Wildlife trade

The global illegal wildlife trade has been anecdotally linked to other serious crimes, such as fraud, corruption, and money laundering, as well as the cross-border trafficking of drugs, arms, counterfeit goods, and persons. As research on this topic is scarce and sporadic, we conducted a scoping literature review to gather information across multiple disciplines and evidence types on crime convergences in the illegal wildlife trade. We reviewed 150 papers published between 2000 and 2020. We found that the illegal trade in many of the most frequently trafficked species have reportedly converged with numerous other serious and organised crimes, most commonly drug trafficking. Convergences can occur in a variety of ways, although the diversification of organised crime groups, parallel trafficking of contraband, and use of enabling crimes (such as corruption and violence) were the most frequently described. Possible explanations for our results and future research directions are discussed.

Across the globe, forests are being treated as convertible, rather than renewable resources. The consequences of the bushmeat trade for endangered species, biodiversity and people are no longer in doubt-unless a concerted, multifaceted effort, equal in gravity to the severity of the crisis is initiated, the 'empty forest syndrome' will be realised in the foreseeable future.

Silent Steppe is the product of the Environment and Social Development unit in the East Asia and Pacific region of the World Bank in a series of activities by the Bank and our development partners to understand the driving forces of wildlife trade, its scale and operation, and to identify successful solutions to address illegal trade. A previous publication—Going, Going ... Gone: The Illegal Trade in Wildlife in East and Southeast Asia—summarized key concerns in the region, and a recently launched sub-regional study— coordinated by TRAFFIC International—is exploring the economic and social drivers of illegal trade. More broadly, this work is linked with the World Bank’s concern about the adverse impacts of weak governance on the management of natural resources, identified as a key issue in the Environment Strategy for the East Asia and Pacific Region.

Indonesia adalah negara tropis yang terkenal akan sumber daya alam hayatinya yang sangat unik dan beragam hingga terkenal sebagai negara mega-biodiersiy. Keanekaragaman hayati tersebut baik tumbuhan ataupun hewan merupakan kekayaan alam yang dapat memberi manfaat sebagai salah satu modal dasar pembangunan nasional (Suhartini, 2009).
Hingga tahun 2010 tercatat bahwa Indonesia memiliki 38000 jenis tumbuhan, 515 spesies mamalia, 511 spesies reptilian, 2827 jenis binatang tak bertulang, kupu-kupu sebanyak 121 spesies, 480 spesies hard corals, 1400 spesies ikan air tawar, 270 spesies amfibi, 1531 spesies burung, serta 240 spesies langka sebagai jumlah spesies langka terbanyak di dunia. Indonesia juga memiliki tumbuhan palma sebanyak 477 spesies dan sekitar 3000 jenis spesies tumbuhan penghasil bahan berkhasiat sebagai obat. Hal inilah yang membuat Indonesia berada di peringkat kedua setelah Brasil sebagai negara dengan tingkat biodversitas tertinggi (Daryanto & Suprihatin, 2013).
Tentunya dengan kekayaan alam yang begitu besar Indonesia harus memiliki berbagai peraturan dan kebijakan untuk menjaga dan melestarikan sumber daya alam ini. Peranan pemerintah pusat maupun daerah memiliki peranan penting dalam perumusan bebagai kebijakan pengelolaan sumber daya alam. Hal ini sangat diperlukan terlebih dalam melindungi sumber daya alam atau spesies-spesies langka yang terancam kepunahan. Saat ini perlindungan terhadap sumber daya alam hayati di Indonesia adalah UU No.5 tahun 1990 mengenai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Hayati dan Ekosistemnya.
Selain itu untuk menghindari kepunahan spesies-spesies tertentu, pada tanggal 3 Maret 1973, sekitar 80 negara menyepakati sebuah naskah konvensi perdagangan internasional tumbuhan dan satwa langka (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) atau yang terkenal dengan CITES. Indonesia sebagai salah satu negara yang telah meratifikasi berhak menghadiri konferensi para pihak (Conference of the Parties atau COP) yang dilaksanakan setiap dua atau tiga tahun sekali.

