ME F220 – Heat Transfer

Introduction

Nilesh D. Pawar, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BITS Pilani, K. K. Birla Goa Campus

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 Content
 Thermodynamics and heat transfer
 Modes of heat transfer
 Concept of driving potential
 The first law of thermodynamics
 Surface energy balance

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 Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer (or heat) is the transport or movement of thermal energy due
to a temperature difference or gradient.
 Heat is transferred whenever a temperature gradient exists within a system,
or two systems at different temperature are brought into contact.

The coffee loses thermal energy

while environment gains thermal
energy

 The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer.

 The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
 The rate of heat transfer is measured in Watts (W), equal to Joules per
second.

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Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals with heat and work, and
inter-conversion between them .
 Laws of thermodynamics:

o First law: Energy is conserved

o Second law: Heat moves from higher to lower temperature – Entropy always
increases

 Limitations of thermodynamics:

1. Thermodynamic deals with the equilibrium states.

2. Provides no information about the mechanism of heat transfer

(conduction/convection/radiation)

3. Gives no indication about how long the process will take.

Thermodynamic simply tells us how much heat to supply to (or reject from) a
system during a process between specified end states without considering
whether, or how, this could be achieved.
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 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
 Consider a solid and a liquid at two different temperatures
𝑇 = 800℃ 𝑚, 𝑐
The heat transfer from the ball to
water will stops when both reach the
same temperature 𝑇𝑓 , i.e., thermal
𝑇 = 30℃ equilibrium temperature
𝑚𝑤 , 𝑐𝑤

 Energy lost by the hot body = energy gained by the water

 Thus, using the energy conservation, we can find the equilibrium temperature
 But energy conservation alone is unable to
1. How long the process would take to reach the thermal equilibrium?
2. What is the mode of heat transfer (conduction/convection/radiation)?
3. The temperature variation of the ball as a function of time and space

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Heat Transfer Analysis
 From an engineering viewpoint, the key problem is the determination of
the rate of heat transfer at a given temperature difference.
 To estimate the cost, feasibility, and the size of equipment necessary to
transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time, a detailed heat transfer
analysis must be made.
 Objectives of heat transfer analysis are:
1. To determine the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus
time required for heating or cooling.
2. The variation of temperature

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 Modes of Heat Transfer
 The transfer of thermal energy occurs in three ways; we refer to them as modes of
heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation

Conduction is the heat transfer that occurs when the

temperature difference exists in a stationary medium

Convection refers to the heat transfer between

a surface and a moving fluid when there is a
temperature difference between two.

Radiation (or thermal radiation) is the emission

of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves

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Heat Transfer Rate Notations
 Heat transfer rate (W)

 Heat transfer rate per unit length (W/m)

 Heat transfer rate per unit area (W/m2 ), i.e. heat flux

 Heat transfer rate per unit volume (W/m3 )

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Conduction in Solids

In solids, molecules are bound in a

periodic arrangement called lattice

In solid, conduction is due to lattice

vibrations.

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Conduction in Solids
Metals

Flow of free electrons

 In solids, conduction is due to

1.Lattice vibrations
2.Flow of free electrons

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 Conduction in Liquids and Gases
No bulk or
macroscopic motion

Translation motion

Vibrational motion

 In liquids and gases, conduction is due to

Rotational motion
1.Molecular collisions
2.Molecular diffusion
 Conduction can be viewed as the transfer of thermal energy from more
energetic particles to the less energetic particles of a substance

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 Conduction Rate Equation – Fourier’s Law
One-dimensional plane wall, 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑥)

or

The minus sign ensures that heat is

transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature

Under steady-state conduction, when the temperature is linear

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Q) A freezer compartment consists of a cubical cavity that is 2 m on a side.
Assume the bottom to be perfectly insulated. What is the minimum
thickness of Styrofoam insulation (k = 0.030 W/m K) that must be applied
to the top and side walls to ensure a heat load of less than 500 W, when
the inner and outer surfaces are 10 and 35C?

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 Convection
 Convection = Conduction + Advection (bulk fluid motion)
 The fluid motion is a result of parcels of fluid, each consisting of a large number of
molecules, moving by virtue of an external force. Because the molecules in the parcel
of fluid retain the random motion, the total heat transfer is due to a combination of
energy transport by random molecular motion of the molecules and the by the bulk
fluid motion

 The bulk fluid motion is caused by some external force. The force may be due to a
density gradient, or due to a pressure difference generated by a pump or a blower, or
possibly due to a combination of two

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 Convection (contd.)

