Idealization

The Passion of the Christ have run the gamut from high praise to condemnation for excessive violence and antisemitism. Outlining some key observations of the psychology of antisemitism, this article explores how Gibson's film may or may not be antisemitic. It further explores whether Gibson's cinematic technique guides the viewer to a specific understanding of Jesus' crucifixion and its meaning, drawing on theories of meaning-making and interpretation proposed by Umberto Eco and Norman Holland and René Girard's theory of sacrificial violence and the scapegoat. KEY WORDS: Gibson's Passion of the Christ; antisemitism; Umberto Eco; Norman Holland; René Girard. Gallons of theatrical blood were poured out on the set of Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ (Gibson, 2004b); even more gallons of ink have flowed in describing the film and Gibson's blood-soaked vision of the path from Gethsemane to Golgotha. Individual and critical responses to the film have ranged from those who charge the director with fomenting gratuitous and (nearly) pornographic violence or reviving antisemitism to others who found Gibson's portrayal of Jesus to be profoundly moving and spiritually uplifting, an affirmation of faith and hope.

Elgin has argued that scientific models that are, strictly speaking, inaccurate representations of the world, are epistemically valuable because the "falsehoods" they contain are "felicitous". Many, including Elgin herself, have interpreted this claim as offering an alternative to scientific realism and "veritism". In this paper, I will argue that there is a more felicitous interpretation of Elgin's work: "felicitous falsehoods" do play a role in the epistemic value of inaccurate models, but that role is of instrumental value. Elgin's view is not best understood as claiming that falsehoods provide scientific understanding in and of themselves, only that they facilitate epistemic access to the fundamental, even if partial, truths that are contained within models. While falsehoods may be felicitous in that they facilitate exemplification, the epistemic value of inaccurate models ultimately relies on their partial accuracy. Keywords Understanding • Idealization • Models • Factivity • Realism If truth is mandatory, much of our best science turns out to be epistemologically unacceptable and perhaps intellectually dishonest. Our predicament is this: We can retain the truth requirement and construe science either as cognitively defective or as noncognitive, or we can reject, revise, or relax the truth requirement and remain cognitivists about and devotees of science. I take it that science provides an understanding of the natural order. By this I do not mean merely that an ideal science would provide such an understanding or that at the end of inquiry science will provide one, but that much actual science has done so and continues to do so. I take it, then, that much actual science is cognitively reputable-indeed, estimable. The view according to which truth is a "requirement" is dubbed "veritism" by Elgin. She claims that her account of scientific understanding offers an alternative to veritism, such that modern science, including its falsehoods, can be construed as having epistemic value.

The rise of Trump is in part due to a paranoid-schizoid politics found both in the personality of Trump himself and in a large-scale regression of many in the populace to a more primitive state of denial, splitting, and demonization. The Trump phenomenon shares much with many other nationalist politics on the rise around the world, but mostly an inability to tolerate difference and loss, including loss of a romanticized past or idealized future. Hence our politics today needs something that psychoanalytic theory has tried to offer: an understanding of how to work through trauma, loss, and persecutory phantasies.