ลู กด้ วยนม ด้ วยวิ ธี การติ ดตั ้ งกล้ องดั กถ่ ายภาพสั ตว์ ป่ า(camera trap) เป็ นจ านวน 727 กั บดั กคื น(trap night) ผลการศึ กษาพบสั ตว์ เลี ้ ยงลู กด้ วยนมทั ้ งหมด 8 อั น 20 วงศ์ 27 สกุ ล 27 ชนิ ด จากการส ารวจ ด้ วยอุ ปกรณ์ กั บดั กกล้ องถ่ ายภาพ พบทั ้ งหมด 22 ชนิ ด ซึ ่ งประกอบไปด้ วย กระแตเหนื อ (Tupaia belangeri) ลิ งลม (Nycticebus coucang) ลิ งแสม (Macaca fascicularis) ชะนี ธรรมดา (Hylobates lar) ลิ ่ นชวา (Manis javanica) กระต่ ายป่ า (Lepus peguensis) กระรอก (Callosciurus sp.) กระจ้ อน (Menetes berdmorei) อ้ นใหญ่ (Rhizomys sumatrensis) อ้ นเล็ ก (Cannomys badius) เม่ นใหญ่ (Hystrix brachyuran) หนู sp. หมาจิ ้ งจอก (Canis aureus) หมี (Ursus sp.) หมาไม้ (Martes flavigula) หมู หริ ่ ง (Arctonyx collaris) นากใหญ่ ขนเรี ยบ (Lutrogale perspicillata) ชะมดเช็ ด (Viverricula indica) อี เห็ นข้ างลาย (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites) พั งพอนกิ นปู (Herpestes urva) แมวดาว (Prionailurus bengalensis) เสื อโคร่ ง (Panthera tigris) ช้ างเอเชี ย (Elephas maximus) หมู ป่ า (Sus scrofa) เก้ งธรรมดา (Muntiacus muntjak) กวางป่ า (Cervus unicolor) และกระทิ ง (Bos gaurus) และจากการส ารวจโดยการพบเห็ (3) สารบั ญภาพ ภาพที ่ หน้ า 1 กล้ องดั กถ่ ายภาพอั ตโนมั ติ ยี ่ ห้ อ Bushnell Trophy Cam 14 2 สภาพพื ้ นที ่ บริ เวณพื ้ นที ่ ป่ าฟื ้ นฟู ริ มน ้ าแม่ วงก์ อุ ทยานแห่ งชาติ แม่ วงก์ 24 3 สภาพพื ้ นที ่ ที ่ ใช้ วางกั บดั กกล้ องถ่ ายภาพ (camera trap) 24 4 แผนที ่ แสดงพื ้ นที ่ ศึ กษาบริ เวณริ มน ้ าแม่ วงก์ อุ ทยานแห่ งชาติ แม่ วงก์ 25 5 การติ ดตั ้ งอุ ปกรณ์ กั บดั กกล้ องถ่ ายภาพ (camera trap) 26 6 แผนที ่ อุ ทยานแห่ งชาติ แม่ วงก์ 29 7 ความมากมายสั มพั ทธ์ ของสั ตว์ เลี ้ ยงลู กด้ วยนมที ่ ส ารวจพบ 38 8 ร้ อยละความชุ กชุ มของสั ตว์ เลี ้ ยงลู กด้ วยนมที ่ ส ารวจพบ 41 ภาพผนวกที ่ 1 กระแตเหนื อ Northern Treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri)-ภาพบนซ้ าย, ลิ งลม Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang)-ภาพบนขวา และ ลิ งแสม Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis)-ภาพล่ าง 52 2 ลิ ่ นชวา Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica)-ภาพบน และ กระต่ ายป่ า Siamese Hare (Lepus peguensis)-ภาพล่ าง 53 3 กระจ้ อน Indochinese Ground Squirrel (Menetes berdmorei)-ภาพบนซ้ าย, อ้ นใหญ่ Large-Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys sumatrensis)-ภาพบนขวา และ เม่ นใหญ่ East Asian Porcupine (Hystrix brachyura)-ภาพล่ าง 54 4 หนู sp.-ภาพบนซ้ าย, หมาไม้ Yellow-throated Marten (Martes flavigula)-ภาพบน ขวา และ หมาจิ ้ งจอก Golden Jackal (Canis aureus)-ภาพล่ าง 55 5 หมู หริ ่ ง Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris)-ภาพบน และ ชะมดเช็ ด Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica)-ภาพล่ าง 56 6 อี เห็ นข้ างลาย Common Plam Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)-ภาพบน และ พั งพอนกิ นปู Crab-eating Mongoose (Herpestes urva)-ภาพล่ าง 57 (4) 7 แมวดาว Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)-ภาพบน และ เสื อโคร่ ง Tiger (Panthera tigris)-ภาพล่ าง 58 8 หมู ป่ า Eurasian Wild Pig (Sus scrofa)-ภาพบน และ เก้ งธรรมดา Red Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)-ภาพล่ าง 59 9 กวางป่ า Sambar (Cervus unicolor)-ภาพบน และ กระทิ ง Gaur (Bos gaurus)-ภาพ ล่ าง 60 10 ปั จจั ยคุ กคาม (threats) พราน-ภาพบน และ สั ตว์ เลี ้ ยง-ภาพล่ าง 61 11 อ้ นเล็ ก Bay Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius)-ภาพบน และ ขนเม่ น (quill)-ภาพ ล่ าง 62 12 รอยเล็ บหมี sp.-ภาพบนซ้ าย-ขวา และ นากใหญ่ ขนเรี ยบ Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata)-ภาพล่ าง 63 13 มู ลช้ างป่ า-ภาพบน และ ร่ องรอยช้ างป่ าล้ มต้ นกล้ วยบริ เวณริ มน ้ าแม่ วงก์ -ภาพ ล่ าง 64 14 รอยตี นเสื อโคร่ ง 65 15 กวางป่ า Sambar (Cervus unicolor)-ภาพบน และ มู ลกวางป่ า-ภาพล่ าง 66

