Social Infrastructure

The term Design and Construct (D&C) is a well-established description of a procurement method in which the roles and responsibilities of the various stakeholders are clearly defined. The advent of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) bring a new opportunity for D&C contractors with the concomitant challenge associated with bidding as a member of a private sector consortium with numerous stakeholders. The work described in this paper is based on an ongoing research project that is investigating the costs and the allocation of risks during the bidding process for PPPs. The implications for D&C contractors bidding for social infrastructure PPP projects are explored. The conventional wisdom has been to assume that there is little difference between bidding for a conventional D&C contract as compared with submitting a D&C bid as part of a wider PPP bid. However, the results of our research indicate that there are both subtle and significant differences.

The authors present a research based in Spain and carried out between 2011 and 2014 on the social organizations and affective processes involved in social movements. Using extracts from narrative interviews, they explore how participants in social protests cross attachment and technology in order to develop trusting relationships. The way they propose to analyse the issue of trust in social organizations is to examine the discursive construction of the links between the attachment of actors and the use of different technologies. The narrative was recorded in an event that was organised in the city of Madrid in 2014. The analysis is organised in three parts. The first step is to introduce the first approach to constructing the horizontal infrastructure. In the second step, the authors show how good practice stimulates social organizations to create the perfect environment to distribute trust. In the last step, they present technology and society zigzagging together to achieve a common purpose. They consider technology as a marker of the emergence of new forms of cooperation and innovation constructed by shared trust among the actors involved in social organizations. They introduce a specific device, where expert knowledge contributes to the very definition and shaping of the trust within social organizations.

This brief article is intended as a point of departure rather than as a thematic itinerary of the ‘Whose Streets?’ series yet to come. It opens by thinking about what it means to live through the jarring collapse of public life in the midst of a pandemic and how this moment might stimulate new radical histories of the urban commons.

The urban sanitation is actively being addressed by the Central Government of India. The action is taking place though various provisions of Swachh Bharat Mission launched in the nation. The paper discusses about a study undertaken for auditing and assessing pay and use public toilet and urinal blocks located within the central zone of Surat Municipal Corporation administrative limits. All the pay and use toilet blocks and urinals were visited for a study that was focusing on assessment for criteria concerning– Cleanliness, housekeeping, safety and maintenance. Inventories were prepared, and quality assessment was performed. All the locations were geotagged by obtaining coordinates. Based on the study, the facilities were assessed for its components and provided with ranking through analysis of four factors and 74 sub-parameters. The qualitative issues were identified for the service delivery. Suggestions and recommendations are discussed to improve the service delivery.

Designing and improving physical infrastructure to accommodate the outcomes of climate change and mitigate disasters can only be effective to a certain extent. The need to protect people physically can be achieved to a greater extent with the integration of social infrastructure. Developing the built environment with this notion of social infrastructure forms a safe social space for social connection and community engagement, resulting in a cohesive community that can combat disasters more effectively. As neighbours are the first responders during a crisis, the inhabited environment warrants a need for a strong social network. Having open and accessible public spaces, such as human scaled sidewalks, encourages this connection and congregation of communities. The welfare of the community is also then improved when the built environment considers the social processes that it can accommodate. As evident in the boat project by an NGO in Bangladesh, community support especially for a time where climate change is strongly felt is crucial in sustaining proper livelihood. The presence of the boats, even as mobile as they are, generates hope for the communities' future in combatting these issues. Self-enforcement from the people in this system, formed by the horizontal relationship encouraged by the physical environment is an intuitive determination to recover back what was lost from their everyday life. Hence, architecture has the potential to aid these social processes; communicating certain emotions and representing the strength of the physical environment that communities are engaged for greater cohesion and resilience.