Przedmiotem pracy jest problem osobliwości rozwojowych społeczeństw środkowo-europejskich: Czech, Węgier i Polski, która rozpatrywana jest w perspektywie metodologicznej, teoretycznej i historiograficznej. Książka składa się z wprowadzenia i trzech zasadniczych części. W części wstępnej pt. Wprowadzenie. Konceptualizacje odrębności historycznej Europy Środkowej krytycznie analizuję występujące w literaturze przedmiotu koncepcje wyjaśniające odrębność naszej części kontynentu. W części pierwszej Założenia metodologiczne analizuję osobliwości i rozmaite sposoby zastosowania metody modelowej w historii gospodarczej i naukach historycznych. W rozdziale tym opierając się na idealizacyjnej teorii nauki identyfikuję pewną osobliwość procesów historycznych. Polega ona z grubsza na tym, że struktury esencjalne zjawisk przyrodniczych są tak zbudowane, że wystarczy określenie wpływu czynnika głównego (czynników głównych) by uzyskać zadowalające wyjaśnienie zachowania danego zjawiska. W procesach historycznych nie zawsze tak bywa. Nawet jeżeli da się zidentyfikować czynniki główne to bardzo często skumulowany efekt działania czynników ubocznych osłabia, a nawet przeważa nad działaniem czynników głównych. Paradoks ten da się wyeksplikować w aparaturze pojęciowej idealizacyjnej teorii nauki. Opierając się bowiem na tej koncepcji można wyróżnić zjawiska posiadające dwa typy struktur esencjalnych: zdominowane przez czynnik główny i zdominowane przez klasę czynników ubocznych. W pierwszym typie struktury esencjalnej moc wpływu czynnika głównego dla danego zjawiska przeważa nad sumą mocy wpływów czynników ubocznych. Natomiast w drugim typie struktury esencjalnej suma mocy wpływów czynników ubocznych przeważa nad mocą wpływu czynnika uznawanego za główny dla danego zjawiska, choć moc jego wpływu jest wyższa od wpływu każdego, wziętego z osobna czynnika ubocznego. Struktury esencjalne zdominowane przez czynnik główny charakterystyczne są – jak wspomniano - dla nauk przyrodniczych, a zdominowane przez czynniki uboczne - dla nauk społecznych. W tym ostatnim typie struktur esencjalnych może dojść do zjawiska, który nazywam procesem kaskady. Polega ono na tym, że stopniowo kumulujące się rozmaite czynniki uboczne w pewnym momencie przeważają wpływ czynnika głównego. Tak skonceptualizowana koncepcja kaskady wykorzystywana jest w wyjaśnieniu dualizmu gospodarczego w Europie w XVI - XVII wieku. W płaszczyźnie teoretycznej za wyjściową teorię rozwoju historycznego przyjmuję nie-Marksowski materializm historyczny, której krytyczną analizę i pewne rozwinięcia przedstawiam w drugiej części (Założenia teoretyczne). Modyfikuję wyjściowy model rozwoju ekonomiczno-społecznego, poszerzając go o koncepcję dwóch typów rewolucji ekonomicznych oraz konstruuję dwa nowe modele społeczeństwa ekonomicznego: z nadmiarem i z niedoborem siły roboczej. Model z nadmiarem siły roboczej, który wycinkowo tylko aproksymuje rozwój społeczeństw zachodnioeuropejskich zakłada pogorszenie położenia ekonomicznego bezpośrednich producentów oraz zaostrzenie konfliktu społecznego pomiędzy tymi ostatnimi a właścicielami. Natomiast model z niedoborem siły roboczej zakłada poprawę położenia ekonomicznego bezpośrednich producentów i złagodzenie form konfliktu społecznego. W części trzeciej Próba konceptualizacji środkowoeuropejskiej odrębności rozwojowej opierając się na literaturze przedmiotu przedstawię aplikacje skonstruowanych modeli. W historycznej rzeczywistości Europy Środkowej model gospodarki z niedoborem siły roboczej jest jednak w stanie wyjaśnić tylko fragment dziejów społeczeństw tej części Europy, mianowicie okres kolonizacji na prawie niemieckim w XIII - XIV w., w którym nastąpiła znaczna poprawa położenia ekonomicznego chłopstwa. Dalszy rozwój społeczeństw środkowoeuropejskich przeczy tendencjom rozwojowym zakładanym przez ten model. Rozwój gospodarki folwarczno-pańszczyźnianej interpretować bowiem można jako pogorszenie, a nie poprawę sytuacji chłopstwa. Przyczyniła się do tego kaskada czynników ubocznych, których łączny wpływ przeważył działanie podstawowych mechanizmów rozwojowych zakładanych przez model. W XII-XIV w. niedobór siły roboczej wpłynął nie tylko na poprawę sytuacji chłopstwa ale i na warunki powstawania miejskiej sfery gospodarki w Europie Środkowej. Spadek alienacji pracy ograniczył rozmiary migracji chłopskich do miast. To zaś wpłynęło na słabszy rozwój sfery miejskiej i zachwiało równowagę społeczną pomiędzy mieszczaństwem a szlachtą. Pozwoliło to tej ostatniej klasie społecznej podporządkować swoim interesom władzę. Dominacja polityczna szlachty umożliwiła dalsze ograniczanie rozwoju miast oraz zaostrzenie poddaństwa i wprowadzenie folwarku pańszczyźnianego. Dalszy wzrost wyzysku ekonomicznego następował w instytucjonalnych ramach gospodarki folwarczno-pańszczyźnianej. Dopóki szlachta pozbawiona była wsparcia państwa, dopóty prowadziła politykę ustępstw wobec chłopstwa. Kiedy jednak zdobyła wyłączny wpływ na władzę państwową, zdołała ograniczyć przywileje mieszczaństwa oraz wycofać się z ustępstw wobec wsi. Procesom tym towarzyszył wzmożony popyt na zboże Europy Zachodniej. Czynniki te działały w każdym z wyróżnionych społeczeństw środkowoeuropejskich. Jednakże w historii każdego z nich można wyróżnić pewne czynniki specyficzne. W przypadku Polski będzie to na przykład nierównomierne zaludnienie, które przesunęło walkę klasową z centrum na peryferie, w przypadku Czech - dominacja Habsburgów i skutki wojny 30 - letniej, w przypadku Węgier - okupacja turecka, itd. Wpływ tych czynników powodował dalsze różnicowanie ewolucji każdego z omawianych społeczeństw ale już w ramach środkowoeuropejskiej ścieżki rozwojowej.

