetic
waves or particles.
DESCRIBE how the following terms relate to radiant
EO 1.10
heat transfer:
a. Black body radiation
b. Emissivity
c. Radiation configuration factor

THERMAL RADIATION
Radiant heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to
the temperature of a body. Most energy of this type is in the infra-red region of the
electromagnetic spectrum although some of it is in the visible region. The term thermal radiation
is frequently used to distinguish this form of electromagnetic radiation from other forms, such
as radio waves, x-rays, or gamma rays. The transfer of heat from a fireplace across a room in
the line of sight is an example of radiant heat transfer.
Radiant heat transfer does not need a medium, such as air or metal, to take place. Any material
that has a temperature above absolute zero gives off some radiant energy. When a cloud covers
the sun, both its heat and light diminish. This is one of the most familiar examples of heat
transfer by thermal radiation.

BLACK BODY RADIATION

A body that emits the maximum amount of heat for its absolute temperature is called a black
body. Radiant heat transfer rate from a black body to its surroundings can be expressed by the
following equation.

Two black bodies that radiate toward each other have a net heat flux between them. The net
flow rate of heat between them is given by an adaptation of Equation 2-12.

All bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate some heat. The sun and earth both radiate
heat toward each other. This seems to violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states
that heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body. The paradox is resolved by the fact that
each body must be in direct line of sight of the other to receive radiation from it. Therefore,
whenever the cool body is radiating heat to the hot body, the hot body must also be radiating
heat to the cool body. Since the hot body radiates more heat (due to its higher temperature) than
the cold body, the net flow of heat is from hot to cold, and the second law is still satisfied.
EMISSIVITY
Real objects do not radiate as much heat as a perfect black body. They radiate less heat than a
black body and are called gray bodies. To take into account the fact that real objects are gray
bodies, Equation 2-12 is modified to be of the following form.

Example:
Calculate the radiant heat between the floor (15 ft x 15 ft) of a furnace and the roof, if
the two are located 10 ft apart. The floor and roof temperatures are 2000°F and 600°F,
respectively. Assume that the floor and the roof have black surfaces.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are devices that are used to transfer thermal energy
from one fluid to another without mixing the two fluids.

HEAT EXCHANGERS
The transfer of thermal energy between fluids is one of the most important and frequently used
processes in engineering. The transfer of heat is usually accomplished by means of a device
known as a heat exchanger. Common applications of heat exchangers in the nuclear field include
boilers, fan coolers, cooling water heat exchangers, and condensers.
The basic design of a heat exchanger normally has two fluids of different temperatures separated
by some conducting medium. The most common design has one fluid flowing through metal
tubes and the other fluid flowing around the tubes. On either side of the tube, heat is transferred
by convection. Heat is transferred through the tube wall by conduction.
Heat exchangers may be divided into several categories or classifications. In the most commonly
used type of heat exchanger, two fluids of different temperature flow in spaces separated by a
tube wall. They transfer heat by convection and by conduction through the wall. This type is
referred to as an "ordinary heat exchanger," as compared to the other two types classified as
"regenerators" and "cooling towers."
An ordinary heat exchanger is single-phase or two-phase. In a single-phase heat exchanger, both
of the fluids (cooled and heated) remain in their initial gaseous or liquid states. In two-phase
exchangers, either of the fluids may change its phase during the heat exchange process. The
steam generator and main condenser of nuclear facilities are of the two-phase, ordinary heat
exchanger classification.
Single-phase heat exchangers are usually of the tube-and-shell type; that is, the exchanger
consists of a set of tubes in a container called a shell (Figure 8). At the ends of the heat
exchanger, the tube-side fluid is separated from the shell-side fluid by a tube sheet. The design
of two-phase exchangers is essentially the same as that of single-phase exchangers.

PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

Although ordinary heat exchangers may be extremely different in design and construction and
may be of the single- or two-phase type, their modes of operation and effectiveness are largely
determined by the direction of the fluid flow within the exchanger.
The most common arrangements for flow paths within a heat exchanger are counter-flow and
parallel flow. A counter-flow heat exchanger is one in which the direction of the flow of one
of the working fluids is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid. In a parallel flow
exchanger, both fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same direction.
Figure 9 represents the directions of fluid flow in the parallel and counter-flow exchangers.
Under
comparable conditions, more heat is transferred in a counter-flow arrangement than in a parallel
flow heat exchanger.
The temperature profiles of the two heat exchangers indicate two major disadvantages in the
parallel-flow design. First, the large temperature difference at the ends (Figure 10) causes large
thermal stresses. The opposing expansion and contraction of the construction materials due to
diverse fluid temperatures can lead to eventual material failure. Second, the temperature of the
cold fluid exiting the heat exchanger never exceeds the lowest temperature of the hot fluid. This
relationship is a distinct disadvantage if the design purpose is to raise the temperature of the cold
fluid.
The design of a parallel flow heat exchanger is advantageous when two fluids are required to be
brought to nearly the same temperature.
The counter-flow heat exchanger has three significant advantages over the parallel flow design.
First, the more uniform temperature difference between the two fluids minimizes the thermal
stresses throughout the exchanger. Second, the outlet temperature of the cold fluid can approach
the highest temperature of the hot fluid (the inlet temperature). Third, the more uniform
temperature difference produces a more uniform rate of heat transfer throughout the heat
exchanger.
Whether parallel or counter-flow, heat transfer within the heat exchanger involves both
conduction and convection. One fluid (hot) convectively transfers heat to the tube wall where
conduction takes place across the tube to the opposite wall. The heat is then convectively
transferred to the second fluid. Because this process takes place over the entire length of the
exchanger, the temperature of the fluids as they flow through the exchanger is not generally
constant, but varies over the entire length, as indicated in Figure 10. The rate of heat transfer
varies along the length of the exchanger tubes because its value depends upon the temperature
difference between the hot and the cold fluid at the point being viewed.
NON-REGENERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGER
Applications of heat exchangers may be classified as either regenerative or non-regenerative.
The
non-regenerative application is the most frequent and involves two separate fluids. One fluid
cools or heats the other with no interconnection between the two fluids. Heat that is removed
from the hotter fluid is usually rejected to the environment or some other heat sink (Figure 11).

REGENERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGER

A regenerative heat exchanger typically uses the fluid from a different area of the same system
for both the hot and cold fluids. An example of both regenerative and non-regenerative heat
exchangers working in conjunction is commonly found in the purification system of a reactor
facility. The primary coolant to be purified is drawn out of the primary system, passed through
a regenerative heat exchanger, non-regenerative heat exchanger, demineralizer, back through the
regenerative heat exchanger, and returned to the primary system (Figure 12).
In the regenerative heat exchanger, the water returning to the primary system is pre-heated by
the water entering the purification system. This accomplishes two objectives. The first is to
minimize the thermal stress in the primary system piping due to the cold temperature of the
purified coolant being returned to the primary system.
The second is to reduce the temperature of the water entering the purification system prior to
reaching the non-regenerative heat exchanger, allowing use of a smaller heat exchanger to
achieve the desired temperature for purification. The primary advantage of a regenerative heat
exchanger application is conservation of system energy (that is, less loss of system energy due
to the cooling of the fluid).