Satwa liar merupakan salah satu bagian dari sumber daya alam di Indonesia yang juga menjadikan Indonesia menjadi negara kedua pemilik keanekaragaman hayati terbanyak di dunia. Indonesia memiliki sekiar 17% dari jumlah spesies di dunia, diantaranya 12% mamalia dunia ada di Indonesia ). Menjadi negara yang kaya akan sumber daya hayati membawa beban dan tanggung jawab yang besar bagi Indonesia untuk melakukan berbagai upaya dalam menjaga, melindungi, dan melestarikan sumber daya yang ada. Upaya konservasi harus terus dilakukan dan diperhatikan agar ekosistem di Indonesia tetap berjalan sebagaimana seharusnya. Namun, di sisi lain laju penggundulan hutan di Indonesia berkisar antara 0,5-1 % per tahun dan terus meningkat tiap tahunnya. Hal ini diperkirakan menyebabkan punahnya 2-7% jenis kehidupan liar pada seperempat abad mendatang (Reid dalam Gunawan & Bismark, 2007). Ditaksir juga bahwa ratusan jenis akan punah setiap hari dalam 20-30 tahun yang akan datang. Tak hanya didorong oleh kerusakan habitat, penurunan jumlah populasi spesies tertentu di Indonesia disebabkan oleh adanya perdagangan satwa liar secara ilegal, khususnya satwa dilindungi. Perdagangan ilegal dan yang tidak berkelanjutan terus meningkat dan menjadi ancaman besar bagi upaya konservasi (Shepherd, 2010). Perdagangan ilegal ini biasanya tersebar luas dan seringkali dilakukan secara terbuka. Hal ini menunjukkan bagaimana rendahnya tingkat penanganan dan lemahnya penegakan hukum yang berjalan di pemerintahan. Beberapa spesies yang dilindungi secara ilegal telah dibunuh untuk mengambil bagian berharga dari tubuh spesies dan dijual pada para kolektor (Miller & Spoolman, 2012).. Secara global, praktek ini bernilai sebesar $600.000 setiap jamnya. Sindikat kejahatan dan kriminal ini juga telah melakukan penyelundupan satwa liar karena keuntungan besar yang diperoleh. Bagi para pemburu dan pedagang, gorila gunung bernilai sebesar $150.000 dan panda sebesar $100.000, bahkan komodo dari Indonesia juga dihargai sebesar $30.000. Gajah dan badak juga menjadi korban dengan kehilangan gading dan cula mereka. Setiap tahun, sekitar 25.000 ekor gajah dibunuh untuk diambil gadingnya secara ilegal meski peraturan internasional telah mengeluarkan larangan untuk penjualan gading sejak 1989 (Miller & Spoolman, 2012).