This study focuses on Social impacts of Chukha Hydro Power on its local community in Chukha, District of Bhutan. It explores the social impact of Chukha Hydropower on the local community in the post commissioned era and it will spell out the multiple areas like Quality of life, Dependent Variable and selected Independent Variables like Housing Security, Electricity Supply, Bank, Education, Hospital, Transportation, Water & Sanitation, Road and Telecommunication positively or negatively impacted by commissioning of Chukha Hydropower Project. Local community strongly agreed that Chukha Hydropower has supplied them with sufficient electricity. Whereas, the local community have not been benefited enough in terms of business and agro-production opportunities. The detailed study on Chukha Hydropower's social impact has been conducted with the help of exploratory research with the sample size of 115 respondents through structured questionnaires with the help of correlation and regression on the multiple areas as stated above. It is observed that the social impact of Chukha Hydro Power in terms of healthcare service, education, road infrastructure and housing security on the local population is positive but other areas of concern are not too positively impacted as given in the conclusion. This study clearly explores the impact of Chukha Hydropower on the local community by collecting the perspective of local people within the looped jurisdictions through exploratory research and structured questionnaire with sample size of 115 respondents in Chukha district of Bhutan. Pearson correlation test and regression analysis applied to find out the impact on local community using appropriate software.

In over fifty years since independence, India has a developed an extensive public delivery system for the provision of health care. This was preceded in 1946 by the Bhore Commission that recommended basic health services be provided for all through Primary Health Centres (PHCs). In-line with the recommendations, PHCs were set up all across the country, each serving about 30,000 inhabitants in its vicinity. At the time, the urban population of India was lessthan 18 per cent. Since then, the urban population has grownover fourfold to 285 million of over the 1 billion peopleliving in India. 22.6 per cent of this 285 million live in slums (GOI 2001). As in the case of health services, provision of education for all in India has also largely been envisaged within the public delivery system even though this sector has a significant presence of private providers. Since independence, the government has launched various schemes and programmes for increasing literacy among all sections of the population, the Sarva Shiksha  Abhiyan and the Right to Education Bill are the two seminal steps in this direction. Recently there has been a growing demand for privatization and growth in the number of private institutions. This phenomenon is more strongly visible inthe urban areas where there is a greater proportion of literatepopulation as well. As per the latest Census of India (2001), 80 per cent of the urban population is literate as opposed to59 per cent in the rural areas. According to the Asian Development Bank, India’s urban population is expected to reach 550 million that is, over 40per cent of the total population by 2020.
Figures released by the Planning Commission indicate that in 1999–2000 about 23.4 per cent of the urban population was below the poverty line (as against 76.3 million, that is, 32.4 per cent in 1993–4). However, variations both across and within economic classes, castes, and states are high. Many disenfranchized segments suffer from high levels of deprivation not revealed by aggregate numbers. This also affects their health indicators. The Food Insecurity Atlas of Urban India
(MSSRF 2002)suggests approximately 38 per cent of children below the ageof three years in urban India are underweight and more than35 per cent short for their age. Further, a high proportion of the urban poor is not able to meet the nutrition norms laid down by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It is not clear whether the urban poor is generally better off than the rural poor. On the one hand, aggregate figures such as wages, poverty levels, expenditures, all show better performance of urban areas. It is also believed that access to schools and health facilities are better in urban areas. On theother hand casual employment, daily wages, high level of competition for the few unskilled jobs, all contribute to thevulnerability of the urban poor. An aspect of urban poverty rarely captured by published data relates to the condition of those living at the fringes of the urban economy such as footpath dwellers, street-children, and the homeless. There are no scientifically derived estimates onthe extent of urban homelessness and the conditions of thehomeless. Data sources such as the National Family Health Survey or the National Sample Surveys, do not contain information through which this segment of the urban poor can be studied.