COOLING TOWERS
The typical function of a cooling tower is to cool the water of a steam power plant by air that
is brought into direct contact with the water. The water is mixed with vapor that diffuses from
the condensate into the air. The formation of the vapor requires a considerable removal of
internal energy from the water; the internal energy becomes "latent heat" of the vapor. Heat and
mass exchange are coupled in this process, which is a steady-state process like the heat exchange
in the ordinary heat exchanger.
Wooden cooling towers are sometimes employed in nuclear facilities and in factories of various
industries. They generally consists of large chambers loosely filled with trays or similar wooden
elements of construction. The water to be cooled is pumped to the top of the tower where it is
distributed by spray or wooden troughs. It then falls through the tower, splashing down from
deck to deck. A part of it evaporates into the air that passes through the tower. The enthalpy
needed for the evaporation is taken from the water and transferred to the air, which is heated
while the water cools. The air flow is either horizontal due to wind currents (cross flow) or
vertically upward in counter-flow to the falling water. The counter-flow is caused by the
Chimney effect of the warm humid air in the tower or by fans at the bottom (forced draft) or at
the top (induced flow) of the tower. Mechanical draft towers are more economical to construct
and smaller in size than natural-convection towers of the same cooling capacity.
LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES APPLICATION TO HEAT
EXCHANGERS
In order to solve certain heat exchanger problems, a log mean temperature difference (LMTD
or) T) must be evaluated before the heat removal from the heat exchanger is determined. The lm

following example demonstrates such a calculation.

Example:
A liquid-to-liquid counter flow heat exchanger is used as part of an auxiliary system at
a nuclear facility. The heat exchanger is used to heat a cold fluid from 120EF to 310EF.
Assuming that the hot fluid enters at 500EF and leaves at 400EF, calculate the LMTD
for the exchanger.
Exam questions for exit exam preparations
1. Which of the following is not a classification based on Construction of the heat Exchanger?
a) Multipass
b) Regenerative
c) Plate Type
d) Tubular
Answer: a
Explanation: Multipass is a classification based on flow type and not on construction. If we
classify a Heat exchanger based on flow type, it would be Multipass and Single-pass.

2. Packed Beds are one of the most common heat exchangers because of its very ______
a) Low heat transfer rate
b) High bed side heat transfer coefficient
c) High conductivity
d) High wall side heat transfer coefficient
Answer: b
Explanation: Packed beds have high bed side heat transfer coefficient which facilitates profitable
heat transfer, hence this is the reason why they are so commonly used

3. What is Critical radius of insulation?

a) The minimum radius at which maximum heat transfer rate is observed
b) The maximum radius that can allow heat transfer
c) The maximum heat transfer coefficient at a maximum possible radius
d) The radius at which maximum heat transfer rate is observed
Answer: d
Explanation: The critical thickness of insulation is that radius (neither maximum nor minimum)
of the insulating wall with conductive heat transfer coefficient as K and the surrounding fluid
convective heat transfer coefficient as H that gives maximum heat transfer rate Q.
4. In a ___________ heat exchanger, both fluids flow alternatively through the same flow
passages, and hence heat transfer is intermittent.
a) Cross Flow Type
b) Fluidized Bed
c) Shell and Tube
d) Storage Type
Answer: d
Explanation: In a Storage Type Heat Exchanger, the heat energy from the hot fluid is first stored
in the matrix/wall of the heat exchanger. Wherein, cooling of the hot fluid takes place. As the
cold fluid passes through this same matrix later, the stored heat energy in the matrix is
transferred to the cold fluid. This intermittent flow pattern of hot fluid and cold fluid is an
exclusive property of Storage Type HE

5. When gas is used as a fluid in a double pipe heat exchanger, which one of the following is not
true?
a) Fins increase necessary heat transfer area
b) The gas side heat transfer coefficient is the highest
c) Extended fins are used on the gas side to increase the Heat Transfer coefficient
d) The gas side has a low heat transfer coefficient
Answer: b
Explanation: Fins are generally used to increase the Heat transfer Area when the heat transfer
coefficient on that fluid side is comparatively low. Hence as ga

6. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a Direct-Contact Exchanger?

a) The Exchanger Construction is relatively not expensive
b) The fouling problem does not generally exist, due to the absence of a separating wall (heat
transfer surface
c) Only heat Transfer occurs without any Mass -Transfer
d) Very high heat transfer rates are achievable
Answer: c
Explanation: One of the important applications of a direct contact exchanger is mass transfer
accompanied by heat transfer, such as in evaporative cooling and rectification.