The Sampling of the study area and the data collection was done for only three days, starting
from 1st July, 2016 to 5th July, 2016 on flora and fauna in the Nimule National Park (NNP).
The main aim was to develop species checklists for flora and fauna, to determine species richness and diversity, by using rarefaction curve, abundance as rank abundance curve and
interspecific body size variation in birds. Adding to that, conservation and management challenges facing the park were identified on the various categories in the buffer zone as well
as inside the park. The survey was conducted twice in a day, every day from 8:00 AM to 12:00 PM and again 2:00 PM to 6:00 PM at different selected locations for birds and vegetation in riverine habitat using stratified systematic sampling designed. The riverine habitat was divided into two; riverine 1 and 2. In which riverine 1 start from commando (at the base) towards Fulla 1 & 2 and riverine 2 starts from the commando towards landing site and wooded grassland habitat northeast of the buffer zone. Birds were studied using point count and opportunistic count methods. Mammals were studied using opportunistic count method as well as amphibians and reptiles. Nested quadrat technique was used for vegetation. Therefore, for the statistical data analysis, species checklists, estimate S Software S (est), MS Excel, Jack 1 Mean were used to determine the species diversity richness, abundance and distribution patterns.

International trade in wildlife is a major threat to biodiversity conservation. CITES, the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is the primary mechanism for maintaining
sustainability in international wildlife trade. Although a comparatively well-designed legal
instrument, CITES has been criticised because of its emphasis on regulatory measures and disregard
for the economic reality of wildlife trade. Through means of a case study on the trade in pangolins
(Pholidota: Manidae) in Asia, we evaluate the CITES approach to controlling trade and demonstrate significant
areas to be addressed. These arise because CITES fails to accurately monitor supply, particularly
where trade is illegal, it fails to consider the impact of trade controls in realistic terms, and it does little to
consider the complex nature of demand or contend with changing market dynamics. To more effectively
manage trade we argue that reforms are needed within CITES. Specifically, we highlight improved monitoring
of supply (by accounting for illegal and legal trade) and of demand and prices for wildlife (through
national wildlife consumption surveys). This information would generate a more holistic understanding
of wildlife trade and, if integrated with the Convention’s existing trade database, would allow a more
realistic evaluation of the performance of trade controls, and could inform decision-making and the
implementation of interventions which go beyond regulation and address demand directly. In a world
of rapid economic and social change understanding markets and addressing demand as well as supply
is essential to conserving the world’s trade threatened species.