Deductionism assimilates nature to conceptual artifacts (models, equations), and tacitly holds that real physical systems are such artifacts. Some physical concepts represent properties of deductive systems rather than of nature. Properties of mathematical or deductive systems can thereby sometimes falsely be ascribed to natural systems.

The numerical simulation using Finite Element (FE) method is a main activity in the design - validation process of mechanical products. Using this method and CAD tools can give an efficient advantage in the CAD - Analysis loop. The geometric model (mesh) used in the FE method is mainly obtained from the CAD model (CSG, B-Rep). In order to reduce the analysis time without bringing precision on computation results, we propose to integrate a new link in the design and analysis interoperability process. This link is named Idealization or simplification of CAD model. So, the automation of the idealization task is important in the CAD-Analysis integration process. In this paper, we propose an idealization approach which mainly depends on the geometry, the solicitations and the behavior of material. According to the analysis goal, the designer can have several alternatives of analysis models which depend on the level of eliminated details and the abstraction level (1D, 2D or 3D). The non manifold models should not be a barrier to the considered analysis model. We start with a positioning of several geometry simplification methods for CAD models in order to generate analysis models adapted with the considered analysis point of view. Based on this state of the art, we present the idealization approach in an integrated design context. Then, we propose our general method of the CAD geometry idealization. This one is based on an original algorithm witch integrate tow alternatives approach (selective approach and automatic approach). In order to emphasize our contribution, we present some examples of idealized form features (parallelepiped, cylinder, and wedge) implemented with OpenCacade code. Finally, an example of mechanical part using implemented form features is developed. The output of the algorithm is some proposed analysis models based on the CAD model of the part.

http://www.designsociety.org/publication/25383/idealization_of_cad_geometry_using_design_and_analysis_integration_features_models

Özet " Tarihselcilik " , Rönesans'ta Batı'da ortaya çıkmaya başlayan ama 19. yüzyılda tamamen belirginleşen ve bütün düşünce alanlarını etkileyen hâkim bir dünya görüşüdür. Ulusallaşmak ile tarihselleşmek arasında zorunlu bir bağlantı vardır. Yani, Batılı anlamda bir ulus, " tarih " içerisinde var olmuş olmak zorunda olan, bu varlığını da tarihi şekillendirmiş olduğunu belgeleyen çeşitli delillerle kanıtlayan bir varlıktır. 19. yüzyılın romantik, ama aynı zamanda ilerlemeyi uygarlığın en geçerli ölçütü kabul eden Avrupa'sında, bir ulusun varlığına dair en önemli deliller, hiç şüphesiz bilimsel, edebi ve sanatsal üretimlerdir. Özellikle romantik-milliyetçi eğilimlerle birlikte mimarlığın ulusal-folklorik unsurlarının ortaya çıktığı 19. yüzyılda, Klâsik geleneği yıkacak olan " üslûp " meselesinin gündeme taşınmasıyla " Klâsik " idealleştirmenin yerini alan ulusalcı idealleştirmeler, etnik-folklorik unsurları daha saf halde barındırdığına inanılan vernaküler mimarlığa olan ilgiyi artırmıştır. Buna karşılık, 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinin sonunda, Modern Hareket'in kendini içinde bulmuş olduğu tarihselciliğin Neo-Klasik, Eklektik ve Ortaçağcılık taraflarını tamamen dışlayarak tarihsel bir " sıfır " noktası meydana getirmeye yönelik söylemi sonucunda, mimari üslûp işlevsel nesnenin estetiğinin (saclichkeit) ve " mühendis estetiği " nin yeni biçimleriyle belirlenir hâle gelecektir. Bu süreç sırasında, ulusal-folklorik araştırmaların önemli bir parçası olan tarihsel mimari çözümlemeler mimari yaratıcılık için önemini yitirmeğe başlamış, bu tür araştırmalar giderek esas olarak " ulusal miras " ın fiziksel varlığının korunmasını amaçlayan ayrı bir disiplin olan " korumacılığa " dönüşmüştür. Bu makalede Batı mimarlığında ulusal mirası koruma kaygısıyla şekillenen " ulusal anıt " kavramı kısaca irdelenecek ve sonrasında meydana gelen kültürel ortamın vernaküler mimarlığı öne çıkarması değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Vernaküler Mimari, Modern Mimari, Ulusal Mimari, Koruma. Abstract Historicism, in simple terms, is a dominant world view influential on all fields of thought that has started to take shape since the Renaissance but established itself mostly in the nineteenth century. It can be said that there has been a necessary relationship

В статье феноменология Гуссерля рассматривается как определенный проект обоснования науки. Своеобразие феноменологического обоснования науки подчеркивается в ходе сравнения понимания науки у Гуссерля с некоторыми концепциями философии науки ХХ в. Выдвигается и обосновывается положение о том, что, несмотря на признание утопическим понимание науки в качестве развивающегося абсолютного знания, тезис Гуссерля об обосновании науки в жизненном мире остается и сегодня актуальным. / In the article the phenomenology of Husserl is regarded as certain project of justification of science. The peculiarity of the phenomenological justification of Sciences is emphasized in the process of the comparison of the understanding of science by Husserl with the basic concepts of the philosophy of science of the twentieth century. The author puts forward and justifies the position that despite the utopian understanding of science as an evolving absolute knowledge, Husserl's thesis about the justification of scientific knowledge in the lifeworld and today remains relevant.