7. Given the convective heat transfer Coefficient of the inner surface to be 15W/m2K, OD =
30mm and ID = 25mm. Find the outer surface heat transfer coefficient.
a) 12.5 W/m2K
b) 15 W/m2K
c) 13.5 W/m2K
d) 12 W/m2K
Answer: c
Explanation: The formula for heat transfer coefficients in a thick Pipe is,
hinner ×ID = houter × OD
Hence, houter = 15×25/30 = 12.5W/m2K

8. To calculate the efficiency of a double pipe heat exchanger, the formula is

€ = XMaximumpossiblerateofHeatTransfer, where X stands for _________
a) Minimum rate of heat transfer
b) Experimental rate of heat transfer
c) Clean tube rate of heat transfer
d) Actual rate of heat transfer
Answer: d
Explanation: The efficiency of a double pipe heat exchanger which is calculated by NTU or
number of transfer units is given by €
= ActualHeattransferrateMaximumpossiblerateofHeatTransfer. Here x is Actual rate of heat
transfer.
9. Why do we use counter-flow operation on gasketed type Heat Exchanger?
a) It reduces corrosion
b) Applied pressure difference required is low
c) It provides better ease of operation
d) A larger and uniform temperature difference is achieved
Answer: d
Explanation: If we use counter-flow operation with a gasketed flow Plate-type Heat Exchanger,
we obtain a larger LMTD (log mean temperature difference) which ensures more temperature
gradient for higher heat transfer which is thermodynamically superior

10. Which of the following is not a property of Plate type heat exchangers?

a) Even though the heat exchanger has low hydraulic diameter, it can be readily and easily
cleaned
b) The net weight required is always less than its equivalent Shell and tube type heat exchanger

c) It provides a very large surface area for heat transfer

d) Leakage is never a concern in these heat exchangers

View Answer

Answer: d

Explanation: One of the main concerns of plate type heat exchangers is that it is very difficult to
monitor leakages due to this large number of separable parts, even pinhole leakages can be a
concern for highly reactive component’s use.

11. Which of the following is a correct statement about Plate -Fin heat exchanger?
a) It can be regarded as a Compact Heat Exchanger as it has a high heat transfer surface to
volume ratio
b) The cost of plate-fin HE are relatively less compared to other conventional HE available in
market
c) Even though it has fins, the plates can be opened and easily cleaned
d) Fins are irrelevant as it already provides a very large surface area
Answer: a
Explanation: Plate fin HE provides a very large heat transfer Surface because of which it is often
regarded as a compact HE. The addition of fine and its delicate design makes cleaning very
difficult/impossible, so foul liquids are always avoided. This complicated design makes it
relatively costlier than other equipments.

12. How is a Plate-type HE better than a Shell and tube HE, one of the following is not correct.
a) Thermal stress is higher in Plate type HE
b) Plate type heat exchangers have much higher heat transfer area than Shell and tube ones
c) Entry impingement problem of shell and tube is absent in Plate type HE
d) Vibrations due to flow and noise are comparatively absent in Plate type HE
Answer: a
Explanation: All the statements are correct except that the thermal stress in higher in Plate type,
which in reality is higher in shell and tube owing to its lesser surface area compared to plat type
HE.

13. What limitations does Gaskets pose on Gasketed type HE?

a) It leads to leakage and does not provide proper separation
b) Reduces necessary heat transfer area causing decreased Heat coefficients
c) One directional flow is the only possibility
d) Limits its use only to non-corrosive fluids, as the gaskets get corroded
Answer: d
Explanation: Gaskets of gasketed type HE are usually made of rubbers hence they are prone to
corrosion when highly toxic fluids are used. They also limit high temperature and pressure
applications as these rubbers can then rupture and cause mixing.