Os Centros de Triagem de Animais Silvestres (CETAS) são estabelecimentos especialmente preparados e dotados de instalações com a finalidade exclusiva de recepcionar, triar, tratar e destinar os animais silvestres resgatados, apreendidos pelos órgãos fiscalizadores ou provenientes da entrega voluntária de particulares que os mantém em cativeiros domésticos de forma irregular como animais de estimação. Muitos são recebidos em péssimas condições físicas, morrendo nos primeiros dias ou momentos nos recintos dos CETAS. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência dos CETAS e todo o universo relacionado ao tráfico de animais silvestres.

When so many facets of nonhuman life are commodified daily with little challenge, this paper looks to shed light on what is objectionable about commodifying nonhuman life. As a contribution in this direction, we undertake a comparative examination of the formation of two different but equally lively, and international, commodities: exotic pets and ecosystem carbon. In this paper we first set out to understand what characteristics of life matter in the production of the commodity. We argue that a particular mode of value-generating life predominates in each commodity circuit: in exotic pet trade, an individualized, 'encounterable' life; in ecosystem services, an aggregate, reproductive life. Second, we find that hierarchies between humans and other beings are highly generative in the formation and effects of lively commodities. On one hand, these hierarchies cast nonhumans in a disposable state that is integral to the functioning of exotic pet trade; on the other hand, these hierarchies are partly what ecosystem services are designed to address. Nevertheless, we find that reproduction of uneven species geographies is at work in both economies. The degree and nature of effect on the material conditions of nonhuman lives is, however, distinct, and our conclusion calls for greater attention to these differences.

Recent reports and studies document dramatic declines in a wide variety of wildlife species in Mongolia. The prime driver in these declines appears to be illegal and unsustainable hunting, both for local trade and consumption and for the international market. While data on these declines are sparse, comparisons of survey reports since the 1980s present evidence that some species may have declined by up to 90% in recent years. We outline the situation for eight major species of wildlife in Mongolia (saiga antelope, Mongolian gazelle, red deer, musk deer, argali, brown bear, Siberian marmot, and saker falcon). We then review the existing legal conditions and government efforts to control this situation, and suggest specific changes and actions that Mongolia should take to halt these dramatic declines in wildlife populations and avoid what may soon become an extinction crisis.

Part of a series of four reports, this analysis identifies policy and legal opportunities to enhance the management of wildlife in Ethiopia and increase the effectiveness in combatting illegal trafficking of wildlife in general, with particular reference to cheetahs and gazelles.

​The analysis emphasizes opportunities to leverage international and regional conservation, trade, and wildlife-related treaties, as well as legal gaps in species protection and crime enforcement.  The report uses a first-of-its-kind taxonomy for wildlife offenses facilitating the rapid comparison of crime types and penalty levels between jurisdictions.

Reporting findings from two recent multi-disciplinary studies of wildlife crime 1 , this paper will explore the patterns and extent of trafficking in wildlife, and locate the different modes of wildlife trafficking within the wider framework of organised criminal activity.

The hunting of small cetaceans (i.e., all toothed whales, except the sperm whale) for food or fishing bait is far more widespread than most people realise. While in recent years public attention has focused on hunts in Japan (specifically in Taiji) and the Danish Faroe Islands, small cetaceans are deliberately killed at similar or even higher levels in several other regions. Overall, approximately 100,000 small whales, dolphins, and porpoises are intentionally killed each year worldwide. In most cases, these are unregulated, or even illegal, hunts. Typically, they are unsustainable and poorly documented and their impact on populations is unknown. Where legislation is in place, appropriate control and rigorous enforcement measures are often lacking. This report aims to give a global overview of the scale of small cetacean hunts, the number of individuals and species targeted, and their ecological impact.

The challenges are many, while 335 plant species in the country are classified as threatened on FRLHT's Red Data list (2019), India's Wildlife (Protection) Act provides a layer of protection to only five species and one genus of plants through their listing under Schedule VI. With increasing pressures on wild floral resources, there is a definite need to
expand protection to other widely traded wild species as well. Policy-level changes are the need of the hour but before that a comprehensive and systematic attempt should be made to document the most traded species of flora, so that any enforcement-related interventions and limited conservation resources can be targeted. An attempt to gain a better understanding of MAP trade in India has been made and presented in this volume.