A series of five mysterious, portraitlike images produced by Sandro Botticelli's workshop in the late fifteenth century shows the same female sitter, bust length, in profile, with an extremely ornate hairstyle. These images are difficult to classify. On the one hand, they follow the conventions of portraiture-they show a single, bust-length figure in profile against a plain, colored background or an architectural setting; on the other hand, because the woman is portrayed with decorated, loose, overabundant, waving hair and somewhat classical dress, she appears to be a more generalized typea nymph or goddess rather than a mortal woman. Besides being visually intriguing in their own right, these images have played a pivotal, although not always fully acknowledged, role in the historiography of Botticelli, of his famous painting Primavera (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence), and, by extension, of Florentine culture and society under the rule of Lorenzo de' Medici. The various images have often been identified as portraits of Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, a Genoese woman married to a Florentine, who was the object of Giuliano de' Medici's unrequited love. Simonetta was Giuliano's "Petrarchan mistress"-a beautiful, chaste, and unattainable upper-class woman whom he adored from afar in the spirit of Petrarch's love for Laura. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many paintings by Botticelli were believed to contain likenesses of Simonetta. She was thought to be the model for Venus in Mars and Venus (National Gallery, London) and the Birth of Venus (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence), for Venus or Flora in the Primavera, for Judith, and for the Madonna del Magnificat (all Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence), to name only a few examples. While many of these identifications are not now accepted, Simonetta continues to play an important role in the interpretation of Botticelli's images. Dempsey has recently reintroduced the theory that Flora in the Primavera represents Simonetta.1 For the most part, however, contemporary scholars are wary of the "Simonetta theory." As a result, they have severed the connection between Simonetta and the portraitlike images from Botticelli's workshop, preferring to call these images "ideal heads"-creations of a generic conception of female beauty.2 What, however, is meant by an "ideal"? Where does this ideal come from and what is its purpose? Can we be sure that these portraitlike images are not meant to refer to a particular woman? I will show that the effect of the images hinges on how they operate between the categories of portrait and ideal. They transform an actual woman, quite possibly Simonetta, into an ideal based on Petrarchan poetry. I will examine the way in which the artist invokes and combines two types of representation of womenportraits and depictions of nymphs or goddesses. I will argue that evidence that the images portray Simonetta is not as negligible as some art historians have assumed. Finally, I will compare the images to poems written about Simonetta after her early death. The correspondences between poems and images not only support the idea that the paintings refer to Simonetta but, more important, they reveal how dead young noblewomen could be idealized, even eroticized, in both poetry and painting. The late fifteenth-century "portraits" from Botticelli's workshop are early examples of the problematic category of Renaissance paintings identified by Cropper as "portraits of unknown beautiful women."5 In many sixteenth-century images, as in the Simonetta pictures,4 it is difficult to determine whether an actual woman, an ideal, a courtesan, or a goddess is represented. As Cropper says, "a portrait of a beautiful woman is not...simply a portrait with a female rather than a male subject."5 However, the new genre is not a vision of a generic female ideal, either. Indeed, the play between "real" and "imaginary" woman is central to the effect both of the Simonetta and of the later, sixteenth-century images. Although the Simonetta paintings can be seen as precursors of the many Venetian sensuous half-length images, of Raphael's Fornarina (Galleria Nazionale, Rome), and of the Leonardo school's "Mona Vanna" images, they have a different erotic appeal. Unlike the more sensual and direct address of the sixteenthcentury

Using the ideal gas law as a comparative example, this essay reviews contemporary research in philosophy of science concerning scientific explanation. It outlines the inferential, causal, unification, and erotetic conceptions of explanation and discusses an alternative project, the functional perspective. In each case, the aim is to highlight insights from these investigations that are salient for pedagogical concerns. Perhaps most importantly, this essay argues that science teachers should be mindful of the normative and prescriptive components of explanatory discourse both in the classroom and in science more generally. Giving attention to this dimension of explanation not only will do justice to the nature of explanatory activity in science but also will support the development of robust reasoning skills in science students while helping them understand an important respect in which science is more than a straightforward collection of empirical facts, and consequently, science education involves more than simply learning them.