14. Which is the major mean of heat transfer in a Double Pipe heat exchanger?
a) Combined Convection and Conduction
b) Radiation
c) Convection
d) Conduction
Answer: a
Explanation: In a double pipe HE, the fluid is in a constant uniform motion inside the pipes, it is
the phenomena of forced convection that removes the fluid from the wall by dynamic mixing
which increases the overall bulk temperature of the fluid. The separating wall is the heat transfer
medium that carries heat from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through conduction.
15. When we calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U= X×hoX+ho, what is the value X?
a) hoi, heat transfer coefficient for annulus for inner side
b) hi, heat transfer coefficient for inner tube for inner side
c) hio, heat transfer coefficient for inner tube for outer side
d) ho, heat transfer coefficient for annulus side
Answer: c
Explanation: When we are required to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U, we
calculate it for the direction of interaction of the fluid’s heat energy, hence we calculate it with
hio and ho, and not with hi which is tube’s inner side heat transfer coefficient.
16. How many times do we have to calculate for Nusselt number in a Double Pipe Heat
Exchanger?
a) 6
b) 2
c) 4
d) 9
Answer: b
Explanation: For a double pipe HE, we have to calculate Nusselt number twice, once for the
inner pipe to calculate Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for the inner pipe. Similarly, the
second time for the annulus side.
17. When a fluid is used in a Shell and Tube heat exchanger, which one of the following is not
true?
a) Fins increase necessary heat transfer area
b) If the fluid is gas then the gas side heat transfer coefficient is the lowest
c) Extended fins are used on the shell side to increase the Heat Transfer coefficient
d) Baffles are provided only to work as fins
Answer: d
Explanation: Fins are generally used to increase the Heat transfer Area when the heat transfer
coefficient on that fluid side is comparatively low. Hence as gases usually have lower heat
transfer coefficients, fins are kept on this side. Also baffles are provided to give support to the
tubes and increase the turbulence of the fluid in shell side.
18. Fins primarily increase the ______
a) Heat transfer rate
b) Turbulence
c) Heat transfer coefficient
d) Heat transfer area
Answer: d
Explanation: Fins are primarily used to increase the heat transfer area, the rest of the factors
given are consequences of this change.
19. Which of the following are not affected by adding Fins?
a) Turbulence
b) Heat transfer coefficient
c) Net Heat Transfer
d) Heat transfer rate
Answer: c
Explanation: The net heat transfer in a particular operation should remain the same, fins are used
to decrease the area and time for that process.
20. Fouling factors increase the overall heat transfer conductance and hence decrease the overall
heat transfer coefficient.
a) False
b) True
Answer: a
Explanation: Fouling factors or dirt factors increase the overall heat transfer resistance and not
the conductance which then decreases the overall heat transfer coefficient.
21. Which of the following statements are not true about fouling in a Heat Exchanger?
a) Pressure drop decreases
b) Efficiency decreases
c) It decreases the heat transfer coefficient in both sides
d) Temperature of the hot fluid remains hot and the cold fluid remains cold
Answer: a
Explanation: When a heat exchanger faces fouling, its heat transfer coefficient decreases,
pressure drop increases due to scaling, efficiency decreases and net heat transferred too
decreases.
22. If we know the output and input temperatures of the heat exchanging fluids, then which one