Reptiles are an easy target for smugglers: They are silent goods in suitcases and parcels, they often survive over long periods of confinement, and rare species may fetch thousands of Euros. Although amphibians have higher mortality rates during transport, their smuggling from distinct biodiversity hotspots may also be very lucrative.Traffickers often specifically target species, which are not covered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), as their importation in European countries is poorly regulated. However, many of these targeted species are endangered in the wild and afforded high levels of national protection in their countries of origin.
The European pet market is a main destination for illegally caught reptiles, both CITES listed and non-CITES. In November 2014, Pro Wildlife published its report “Stolen Wildlife”, focusing on the trafficking in rare and threatened species, which are protected in their country of origin, but not on an international level. Once those species are smuggled out of their range state, they can be openly and legally sold in the European and other global markets – which mean high profits with low risk of prosecution. This report provides new case studies from different range states and a broad range of species affected by this special type of wildlife crime.

Almost three quarters of reptile species and more than 80 % of amphibian species in the European exotic pet trade are not listed under CITES. Nonetheless, many of these species are threatened in the wild and are consequently afforded a high level of national protection in their countries of origin. Once those animals have been successfully smuggled out of their country of origin, traffickers face no legal consequences, while their profits are often very high.

To this day, the EU remains a major hub and consumer market for illegally exported wildlife, with European citizens regularly being involved in smuggling events and European trade shows serving as meeting points for smugglers and clients.

After a short introduction into the aims of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the definition of the different breeding categories used by CITES („captive bred“, „captive born“ or „farmed“, and „captive raised“ or „ranched“), we present and evaluate import and export statistics of different species and countries. These show many cases of incorrect and inconsequent data, in some cases chelonians are mislabelled, or they entry into a country as „wild caught“ and leave it as „captive bred.“ Typical trading routes are named. We address the limits of CITES and show possibilities of the importing countries to improve the conservation status, i.e. by double-checking non-detriment findings, like it's imperative by each import into the European Union.

Part of a series of four reports, this analysis identifies policy and legal opportunities to enhance the management of wildlife in Somaliland and increase the effectiveness in combatting illegal trafficking of wildlife in general, with particular reference to cheetahs and gazelles.

​The analysis emphasizes opportunities to leverage international and regional conservation, trade, and wildlife-related treaties, as well as legal gaps in species protection and crime enforcement.  The report uses a first-of-its-kind taxonomy for wildlife offenses facilitating the rapid comparison of crime types and penalty levels between jurisdictions.

Under the backdrop of tense U.S.-China relations, the virus SARS-CoV-2 began in China, was initially concealed by the Chinese Communist Party, took jetliners to the advanced nations, which were usually unprepared to handle it, with the exceptions of South Korea, Taiwan, Japan and other Asian nations. Even though the USA and its citizens are the largest contributors to world global health, the USA was not prepared, made mistakes, and now faces a grim calculus while opening up the U.S. states.

A critical timeline is given for the late December, 2019 to March 11, 2020 period, to contrast and compare the actions and information provided by the CCP, WHO, CDC, White House Coronavirus Task Force, major media covering the early pandemic, Congressional Research Service, China Digital Times and other information sources.

The economic and constitutional consequences of the shutdowns and lockdowns are weighed against over 100,000 deaths and future deaths in the COVID-19 pandemic. The overall plan to decide when and how to open up the economies of the 50 U.S. states is provided by the U.S. Constitution, despite pretense to the contrary.