Nous définissons l’ « enclave inclusive » comme un espace urbain enclos sur le plan morpho-topologique, mais programmé pour un public large, rendu accessible et hospitalier à une diversité d’usagers et apprêté, en particulier, à recevoir les plus vulnérables d’entre eux. Cette notion, qui peut sembler paradoxale à première vue, nous semble en réalité nécessaire à un urbanisme contemporain dans de grandes villes cosmopolites comme Bruxelles — un urbanisme plus conscient et réaliste sur le plan sociologique, et plus réfléchi quant aux exigences spatiales et formelles des interactions et rencontres entre citadins

Дипломная работа, Московский архитектурный институт, 2020 В основе нашего проекта мы поставили три основные проблемы: связь с городом, отсутствие инфраструктуры и неконтролируемый рост неформальных поселений. Мы предлагаем упорядочить хаос, который функционально был создан правильно, потому что люди строили для себя в первую очередь то, что им нужно. В этом случае мы предлагаем инъекцию, которая огибает места, которые можно оставить, и изменяет проблемные области. Авторы: Сергей Головин Анастасия Степанова, под руководством проф. МАМЛЕЕВА Оскара Раульевича.

The article is discussed formation of green new cities structure and the planning sustainable social
infrastructure in Big Baku region. The author pays special attention on necessity of the system, complex
decision of tasks in the Regional plan for development of the green new cities in region. Thus are
allocated the basic aspects which decision will allow to defining directions of region development. It is
supposed, that the General plan of the Big Baku and green new cities for long years will fix the spatial
organization of region. The theoretical findings of this article are useful guidelines for designers and
managers.

The main goal of this paper is to develop a reflection on the usefulness that case studies can make to evaluative research.
The focus of the analysis is the practical value that the theory can assume in the Case Study Research, when it is used for evaluative purposes.
Analyzing the ways in which a project of evaluative research commissioned by Fondazione Con il Sud (FCS) was conducted to evaluate the impact generated by its activities in three territories, we will try to highlight how a careful analysis of the theory of change , in its two different components: program theory and implementation theory (Weiss, 2007), together with the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed method) and the use of the positive thinking evaluative approach (Stame & Lo Presti, 2015) has contributed to widening the understanding of the reality under investigation (generating new theory) favoring a double-loop learning (Stame, 2016).
The theoretical-methodological reflection developed in the paper is an important advancement on the pluralism of evaluative approaches for the social impact analysis. The example that will be used to start this reflection is the research on social infrastructure and the increase of social capital in three areas of Southern Italy. At the end of the discussion the explanatory purpose of the case study research will be discussed with a specific focus on the Palermo case study and on the "social network" of the Ballarò district.

The stock of social infrastructure plays a positive role in economic growth. The economic development of a nation mainly depends on the level of skills acquired by the workforce, physical capital, and productivity of both human/physical capital among many other factors. Moreover, the skill and productivity of workforce in turn influenced by the aspects of child nutrition, educational infrastructure, health infrastructures etc. In this context, an attempt has been made in this study to analyse the development of social infrastructure in North East India. Apart from analysing the development of social infrastructures, the rankings of the states are also derived with the help of Principal component analysis. The scores of composite indices in this study showed us quite clearly that the development of social infrastructures in this region is quite prominent. But the states like Nagaland and Sikkim is lagging far behind in comparison to other states in terms of social infrastructure development.

After India gained its independence, despite of surplus welfare policies and schemes that targeted at the upliftment of rural areas, a polarized development was witnessed. The past record of development initiatives in terms of plans and policies had clearly indicated weak attempts to curb the rural-urban disparity. Not only were the policies short-sighted but their implementation were lacking on ground level as well. Even in the current scenario, there is a dominant variation in the degree of development across India, and simultaneous existence of developed urban sub-regions. Concentration of essential physical and social infrastructure remains in the urban areas and hence their development outweighs that of the rural areas. The inefficiency of rural areas to provide for basic infrastructure, economic opportunities and
modern amenities has forced the rural population in migrating to the urban areas. This imbalance has led to weaker agricultural productions and has increased infrastructure pressure on urban areas. Urban areas are continuing to attract investments and resources, primarily in terms of housing.
The government's inability to meet the rural infrastructure deficit is the primary reason for out migration and creation of informal and unauthorized settlements. Owing to low levels of education, medical and other essential facilities, the rural areas are increasingly becoming dependent on their urban counterparts. Not only is there a need for efficient rural amenities, there is also a need for additional income generating provisions to make the rural areas self-dependent. In this context, the Government of India under the National Rurban Mission aspires to stimulate local economic development and enhance basic services in rural areas to create well planned Rurban clusters.