of the following calculation is not required to determine the number of bends in tube for the
equipment?
a) Total heat transfer area required
b) Pipe length
c) Overall heat transfer coefficients
d) Pressure drop in the equipment
Answer: d
Explanation: The pressure drop is calculated only to determine whether the equipment would
work for a given flow rate and not the temperature requirements.
23. Which one of these is not true when the steady state is reached by the heat exchanging fluids
in a double pipe HE?
a) Rate of heat transfer becomes constant
b) When their temperatures become stable
c) Wall temperature becomes constant
d) When the two liquids have same temperature
Answer: d
Explanation: When the steady state is reached by the fluids in the HE, their temperatures become
stable but not necessarily equal, as the heat transfer rate becomes constant, heat is still entering
the tubes.
24. If the Heat Transfer area for a Shell and tube heat exchanger is 15100mm 2, and the radius of
the tubes is 30mm, then what is the number of hairpins required if its single pass length is 4cm?
a) 8
b) 2
c) 6
d) 5
Answer: b
2
Explanation: Given the area is 15100mm , we have the heat transfer area in terms of the tube
diameter as A = πDL = 15100mm2 or L = 15100/3.14×30 = 160 mm = 16cm. As the length of a
single pass hairpin is 4cm, its length is 8cm, hence we require n = 16/8 = 2hairpins.
25. If UD = Overall Dirt Heat Transfer coefficient and Uc = Overall Clean Heat Transfer
coefficient, then which of the following relation is correct?
a) UD <Uc
b) UD >>Uc
c) UD = Uc
d) UD >Uc
Answer: a
Explanation: In a shell and tube HE, fouling decreases the heat transfer rate hence the heat
transfer coefficient decreases, thus the expression UD <Uc is correct.
26. To which side given below should we add fins?
a) Liquid side
b) Gas Side
c) Any side possible
d) Solid side
Answer: b
Explanation: We add fins to that side which has low heat transfer coefficient so as to increase
area at that side to facilitate heat transfer. Hence adding it to gas side is beat suited as gases have
low heat transfer coefficient.
27. The Heat Transfer Coefficient remains constant throughout the surface of the fin.
a) False
b) True
Answer: b
Explanation: The first and the prime assumption we make while deriving equations for Fins is
that we assume the heat flow to be in steady state. For the heat flow to be in steady state, the heat
transfer coefficient should stay constant. If it changes with time, then the heat transfer rate will
also be affected by this change.
28. By increasing the fin density, the heat transfer coefficient associated with fins__________
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Increases tenfold
d) Remains the same
Answer: b
Explanation: There is a limit to which we can apply fins to a surface, if the fin density crosses
this threshold value, the heat transfer coefficients decreases as the liquid fails to make proper
contact with the provided surface.
29. Adding fins inside the tube, that is for the tube side usually ________ the heat transfer
coefficient.
a) Decreases
b) Tenfold
c) Does not change
d) Increases
Answer: a
Explanation: Usually the tube side contains the cooling liquid and the heat transfer coefficient is
already high there, hence adding extra heat transfer area will not be of any help rather would
decrease flow rate and eventually decrease the heat transfer coefficient.
30. Heat transfer in Agitated Vessels can be carried out by two methods they are ____________
a) Semi coils and Internal coils
b) Jacketed and Plates
c) Plates and Coils
d) Jacketed and Internal coils
Answer: d
Explanation: Heat Transfer in Agitated vessels is carried out by two methods either by external
jackets or internal coils. Here jackets usually have lower heat transfer coefficient.