Other books by John Dewar Gleissner: Prison & Slavery - A Surprising Comparison, Get Tough & Smart: How to Start Winning the War on Drug Addiction

The Corona(covid-19) crisis and conditional lockdown by several countries have generated tendency of " escape for change" among locked people. Lockdown can be seen as an opportunity to see more tourists and tourism in coming days. The paper is based on opinion of author, review of some literature and discussion with scholars, professors and other key stakeholders in tourism. The paper found Corona(covid-19) and lockdown as an opportunity to improve and explore new horizon of tourism with more improved infrastructure and service.

The global illegal wildlife trade has been anecdotally linked to other serious crimes, such as fraud, corruption, and money laundering, as well as the cross-border trafficking of drugs, arms, counterfeit goods, and persons. As research on this topic is scarce and sporadic, we conducted a scoping literature review to gather information across multiple disciplines and evidence types on crime convergences in the illegal wildlife trade. We reviewed 150 papers published between 2000 and 2020. We found that the illegal trade in many of the most frequently trafficked species have reportedly converged with numerous other serious and organised crimes, most commonly drug trafficking. Convergences can occur in a variety of ways, although the diversification of organised crime groups, parallel trafficking of contraband, and use of enabling crimes (such as corruption and violence) were the most frequently described. Possible explanations for our results and future research directions are discussed.

Many issues regarding wildlife trade are fiercely debated; often the various stakeholder groups have entrenched opposing positions which makes building consensus around the best solution/s extremely difficult. This is exacerbated in that stakeholders often come from entirely different disciplines and philosophical viewpoints.so that no common vocabulary or acceptable method of discussing the problem to reach a consensus exists. This study examines the use of a blend of two decision support methodologies, scenario formulation and a Delphi Study as part of a stakeholder analysis in building consensus in the debate on the legalisation of the international trade in rhino horn. The results gathered from the responses to two consecutive online questionnaires show the development of significant consensus over the process and performed far better in this regard than a traditional public debate. In addition, four decision scenarios – Fort Knox, Besieged, Arms Race and Golden Circle were crafted for wider use in public fora and a possible ‘Baptists and Bootlegger’ type of unwitting alliance between Animal Rights NGOs and Poachers, Middlemen and Criminal Syndicates was indicated.

This article begins with an assessment of an elderly wildlife-related treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 (CITES), and explains both how the convention was originally designed and how its Parties managed to develop it in innovative ways not envisaged by the original drafters. The article then turns to an assessment of the effectiveness of the convention in the modern world, and how an enforcement regime based on trade embargoes has been developed. This success, at least measured by indicators such as length of time it takes for states subject to sanctions to fall back into compliance, aside, the article then proceeds to question effectiveness as measured by indicators with less 'high face validity'. Through close analysis of the history of trade embargoes, it is demonstrated that by and large it is developing countries that have been the subjects of sanctions under CITES. In view of recent enforcement issues (illustrated by current whaling in the North Pacific), the article concludes by highlighting the quality of trust which, it is argued, is a critical requirement that must underpin the international regime if there is to be true legitimacy and, ultimately, credibility.

Illegal wildlife trafficking has negative effects on biodiversity conservation at both global and local scale. Therefore,
the establishment of appropriate conservation measures requires local studies that quantify this problem. The aim of
this paper is to quantify and characterize the species of birds and mammals in the period 2016-2017, at Valle AltoWildlife
Rescue Center and Wildlife Refuge. The study showed that 212 specimens belonging to 41 different species were
confiscated. More birds than mammals were confiscated, and a greater proportion of birds were included in a national
and international threat category. A clear preference for primates, parrots and squirrels was found. Furthermore, the
presence of species with a distribution range outside the study area revealed the existence of the transportation of
species from other parts of the country. Although these data are only a sample of what is actually trafficked in the
country, they provide an approach of the type of species that are illegally trafficked in this biodiversity hotspot.