The early work of Noam Chomsky (1965) has been described by Leszek Nowak as the “idealization turn in linguistics” (Nowak, 1979, 1971, 2000). Nowak claims further that only after Chomsky, linguistics has became a mature science. Prior to Chomsky, structuralist distributivism had been focusing mainly on the language data gathering and properties of particular languages. But with the introduction of linguistic competence, Noam Chomsky set forth idealized models to linguistics.
In this paper I further develop Nowak’s analysis on Chomsky’s work, focusing on the current stages of generativism. I propose the detailed description of the structure of idealization in Chomsky’s Generativist Theory. I compare idealizing assumptions of Early Transformational Grammar (1957) and Standard Theory (1965) with those in newer versions of the theory: Government and Binding Theory (1981) together with Minimalist Program (1995). I reconstruct - in terms of the  Idealization Theory of Science - the essential structure proposed by Chomsky.
In the proposed paper I also put forward the claim that the hierarchy of parameters described by Chomsky determines the process of concretization in the Generativist Enterprise. This hierarchy also shapes current research methods in generative linguistics. The claim is supported by the three methodological analysis provided in this article:
1) proposal of “language faculty in the narrow sense” and “language faculty in the broad sense” (Hauser, Chomsky, & Fitch, 2002);
2) research on acceptability (Luka & Barsalou, 2005);
3) analysis of grammatical cases in Polish (Miechowicz-Mathiasen & Witkoś, 2008).
A closer look at those generativist research examples indicates that the structure of idealization in Noam Chomsky’s work has influenced the research methods used by linguists. The hierarchy proposed by Chomsky indicates grammaticality as the main parameter determining acceptability of an utterance. However, other parameters – such as cognitive factors – can be also taken into account during the process of concretization.

Agent-based modelling has become a well-established method in social epistemology and philosophy of science but the question of what kind of explanations these models provide remains largely open. This paper is dedicated to this issue. It starts by distinguishing between real-world phenomena, real-world possibilities, and logical possibilities as different kinds of targets which agent-based models (ABMs) can
represent. I argue that models representing the former two kinds provide how-actually explanations or causal how-possibly explanations. In contrast, models that represent logical possibilities provide epistemically opaque how-possibly explanations (Šešelja et al., 2022). While highly idealised ABMs in the form in which they are initially proposed typically fall into the last category, the epistemic opaqueness of explanations they provide can be reduced by validation procedures. To this purpose, an examination of results of simulations in terms of classes of models can be particularly helpful. I illustrate this point by discussing a class of ABMs of scientific interaction and the claim that a high degree of interaction can impede scientific inquiry.

The first part of this book contains a selection of Leszek Nowak’s (1943-2009) works on non-Marxian historical materialism, which are published here in English for the first time. In these papers, Nowak constructs a dynamic model of religious community, reconstructs historiosophical assumptions of liberalism and considers the methodological status of prognosis of totalitarization of capitalist society. In the second part of the book, new contributions to non-Marxian historical materialism are presented. Their authors analyze mechanisms of the oligarchization of liberal democracy, the democratization of real socialism, and the development of early modern Ottoman and post-war Chinese societies.

Leszek Nowak – jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich filozofów powojennych – jest twórcą trzech oryginalnych i wnikliwych teorii filozoficznych: nie-marksowskiego materializmu historycznego, negatywistycznej metafizyki unitarnej oraz idealizacyjnej teorii nauki (ITN). Poniższa praca ma być rekonstrukcją podstawowej struktury oraz najważniejszych filozoficznych założeń, które legły u podstawy ITN oraz dowodem na możliwości jej praktycznej aplikacji. Struktura wywodu jest następująca: pierwsza część przedstawia sylwetkę Nowaka oraz umieszcza jego teorię naukową w powiązaniu z jego radykalną metafizyką. Część druga sytuuje ITN w kontekście szerszego problemu modelowania w nauce. Trzecia, zasadnicza część, jest rekonstrukcją najważniejszych idei idealizacyjnej teorii nauki. W części czwartej przedstawione zostaną przykłady praktycznego wykorzystania tej teorii – w fizyce i filozofii społecznej. Część piąta jest projektem rozszerzenia teorii Nowaka do ogólnego modelu epistemologicznego, w ramach którego można rozwiązać dylemat niezgodności wolności woli z uniwersalnym determinizmem.