The long-term success of Australia’s rapidly growing outer-suburban communities depends to a large extent on the presence of social infrastructure such as schools, libraries, sporting facilities and community centres. This paper briefly surveys and analyses the current frameworks and practices that support the planning, funding and delivery of social infrastructure in three of Australia’s fastest growing regions: Melbourne; Perth; and South Eastern Queensland. It finds that Australian governments have become adept at planning new suburbs, but still face significant challenges securing adequate funding for infrastructure and managing the complexity of infrastructure delivery.

Abstract- There are observed inequalities in the provision and distribution of social infrastructure facilities in Ikwerre and Etche. The paper examined the availability of some social infrastructural facilities in this two local government of Rivers State. It equally examined the extent to which those facilities have promoted rural development in the State. Data were collected mainly from primary sources. A total number of 160 copies of questionnaire were administered in sixteen (16) settlements from the two (2) Local Government Areas and all were retrieved for the analysis. Research findings revealed unevenness in the availability of Electricity, Potable water supply and other utility services. However, the availability of, education and health facilities were largely indicated by respondents in the 16 settlements of the study areas. The paper recommends that a comprehensive strategy which will eliminate disparities that exist within Local Government Areas and between LGA’s be ins...

The occupation of the Cofinanzas Financial centre, better known as the Tower of David, has been praised as well as cri- ticised. Perhaps because beyond the illegality, the appropriation of a symbol of a time of inequality threatened certain fundamental pillars on the production of urban. On one hand, the economic and social policies, that with some exceptions only fuelled the inequa- lity, poverty, and social exclusion. On the other, the academia, the profession, and the urban policies legacies from a modern urban planning, which had proven to foment the spatial segregation, cancel out diversity and destroy the public area. But this complex of 45 floors and 110.000 m2 was a vertical and empty hybrid entity, in the core of the city whose obsolescence as a physical, political and economic object, was a target of social pressure that was by that point uncontrollable. For its scale and diversity as well as its unfinished state, its inhabitants found an exceptional urban condition to rebuild a new identity as citizens. A set of 5 open systems that transformed that obsolescence into an alternative part of the city; a social infrastructure. As did other masters in the past, the process of the Tower of David reconsiders, now anonymously, under what conditions the open systems allow for the elaboration of strategies of urban and social regeneration, systems that dilute the complicated internal borders created in the contemporary city.
KEYWORDS obsolescence; appropriation; areas of identity; vertical communities; open systems; spatial production.

How do residents learn to navigate the topographies of everyday life in the city and on the margins of citizenship? An old question for research on cities, development and poverty, to be sure, but one that now has a new urgency and is the focus of this chapter. In particular, the growth of informality – i.e. precarious housing, labour and lives predominantly in the global South, but increasingly in the global North too (Comaroff and Comaroff 2015) – demands that we develop a better understanding of how people live in the city

There are observed inequalities in the provision and distribution of social infrastructure facilities in Ikwerre and Etche. The paper examined the availability of some social infrastructural facilities in this two local government of Rivers State. It equally examined the extent to which those facilities have promoted rural development in the State. Data were collected mainly from primary sources. A total number of 160 copies of questionnaire were administered in sixteen (16) settlements from the two (2) Local Government Areas and all were retrieved for the analysis. Research findings revealed unevenness in the availability of Electricity, Potable water supply and other utility services. However, the availability of, education and health facilities were largely indicated by respondents in the 16 settlements of the study areas. The paper recommends that a comprehensive strategy which will eliminate disparities that exist within Local Government Areas and between LGA’s be instituted. It also suggests that an articulated and integrated plan for social infrastructure provision indicating priority areas using acceptable criteria is needed for costs to be minimized, and that there should be a balance in the provision of social infrastructure within LGA’s.