Recent elephant poaching levels are a serious concern for conservationists. Opinions differ over how to deal with the upsurge and associated illegal ivory trade. Following the CITES-imposed international trade ban voted in 1989, limited legal trade has been permitted in two one-off sales. Opinions are divided on what effect this has had on poaching. Opinions are now also divided over whether trade in ivory products should be outlawed worldwide, both between and within countries. In the midst of this debate is the question of what government agencies should do with existing stockpiles of collected legal and confiscated illegal ivory. Governments of some countries have destroyed their stockpiles with the claimed intent of reducing poaching, and there are calls for others to follow suit. We review the academic literature and available relevant data and find that under current circumstances, stockpile destruction violates the precautionary principle because the outcome is unknown; it is therefore not recommended. Credible evidence suggests that speculation may drive the current high poaching rates more than consumer demand for carvings. Legal stockpiles provide an option to curtail speculative behaviour of criminals. We recommend that governments move closer towards consensus on a long-term vision for elephant and ivory management before undertaking measures such as large-scale stockpile destruction. In the meantime they should continue to retain existing ivory stockpiles securely to reduce incentives for criminal speculation with illegally accumulated stockpiles. We recommend that research be carried out to understand better the dynamics of the current legal and illegal ivory trade systems in order to formulate evidence-based policy.

The intensified illegal trade of wildlife has contributed to the unsustainable decline of wildlife populations, the destabilization of ecosystems, and threatens economic development and human security. Though often lacking empirical evidence, convergence theory has emerged recently as a topic of interest among researchers, practitioners, and the media to explain the growing overlap of criminal activities in an increasingly globalized world. In this paper, I explain the interdisciplinary theoretical foundations for the interconnectivity of criminal networks, including connections between illegal wildlife trade networks and non-state armed groups. I also outline and discuss various perspectives on the convergence of the illegal wildlife trade with other organized crime activities. I conclude by highlighting the urgent need for a better understanding of the role of the organized criminal groups involved in the illegal wildlife trade, and of how these groups converge with other types of criminal activities. The policy implications of filling in this knowledge gap are twofold: firstly, understanding how criminal networks converge can facilitate the implementation of more effective law enforcement and investigations that target highprofile offenders, as opposed to focusing on low-level poachers; and secondly, this understanding can foster more cooperation across agencies and jurisdictions to address multiple crime types and crime in convergence settings.

This article explored the local medicinal and traditional values of tiger parts and associated beliefs, and its link to the commercial trade in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Using semi-structured qualitative interviews with 139 respondents, we found that the local use of, and belief in, the medicinal values of tiger parts is widespread and that virtually all parts of the tiger are used. Some of the local uses of tiger parts were unique in both the way and the purpose of use. For example, the soil of tiger pugmark was consumed by the women as a means of contraception. We established that local usage may be a
significant threat to the tiger population of south Asia as it motivates stray tiger killing for collecting tiger parts for both local use and commercial demand, and provides the opportunities for poachers and the commercial trade to flourish.

problems and unforeseen consequences of trade bans and highlight the conservation potential of market-led mechanisms that seek to reform trade chains to make them more ethical and sustainable. We contend that it is time for conservation scientists to critically examine the evidence concerning the efficacy of these two strategies as they relate to the trade in wild birds.

The caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) is a flagship species of the Himalayas and is one of the world’s most expensive natural medicinal resources. This study assesses harvesters’ perception on abundance, sustainability, ease of harvesting, and problem/challenges
regarding collection and trade. The team has also tried to identify key stakeholders while conducting education and outreach programmes for sustainable harvesting of caterpillar fungus and to conserve the local environment of the region. However, primary information pertaining to harvesting pattern, trade and habitat of caterpillar fungus in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, and challenges and opportunities for harvesters were also investigated by conducting questionnaire surveys at the household level in the Dhauliganga Valley. The field surveys were conducted among the different stakeholders from May, 2015, to July, 2016. This study represents the first comprehensive effort to document harvesting pattern and trade of caterpillar fungus along with the quantification of its contribution to the household economy of local community of the NDBR.