The aim of this essay is to emphasize a number of important points that will provide a better understanding of the history of philosophical thought concerning scientific knowledge. The main points made are: (a) that the principal way of viewing abstraction which has dominated the history of thought and epistemology up to the present is influenced by the original Aristotelian position; (b) that with the birth of modern science a new way of conceiving abstraction came into being which is better characterized by the term idealization, the name that was later, in fact, to be used by scientists to describe their scientific activity; (c) that, however, on account of the influence of empirical and inductive philosophy, scientists have often not had sufficient methodological awareness of this new way of viewing abstraction; (d) that this new concept of abstraction has frequently been expressed in the framework of philosophies that lie outside the mainstream of contemporary epistemology or even exhibit marked anti-scientific tendencies; (e) that the theme of idealization has been taken up again in the last few decades and a great contribution in this direction has been made by the so-called Poznaƒ school of methodology.

The author in terms of idealizational theory of science explicates two approaches to history represented by positivism (Carl G. Hempel) and narrativism (Hayden White). According to positivism, history is branch of science, according to narrativism, history is closer to literature. In the second part of this paper, the author paraphrases some paradoxes of historical narrative elaborated by mentioned-above representatives of these standpoints what is argument for unity of scientific methods presupposed by idealizational theory of science.

Philosophy of science offers a rich lineage of analysis concerning the nature of scientific explanation, but the vast majority of this work, aiming to provide an analysis of the relation that binds a given explanans to its corresponding explanandum, presumes the proper analytic focus rests at the level of individual explanations. There are, however, other questions we could ask about explanation in science, such as: What role(s) does explanatory practice play in science? Shifting focus away from explanations, as achievements, toward explaining, as a coordinated activity of communities, the functional perspective aims to reveal how the practice of explanatory discourse functions within scientific communities given their more comprehensive aims and practices.  In this paper, I outline the functional perspective, argue that taking the functional perspective can reveal important methodological roles for explanation in science, and consequently, that beginning here provides resources for developing more adequate responses to traditional concerns. In particular, through an examination of the ideal gas law, I emphasize the normative status of explanations within scientific communities and discuss how such status underwrites a compelling rationale for explanatory power as a theoretical virtue.


Keywords: explanation, explanatory power, functional perspective, idealization, ideal gas law

In recent years, the problem of idealization has been one of the central issues discussed in philosophy of science. This volume gathers original essays written by well-known philosophers. The papers address the method of idealization and its applications in science as well as ontological and epistemological problems that have arisen. Among the questions addressed are: What is the logcal form of idealizational statements and how should they be interpreted? Is the possible worlds semantics useful in understanding idealization? What is the relation between idealization and truth? The volume is a celebration of Leszek Nowak's sixtieth birthday.

Resumen: La pintura es uno de los medios más fáciles y eficaces de crear la arquitectura en clave poética. Tal aserto se comprueba fácilmente en la producción pictórica italiana del Trecento y el Quattrocento. Estudiando las obras de la mayoría de los pintores italianos de esos dos siglos podemos descubrir al menos cinco formas de “ideación” poética del espacio urbano-arquitectónico: la “lógica” de la incongruencia; transparencias de la opacidad; fragmentos totalizadores; la ciudad como casa, la casa como ciudad; la ciudad como escenografía. Mediante el análisis de veintitrés cuadros de Duccio, Giotto, Pietro Lorenzetti, Taddeo Gaddi, Lippo Vanni, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Uccello, Fra Filippo Lippi, Piero della Francesca, Benozzo Gozzoli, Botticelli y Perugino, pretendemos en este trabajo poner en luz esas cinco modalidades de invención simbólica de la arquitectura.

Palabras Clave: Arte medieval, pintura italiana, arquitectura, representación ideal, Trecento, Quattrocento.

Abstract: Painting is one of the easiest and most effective means of creating a poetic architecture.  Such an assertion is easily verified in the Trecento and Quattrocento Italian painting. Studying the works of most of the Italian painters of these two centuries we can find at least five forms of poetic “idealization” of urban and architectural space: the “logic” of the incongruity; transparencies of the opacity; the fragment as a whole; the town as a house, the house as a town; the town as a scenic setting. Through the analysis of twenty-three paintings of Duccio, Giotto, Pietro Lorenzetti, Taddeo Gaddi, Lippo Vanni, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Uccello, Fra Filippo Lippi, Piero della Francesca, Benozzo Gozzoli, Botticelli and Perugino, in this paper we intend to highlight these five types of symbolic invention of architecture.

Key Words: Medieval art, Italian painting, town, ideal representation, Trecento, Quattrocento.

The aim of this book is to explain economic dualism in the history of modern Europe. The emergence of the manorial-serf economy in the Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary in the 16th and the 17th centuries was the result of a cumulative impact of various circumstantial factors. The weakness of cities in Central Europe disturbed the social balance – so characteristic for Western-European societies – between burghers and the nobility. The political dominance of the nobility hampered the development of cities and limited the influence of burghers, paving the way to the rise of serfdom and manorial farms. These processes were accompanied by increased demand for agricultural products in Western Europe.