31. The heat transfer coefficient ________ with increasing flow rate.
a) Decreases
b) Remains the same
c) Increases
d) Drops drastically
View Answer
Answer: a
0.5 0.33
Explanation: As the heat transfer coefficient is hwall Dp/Kg=1.94 Re Pr and the Reynolds
number is directly proportional to Vs, hence a power of 0.5 decreases h with increasing Re.

32. For very high dp/di, the mixing is very large and the heat transfer coefficient is ______
a) Very low
b) Very high
c) Low
d) High

Answer: c
Explanation: The heat transfer coefficient increases because there is now rapid mixing of the
Fluid passing through the voids.

33. Which one of the following working model is best suited for fluidized bed combustion
boilers?
a) Pneumatic conveying regime
b) Laminar film fluidised bed
c) Moving bed (Dense flow
d) Bubbling fluidized beds
Answer: d
Explanation: As the question suggests, fluidized bed combustion boilers commonly use bubbling
fluidized beds or turbulent regime to manage the fly ash properly and to have an economic model
for long term use.

34. Which one of the heat transfer processes are not involved in a fluidised bed?
a) Heat transfer between different points in the bed
b) Gas-wall heat transfer
c) Heat transfer to the submerged surfaces in contact with the bed
d) Heat transfer between the fluidized bed particles and the larger particles floating in the bed
Answer: b
Explanation: In fluidised beds, wall heat transfer does not take place, this particular design is
exclusive to packed beds. Rather fluidised beds have reactive solids which react, produce heat
and leave the bed immediately.

35. On complete fluidisation, which one of the following is zero?

a) Heat transfer between different points in the bed
b) Gas-wall heat transfer
c) Heat transfer to the submerged surfaces in contact with the bed
d) Heat transfer between the fluidized bed particles and the larger particles floating in the bed
Answer: a
Explanation: Gas –particle heat transfer is the constant phenomenon in fluidised bed, but on
fluidisation, the temperature of the bed becomes constant and no heat is then transferred between
different points in the bed.

36. Heat transfer between the active particle and the fluidized bed is controlled by three
mechanisms given below, identify the wrong entry.
a) Particle convection
b) Radiation
c) Particle conduction
d) Gas convection
Answer: c
Explanation: The three modes of heat transfer are: gas convection, particle convection and
radiation. There is no particle-particle conduction taking place because of fluidisation which
makes all the surface of the particles in bed in contact with the fluid.

37. Which one of the following is not a suitable application of evaporators?

a) Heating
b) Refrigeration
c) Crystallisation
d) Cooling
Answer: a
Explanation: Heating is not a possible application of evaporators, whereas it is usually used for
concentrating solutions as a feed to crystallization, re-evaporation of compressed liquids,
refrigeration applications, and generation of vapours for process applications.

38. The following are few demerits of using short tube vertical evaporators, select the incorrect
one.
a) Very low heat transfer coefficients with thin fluids
b) Corrosive fluids cannot be used as it increases cleaning cost
c) The fluid stays a long time above the tubes which takes long time to heat up
d) Convoluted tube increase the cost of manufacture
Answer: a
Explanation: The short tube evaporators are most commonly used with thin fluids as they do not
scale and do not accumulate at the top. These fluids hence provide large heat transfer
coefficients.

39. Which one of the following is not an advantage of Long tube evaporators?
a) Good heat transfer coefficients at low temperature gradients
b) Thin fluids have very large product economy
c) Relatively inexpensive to manufacture
d) Low head space required
Answer: d
Explanation: In long tube vertical evaporators, corrosive fluids cannot be used as the setup is not
easy to dismantle and clean and hence we usually use cleaner fluids whose deposits can be
removed by water. It also requires large head space to accommodate the fluid that is
falling/climbing.

40. The following are few demerits of using short tube vertical evaporators, select the incorrect
one.
a) Very low heat transfer coefficients with thick fluids
b) Corrosive fluids cannot be used as it increases cleaning cost
c) Long tubes efficiently evaporate and hence recirculation is hardly required
d) Large head room requirement
Answer: c
Explanation: The long tube evaporators use recirculation as the natural convection procedure
does not guarantee complete heating of the fluid at the film which reduces evaporation. To
overcome this, we use recirculation.

41. Which one of the following is not an advantage of forced convection boiling?
a) Very cheap to operate
b) Positive circulation
c) High heat transfer coefficient
d) Low fouling or scaling
Answer: a
Explanation: The advantages of forced circulation evaporators can be summarized as –
i. High heat-transfer coefficients
ii. Positive circulation
iii.Reduced fouling or scaling.
Because of these high boiling ratio and extra circulation, the operation cost increases due to the
electrical cost of running the agitator and pump, hence it is not usually cheap.

42. How do the Agitated film evaporator increase heat transfer coefficient?
a) It has mixers that mix the fluid
b) It is a horizontal tube evaporator with agitated outer fluid
c) It is a type of climbing film evaporator with agitators
d) It has a set of blades that keeps renewing the film
Answer: d
Explanation: The agitated film evaporators have set of blades rotating around the film with a
very small gap that keeps renewing the film and hence exposing the hot fluid to the open surface
for larger evaporation.