Public-private partnership (hereinafter: PPP) is not developing according to expectations in Poland. In comparison to other European nations, the success rate of initiated proceedings is still very low. Between 2009 and the first quarter of 2020, only 25% of initiated proceedings were realized. While there is a large number of potential factors influencing the poor outcome of PPP proceedings in Poland-including a small average project size as well as faults in the regulatory framework-this article addresses administrative barriers standing in the way of successful public-private partnership development. The use and necessity of independent advisors will be addressed, as well as the availability of governmental support mechanisms. Administrative solutions for PPP facilitation from Germany will be showcased, such as the PPP Task Force of the German Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing (BMVBW), as well as the creation of Partnerschaften Deutschland AG (PD). The article then aims to showcase the applicability of German administrativ e models to the Polish PPP market on the basis of a comparative case study.

Indonesia’s Five-Year Development Plan (1993/94–1998/99) recognized the need to address depletion of coastal fisheries resources and pervasive poverty and social disadvantage among coastal communities. The objectives of the Coastal Community Development and Fisheries Resources Management Project were to (a) promote sustainable management of and conserve coastal fisheries resources by controlling destructive fishing practices and overfishing and improving fisheries resources and related habitats; and (b) reduce extensive poverty in coastal areas by providing opportunities to increase the incomes and improve the living standards of coastal communities. The Project was undertaken in four districts and one city, covering Bengkalis in Riau Province; Tegal City in Central Java; Trenggalek in East Java; Banyuwangi in East Java; and East Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara. The project scope included activities to (a) promote community-based coastal fisheries resource management; (b) increase the incomes and living standards of poor coastal communities through provision of appropriate opportunities and social infrastructure facilities; (c) rehabilitate facilities in selected fish landing centers to improve sanitation, the environment, and fish quality; and (d) strengthen the fisheries resource management capability of coastal communities, nongovernment organizations, and national and district agencies. This Project Completion Report Validation reassesses the performance of the Coastal Community Development and Fisheries Resources Management Project based largely on the Project Completion Report’s presentation of evidence and analysis but looks at lessons and recommendations from a wider and independent perspective. The Project Completion Report Validation also evaluates the quality of the Project Completion Report.

There are observed inequalities in the provision and distribution of social infrastructure facilities in Ikwerre and Etche. The paper examined the availability of some social infrastructural facilities in this two local government of Rivers State. It equally examined the extent to which those facilities have promoted rural development in the State. Data were collected mainly from primary sources. A total number of 160 copies of questionnaire were administered in sixteen (16) settlements from the two (2) Local Government Areas and all were retrieved for the analysis. Research findings revealed unevenness in the availability of Electricity, Potable water supply and other utility services. However, the availability of, education and health facilities were largely indicated by respondents in the 16 settlements of the study areas. The paper recommends that a comprehensive strategy which will eliminate disparities that exist within Local Government Areas and between LGA’s be instituted. I...

The paper extends the empirical and conceptual scope of Social
Reproduction Theory by bringing it into dialogue with debates on
financialization. We call for the need to document and theorize the
“lived” dimension of the financialization and marketization of social
reproduction infrastructures, and of healthcare in particular. Our
argument draws empirically on the analysis of patient and staff safety
and vulnerability issues related to the bankruptcy of the Slotervaart
hospital in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The case of Slotervaart’s
bankruptcy, that we analyse here, is not only a story about
financialization, marketization, and commodification of healthcare; it is
also (and we argue, more importantly so) a story about the
financialization of everyday life of doctors, nurses and patients, and
about the broader results of the delegation of near-absolute power to
finance-led institutions over key social reproduction infrastructures. Our
analysis aims to put the management of infrastructures of social
reproduction to the core of academic and policy debate; an act that the
COVID-19 pandemic has made imperative.