"Scientific representation is a currently booming topic, both in analytical philosophy and in history and philosophy of science. The analytical inquiry attempts to come to terms with the relation
between theory and world; while historians and philosophers of science aim to develop an account of the practice of model building in the sciences. This article provides a review of recent work within both traditions, and ultimately argues for a practice-based account of the means employed by scientists to effectively achieve representation in the modelling sciences."

Tiyatro, hayatı sahnede yansılayan bir sanattır. Günlük hayattan kişiler, olaylar, toplumsal yapı, yazarın bakış açısına göre kurgulanarak, bir söylem oluşturmak üzere yeniden yaratılır. Tiyatro sanatı Antik’ten günümüze, mesajını kimi bireysel ve toplumsal değerleri idealleştirip kimilerini de olumsuzlayarak verir.
Temel dramatik türler olan tragedya, komedya ve melodram da idealizasyona hizmet eder. Tragedyada idealize edilen insan, duygusal aşırılıktan, tutkulardan arınmış, toplumsal düzene uyum sağlayan bireydir. İdealize edilen toplum tanrılarla ve otoriteyle uzlaşım içindedir, bu da Atina demokrasisinin belirleyici ögesidir. Amaç seyirciye katharsis (arınma) yaşatarak bireyi ruhsal olarak dengeli, toplumsal olarak uyumlu bir düzende tutmaktır. Katharsis ilkesi komedyaya kathastasis (boşalma) olarak uyarlanmış, zevk ve kahkaha yoluyla seyircilerin heyecanlarını boşaltması gerektiği öngörülmüştür. Komedya da tutkularından ve uç noktadaki duygularından arınmış insanı idealize eder. Ancak bunun dışında özellikle taşlama ögesiyle yönetimi de idealize etmeyi amaçlar. Üçüncü temel dramatik tür olan melodramda ise ideal kişi iyi olan ve sabreden kişi olarak çizilir, ideal toplum kötüleri cezalandıran, iyileri ödüllendiren toplum, ideal düzen iyiyi ve kötüyü ayıran düzendir.
Türk oyun yazarlığına bakıldığında ise her dönemde oyun yazarlarının birey ve toplum hakkında ortak ideallere sahip olduğu görülür. Bu idealler çoğunlukla Türkiye’deki siyasal ve toplumsal ortamdan etkilenmiştir, buna göre şekillenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı da 2000 sonrası oyun yazarlığının çizdiği ideal birey ve toplum yapılarını, ortak temalar üzerinden çözümlemektir.



The theater reflects life on the stage. Persons from daily life, social structure are constructed from the author's point of view and recreated to form a discourse. From the Antique to the present day, the theater gives its message by idealizing some individual and social values while negating others.
The basic dramatic genres tragedy, comedy and melodrama also serve for idealization. In tragedy, the ideal person is an individual who is free from emotional excesses and passions and who adapts to the social order. The ideal society is in agreement with the gods and authority, which is the determinant of Athens democracy. The aim is to keep the individual in a spiritually balanced and socially harmonious order by providing the audience with catharsis. The catharsis was adapted to comedy as cathastasis, and it was foreseen that the audience should be able to free the excitement of pleasure and laughter. Comedy also idealizes the person free from his passions and extreme emotions. However, it also aims to optimize management, especially with the satire. In melodrama, the third basic dramatic genre, the ideal person is portrayed as the good and patient person. The ideal society punishes the bad, rewards the good and the ideal order separates the good and the bad.
In Turkish playwriting, it is seen that playwrights have common ideals about individual and society in every period. These ideals are often influenced by political and social environment in Turkey. The aim of this study is to analyze the ideal individual and social structures drawn by post-2000 playwriting through common themes.

The article is an analysis of the contemporary Polish discourse on Galicia, which in spite of its (greater or smaller) critical ambitions, turn out to be permeated by the Galician myth. The expressions of this myth include the following elements. First, ambiguous relationship towards the Habsburg Monarchy, which, although portrayed as imperial power, still is the best and most beautiful, one could live under in modern Europe. Second, comprehending Polish culture as the only (or the main) measure to explain the world of past Galicia. Third, discursive polonization of the multiculturalism of Galician borderland, manifesting itself both in the imposition of own culture, viewpoint, terminology on the Others (non-Poles), and in the discontinuation in the use of languages regarded as Galician but ascribed to minority (even if on the given territory they were dominant). Fourth, idealization of province’s multiculturalism. Fifth, avoiding real contact (confrontation) with the Other through simulating apparent dialogue which turns to be a monologue on Polish superiority. Sixth finaly, orientalization of the Other taking various forms: from idealizing, through exotizing, to demonizing.