 Due to fluid-surface interaction, a region develops near the surface, wherein the fluid
velocity varies from 0 to 𝑢∞ .
 Moreover, if the surface and fluid temperature differ, there will be a region of the fluid
where temperature varies from 𝑇𝑠 to 𝑇∞
 Within the boundary layer, convection heat transfer is carried out via both random
molecular motion (diffusion) and the bulk fluid motion
 The contribution due to the random motion dominates near the surface where the
fluid velocity is low. Due to no-slip condition at the surface, the fluid velocity is zero
and heat is transferred via diffusion only

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 Classification of Convection
 Convection heat transfer is classified according to the nature of flow

20°C AIR Warmer

.
5 m/s Q air rising
AIR .
Q 20°C

Forced convection Natural convection

80°C
Boiling
Water
100°C

Droplets
Heating
Boiling Condensation

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 Newton’s Law of Cooling
 Regardless of the nature of the convection heat transfer process, the rate of heat
transfer by convection between a surface and a fluid is given by
Newton’s law of cooling
Where ℎ is the heat transfer coefficient. The ℎ depends on
1. Surface geometry
2. Nature of fluid motion (i.e., laminar or turbulent)
3. Fluid properties

 Study of convection reduces to

determination of ℎ

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Radiation
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
 The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a
thermodynamic temperature 𝑇𝑠 (in K) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law

Where 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4 is Stefan Boltzmann constant and 𝐸𝑏 is the blackbody
emissive power
 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is known as a
blackbody
 The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, and expressed as

Where 𝜀 is a radiative property of the surface known as emissivity (0 ≤ 𝜀 ≤ 1).

 Emissivity is a measure of how efficiently a surface emits energy relative to a
blackbody

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 Radiation - Absorption
 Radiation may also be incident on a surface. For example, if the surface is exposed to
the sun
 Irradiation G: The rate at which radiation is incident on a unit area of the surface

G • The fraction of the radiation energy

Grefle  1    G incident on a surface that is absorbed by
the surface is termed the absorptivity 𝛼.
• For opaque surface (nontransparent),
the portion of incident radiation not
absorbed by the surface is reflected
Gabs   G back.

 The rate at which surface absorbs radiation is given as

Where 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 1. If 𝛼 < 1 then the surface is opaque.

 The value of 𝛼 depends on the nature of the irradiation (wavelength of the
radiation), as well as on the surface material.

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 Special Case
 Radiation exchange between a small surface at 𝑇𝑠 and a much larger,
isothermal surface that completely surrounds the smaller one.

Where,

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Summary

Mode of heat Mechanism Rate equation

transfer
Conduction Inter-molecular Fourier's law
interactions 𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Convection Conduction in the presence Newton’s law of cooling
of fluid motion 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

Radiation Electromagnetic waves (or Stefan-Boltzmann law

photons) 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠4

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 Concept of Driving Potential
 The current that flows through a wire is dependent upon the potential difference
across the two ends of the wire. The proportionality factor is termed as the
conductance, the reciprocal of which is the resistance.
 When the potential difference is zeros, no current flows and the system may be
considered to be in equilibrium.
 Similarly, the temperature difference is the driving potential for the heat flow

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 The First Law of Thermodynamics – Closed System
 The total energy of a system is conserved, and therefore the only way the amount of
energy in the system can change is if energy crosses its boundaries.
 For a closed system (a region of fixed mass), there are only two way ways: heat
transfer through the boundaries and work done on or by the system
 The energy balance over a time interval Δ𝑡 is given as

Where Δ𝐸 is the change in total energy stored in the

system, Q is the net heat transferred to the system, W is
the net work done by the system
 The rate equation of the 1st law is given as Closed system

Where q is the net rate of heat transfer and w is the net rate of work done by the
system

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 Energy
 The total energy E includes kinetic energy, potential energy, and other forms of
energy

Macroscopic Mechanical
KE and PE

Translational
Rotational
Sensible Vibrational
Internal
Latent Inter-molecular
(microscopic)

Other Intra-molecular
(Chemical bond)

Nuclear

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 The First Law of Thermodynamics – Control volume
 For a control volume (or open system), mass entering and leaving the control
volume carries energy with it. This is third way in which energy can cross the
boundaries of a control volume. This process is known as advection.

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 The Surface Energy Balance
 Consider a control volume on either side of a physical boundary
 The surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy.
 Therefore, a surface can be viewed as a fictitious system whose energy content
remains constant during a process (just like a steady state or steady flow system)
 The energy balance for the surface can be expressed as

 The above relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions, and the surface
energy balance does not involve heat generation since a surface does not have the
volume

 The energy balance at the outer surface

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