There are observed inequalities in the provision and distribution of social infrastructure facilities in Ikwerre and Etche. The paper examined the availability of some social infrastructural facilities in this two local government of Rivers State. It equally examined the extent to which those facilities have promoted rural development in the State. Data were collected mainly from primary sources. A total number of 160 copies of questionnaire were administered in sixteen (16) settlements from the two (2) Local Government Areas and all were retrieved for the analysis. Research findings revealed unevenness in the availability of Electricity, Potable water supply and other utility services. However, the availability of, education and health facilities were largely indicated by respondents in the 16 settlements of the study areas. The paper recommends that a comprehensive strategy which will eliminate disparities that exist within Local Government Areas and between LGA's be instituted. It also suggests that an articulated and integrated plan for social infrastructure provision indicating priority areas using acceptable criteria is needed for costs to be minimized, and that there should be a balance in the provision of social infrastructure within LGA's.

Abstract: In Etiopia, la transizione democratica è andata di pari passo con il decentramento amministrativo e con l’implementazione di strategie di mobilitazione di massa, già sperimentate dall’attuale élite al potere nella fase rivoluzionaria che aveva condotto al rovesciamento del regime filosovietico del Derg. Ciò ha portato a politiche di sviluppo caratterizzate da un approccio teso a mobilitare gli attori locali, le istituzioni e la comunità per il raggiungimento di una sovra strutturante idea di sviluppo, attraverso la collaborazione di network territoriali dispiegati per sopperire alla mancanza di infrastrutture e personale sanitario. La pluralità di saperi e strategie impiegate nell’opera di convincimento e adesione alle pratiche biomediche, come la vaccinazione, rappresentano l’arena all’interno della quale il potere e il conflitto si costituiscono. I network coinvolti – e gli insiemi d’interessi e valori che incarnano – cooperano e comunicano mettendo in campo diversi livelli di autorità, partecipazione e persuasione nell’ambito di un più generale controllo delle attività sociali. Il successo delle Health Extension Workers (operatrici itineranti del sistema sanitario locale) risiede nella loro organizzazione capillare sul territorio, che le rende una sorta di ‘infrastruttura sociale mobile’, capace di veicolare idee, pratiche e norme sociali sul corpo, sulla salute e sulla malattia, la cui infrazione può dar luogo ad un ‚dramma sociale‛ (Turner, 1986), ad una crisi che giustifica la creazione di nuove forme di esclusione nella società.

The rise of digital music distribution has caused decreasing returns from CD and cassette sales in Burkina Faso and Ghana. In response to this decline in revenues, artists and their management have been trying to find ways to find other sources of income. One major way of doing this has been through focusing on (live) music performance. Yet this requires built and social infrastructures that are not always present, functional, or put to full use. This paper explores how musicians and music workers make sense of the cultural policies that have shaped and will shape the built infrastructure (concert venues, clubs, etc.) they need. Because the complex links between the built and social infrastructures mean that history weighs significantly on future plans, this paper argues that calls for new venues cannot be the solution to the range of existing issues without engaging more thoroughly with the past.

As we argue in this chapter, context-specific and relational understandings of austerity and the complex policy mobilities (McCann and Ward, 2012) of New Public Management require critical attention to how processes play out in particular national and sub-national contexts (Pike et al., 2018). There are common trends, but unevenness also exists at the national and sub-national levels (Baines and Cunningham (2015). The policy diffusion of NPM also goes beyond European and Anglo-American welfare states, and – as in countries like Canada and Australia that did not suffer financial crises – has been a driver of reform even where the post-2008 austerity discourse is largely absent. This chapter contributes to the literatures on austerity and NPM by comparing two such contexts, focusing on sub-national scales to examine the social care sector in Vancouver, British Columbia (in Canada) and Shanghai (in China). It does so by using the concept of social infrastructure to connect state-led marketization and outsourcing in the elderecare sector with, on one hand, the influence of NPM and, on the other, the financialization that has ensued in recent years.