43. Which one of the following is not an advantage of agitated film evaporator?
a) Ability of working at high vacuum (down to 0.001 mbar
b) Very low operation cost
c) Very low residence times (to avoid product degradation
d) Elevated heat transfer coefficients due to agitation.
Answer: b
Explanation: The operation cost of agitated film is relatively high owing to the presence of
pumps and motors for the agitators, hence this option (Very low operation cost) is wrong.

44. The heat transfer coefficient for rising film and falling film evaporators is same because they
can be used in the same setup.
a) False
b) True
Answer: a
Explanation: The setup of rising film and falling film might be the same but the film orientation
is different for both the setups and hence the heat transfer coefficients too.

45. Why is the calculated heat transfer area more than the inner surface heat transfer area of the
evaporator?
a) Because the area is on a diameter between outer and inner diameter
b) Area is more than outer surface area
c) Because the area is outer surface area
d) Because the area is equivalent to a large diameter
Answer: a
Explanation: Yes, the given statement “Because the area is on a diameter between outer and
inner diameter” is correct because the equivalent heat transfer area for the steam part is larger
than the feed part, hence the calculation gives us an intermediate value.

46. Which one of the following is not an assumption in multiple effect evaporator’s calculations?
a) The entering steam is at their boiling point
b) Heat transfer surface does not undergo fouling
c) Pressure is same in every effect
d) There is no sub cooling of the condensate from different steam chests
Answer: c
Explanation: The assumptions that are usually made while designing evaporators are:
1. The vapours entering in to steam shell of respective effects are at their saturation
temperature
2. There is no sub cooling of the condensate from different steam chests
3. Condensation of vapour in steam chest occurs at constant pressure
4. There is no carry-over of liquid droplets with vapours leaving the respective effects.
5. There is no heat dissipation to surroundings
6. Heat transfer surface does not undergo fouling.

47. Which one of the following is not a classification of boilers?

a) Fire tube and Water tube
b) Circulation
c) Feed type
d) Pressure
Answer: c
Explanation: The boilers are usually not classified as feed type rather the common classifications
are tube-type, circulation, internal/external fired etc.

48. Avoiding the Critical heat flux is an engineering problem in heat transfer applications, such
as nuclear reactors, where fuel plates must not be allowed to overheat. To cope with this, what
measure can be taken?
a) Add more water
b) Add turbulence
c) Increase the pressure
d) Decrease the pressure
Answer: c
Explanation: Increasing the pressure increases the boiling point and hence shifts the boiling
curve, hence now at this higher pressure CHF is avoided

49. Which one of the following method removes water molecule by changing its chemical
composition?
a) De-moisturising
b) Dewatering
c) Dehydration
d) Drying
Answer: c
Explanation: Drying is the process of removing moisture from a wet surface whereas
dehydration is the process of complete molecular removal of water or the loss of water as a
constituent. And the process removing moisture by the application of low pressure is called
dewatering.

50. Which one of the following batch-drying equipment has the least drying time/ residence
time?
a) Agitated vacuum dryer
b) Furnace dryer
c) Drum dryer
d) Pan – dryer
Answer: a
Explanation: Agitated dryer is the most versatile dryer as it has the ability to handle large feed,
fouling/scaling feeds, crystallising feed and many others by its advanced methods of blades. It
also has very low residence times as the scraping process of these dryers speeds up the process.

52. The convective heat transfer coefficients for condensation in Condensers usually lie in the
range ____________
a) 2500-6000 W/m2K
b) 60-300 W/m2K
c) 0-200 W/m2K
d) 300-1000 W/m2K
Answer: a
Explanation: Condensation, as well as evaporation, have high convective heat transfer
coefficients because they are related to the latent heat of vaporization of water which is equal to
2260 W/m2 K.