Public libraries are more than information providers; they increasingly serve as key social infrastructures. Financial pressures, decreasing membership and digitalisation require libraries to reinvent themselves as primarily spaces of an encounter. This paper focuses on the retooling of small public libraries in the Netherlands as social infrastructure and the formal and informal library practices (‘infrastructuring’) that are required for the library to function as space of encounter. The paper reports on an in-depth, single-case study based on 15 years of volunteering, participant observations, repeated interviews with staff and informal conversations with patrons. By examining the multi-purposed features of a single site, we illustrate how the library, as an exemplary public space, is being retooled by both staff and patrons. While encounters mostly seem to occur within rather than between groups, there are many meaningful acts of kindness between different people. Though the library is undeniably a social infrastructure, the paper also shows how difficult it is to document, let alone practice this social function.

Notre époque nous met face à plusieurs défis importants, de l’augmentation des inégalités socioéconomiques aux changements climatiques en passant par la baisse de l’engagement civique et politique dans la plupart des démocraties libérales avancées. Les sciences sociales peuvent nous aider à affronter ces défis en proposant des concepts qui permettent à la fois de mieux comprendre les enjeux contemporains et d’identifier des pistes de solution adaptées aux contextes et aux besoins locaux. Le sociologue Eric Klinenberg s’est prêté à un tel exercice dans son ouvrage Palaces for the People: How Social Infrastructure Can Help Fight Inequality, Polarization, and the Decline of Civic Life, qui se concentre sur la question des infrastructures sociales.

The long-term success of Australia's rapidly growing outer-suburban communities depends to a large extent on the presence of social infrastructure such as schools, libraries, sporting facilities and community centres. This paper briefly surveys and analyses the current frameworks and practices that support the planning, funding and delivery of social infrastructure in three of Australia's fastest growing regions: Melbourne; Perth; and South Eastern Queensland. It finds that Australian governments have become adept at planning new suburbs, but still face significant challenges securing adequate funding for infrastructure and managing the complexity of infrastructure delivery.

ABSTRACT. The rural social infrastructure should allow the formation of sustainable communities through the continued development of three-dimensional and inclusive community activities, allocation of resources, strengthening competencies and confidence of the people and community groups, enabling them to take effective action and leadership roles. The aim of the research, which is to carry out the subjective and objective assessment of rural social infrastructure sectors, has established the effect for sustainable community formation. This study revealed that the highest degree of sustainable community express when the rural social infrastructure is well developed, able to satisfy the present and the miscellaneous community needs, to ensure a high quality of life, various services and social goods. The sustainable community is correct, tolerant, binding strong local culture in exchange of other community-based activities. The sustainable community is effective, incorporating to participation, representation and leadership; it is correct for everyone now and in the future; this is a community that is able to efficiently use the natural resources and enhance the environment, strengthen the social cohesion and integration and economic viability, able to meet not only the present but also the future needs, a high quality of life and ensure the availability and alternative of options.
The subjective assessment of the state of Lithuanian rural social infrastructure sector indicates that the residents in the pilot areas are generally satisfied with the condition of the rural social infrastructure. The subjective and objective assessment of Lithuanian rural social infrastructure sectors has shown that the residents in the pilot areas are generally satisfied with the condition of rural social infrastructure. According to the respondents’ evaluations of the pilot communities in rural areas, the expression of sustainability is 3.2 scores (out of 5), reached 64 percent of the community sustainability level. There is 36 percent of untapped potential to strengthen the cohesion of the community, and the development of Lithuanian rural social infrastructure should be of aspirational high degree of rural sustainability of community assurance.
KEYWORDS: rural social infrastructure, sustainable community, Lithuania.
JEL classification: J01, J16, J21.

The study analyses the key parameters of the population of small rural settlements of the Zakarpatska Oblast
amidst economic transformation. Small settlements are described by low population density, which in some rural
settlements is three times lower than the regional average. Over the last period there has been a tendency to increase
the number of small rural settlements with a population of less than 150 people. Depopulation of villages creates
conditions when it is unprofitable to maintain educational, healthcare, cultural institutions, etc. The current situation leads
to the destruction of the infrastructure of the village, which is already in decline. The purpose of the study is to analyse
the socio-economic development of small rural settlements in the region amidst decentralization. The main attention is
paid to the study of problems that describe the quality of life of the rural population – analysis of the main trends of
demographic reproduction, the development and effectiveness of new legal forms of management in rural areas amidst
the intensifying market relations. The sectoral structure of the economy of rural settlements is analysed, the study
substantiates the offers directed on integration of small rural commodity producers in the integrated agro-industrial
structures, development of the rural industry, establishment of cooperative movement in the village. The level of
satisfaction of the rural population with the main objects of social infrastructure is investigated on the materials of
sociological monitoring of the rural population

Indian ports along with the Shipping industry play a vital role and act as a corollary to the growth and development of the country's trade. With almost every organization striving towards modernization in terms of infrastructure development, adopting green strategy and thereby increasing the volume of the trade, New Mangalore Port Trust stands second to none in those initiatives. The purpose of this study is to understand if such enhancements in the port infrastructure influence the employee satisfaction at NMPT. When the work environment adapts a highly state-of-the-art infrastructure, naturally the morale should be shooting up, which will be evident in the productivity. NMPT has seen an upsurge in the business, which could be related directly to the employee satisfaction and thus comes the need for the study. The constructs were deduced from the suggestions of the Focus group formed from the officials of the port, who identified the initial major constructs and their respective items. Five major constructs were selected for the study, with the Exploratory Factor Analysis yielding 23 items under those 5 constructs. Though the constructs were not showing collinearity, the items identified under them did. In order to remove collinearity, the 5 constructs were reduced to three constructs using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Those 5 constructs were Environment Technology (ET), Monitoring & Upgradation (MU), Planning Process, Quality Improvement (PQI), Communication and Cooperation (CC) and Social Security (SS). Further, the terms for the reduced constructs were validated by the same Focus group which decided on the major 5 constructs. The reduced constructs were Social Infrastructure Strategy (SIS), Green Port Strategy (GPS) and Technology Advancement Strategy (TAS). Construct-wise and itemwise validity were conducted for the survey instrument and then the research was taken up with the Class 1 and Class II officers of NMPT. The SB Venkatesh and Dr. V. P. Sriraman http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 1222 [email protected] results established the fact that the enhancements in the port infrastructure have greatly influenced the employee satisfaction, which could be interpreted from the findings of the study.

The planning fallacy is at play in projects when optimism bias and/or strategic misrepresentation are present. We examine the cost performance of approximately US$ 6.5 billion worth of social infrastructure projects that were procured in Hong Kong and specifically the differences between their final accounts and the various types of estimates that were prepared prior to construction. We focus on the (honest) planning fallacy and hence aim to determine whether estimates are more optimistic than actual costs. Our data shows that 43% of projects incurred a cost underrun from their contract award. We therefore infer that at best 57% of projects may be explained by the presence of the planning fallacy. Based on our findings, we argue that optimism and pessimism bias coexist. Likewise, the planning fallacy and competing explanations can simultaneously account for cost deviations in social infrastructure projects. We submit that the prevalence of the planning fallacy has been exaggerated and hence provide an explanation as to why this has occurred. We finally suggest there is a need for additional empirical work to test the claim that the planning fallacy is the underlying cause of cost overruns and thus the best "theory" to explain "how projects work." Index Terms-Estimates, optimism bias, planning fallacy, pessimism bias, social infrastructure.