Celem artykułu jest prezentacja statusu i zastosowania metody modelowej zakładanej w idealizacyjnej teorii nauki. Artykuł składa się z następujących części: 1. „Modelowanie w nauce. Dwa przykłady”; 2. „Idealizacja a abstrakcja i izolacja”; 3. „Odmiany modelowania. Próba przeglądu”; 4. „Modelowanie w poznańskiej szkole metodologicznej”; 5. „Problem prawdziwości modeli idealizacyjnych”; 6. „Dwa typy modelowania w naukach społecznych”; 7. „Idealizacja a sfery ludzkiej aktywności intelektualnej”; 8. „Metoda modelowa w historii nauki”.

The principal task of the book series "Poznan Studies in-the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities" is to promote the development of the philosophy which would respect both the tradition of great philosophical ideas and the manner of philosophical thinking introduced by analytical philosophy. Our aim is to contribute to practicing philosophy~ deep as Marxism and as rationally justified as positivism.

This paper is a response to David Sobel's response to my "Why Idealize?".
Because this looks like history of philosophy, I need to explain: "Why Idealize" was published in 2005, and Sobel's reply in 2009. I proceeded to immediately write this response, and send it to Ethics. After getting a rejection (and after some helpful correspondence with David Sobel), I let it be.  But Sobel's paper has now been included in his recent collection "From Valuing to Value", and I've had another look at the exchange as I'm writing a review on Sobel's book (as it happens, for Ethics). I still think my response is of value, so I thought I'd make it available here.

The aim of this article is to explicate the basic types of comparative analysis used in historical-comparative sociology, within the conceptual framework of the idealizational theory of science (ITS), and to determine the usefulness and place of the comparative method in the structure of the idealizational theory. In the second section some classifications of comparative analysis are presented. An analysis of comparative methods used in States and Social Revolutions and what methodological discussion it stimulated is outlined in the third section. Chapter four presents the key tenets of the idealizational theory of science. Chapter five explicates the basic types of comparative analysis within the conceptual framework of the theory and defines the place of that method in the idealizational theory. In the final section, I consider the status of historical-comparative sociology in light of the view of the development of science provided by the idealizational theory.

According to a simple version of the moral theory called rule consequentialism, what we ought to do is determined by which sets of rules it would be best if everyone followed. This view, however, faces a problem sometimes called the ideal world objection: there are rules that would be great for everyone to follow, but extremely poor guides to action in our world, where adherence is imperfect. In response, recent defenders of rule consequentialism (Brandt 2011) have rejected the simple version above in favor of views designed to be less idealistic, by evaluating worlds of partial adherence instead of, or in addition to, worlds of perfect adherence. In this paper, I will argue that these attempts to fix rule consequentialism rest on a misdiagnosis. The revisions of rule consequentialism are motivated by taking the degree of ideality in the worlds of evaluation as the source of the problem, and consequently, they try to avoid it by evaluating worlds with more realistic levels of adherence to norms. But the ideal world objection, I will show, is only a special case of a more general and fundamental problem that faces any view that determines what we as individuals ought to do in this world by evaluating worlds that differ from the actual world in more than what is up to us. While the degree of ideality is a flexible feature of rule consequentialism, the commitment to evaluating distant worlds is a core feature, and I aim to show that the generalized problem, which we might call the distant world objection, applies not only to the view in all its forms, but to a wide range of moral views which share this commitment.

The volume addresses a problem rarely discussed by philosophers - the question of provincialism in science (in the broadest sense of the term). There are only a few great centers of science, which attract funding and provide almost ideal opportunities for research and development. They also attract some of the best researchers. Some - but not all. For a variety of reasons, some of the best researchers, or ones who have that potential, may do science outside these centers, in the provinces. The volume is devoted to the problems they face. What is an intellectual province? Who are the provincial thinkers? What is the mark of provincialism? Do provincial (or central) thinkers have any special duties? Are there ways of overcoming one's own provincialism? The authors address these questions across different disciplines, cultures, locations and time periods.

Scientists and Bayesian statisticians often study hypotheses that they know to be false. This creates an interpretive problem because the Bayesian probability assigned to a hypothesis is typically interpreted as the probability that the hypothesis is true. I argue that solving the interpretive problem requires coming up with a new semantics for Bayesian inference. I present and contrast two solutions to the interpretive problem, both of which involve giving a new interpretation of probability. I argue that both of these new interpretations of Bayesian inference have the same advantages that the standard interpretation has, but that they have the added benefit of being applicable in a wider set of circumstances. I furthermore show that the two new interpretations are inter-translatable and I explore the conditions under which they are co-extensive with the standard Bayesian interpretation. Finally, I argue that the solutions to the interpretive problem support the claim that there is pervasive pragmatic encroachment on whether a given Bayesian probability assignment is rational.

This paper has two main purposes. Its primary purpose is to present the reception of the discussion between positivism and narrativism in Polish methodology of history. A secondary one is to paraphrase, using the notion apparatus of the idealisational theory of science, the issue of the accuracy of explanation. The paper consists of six parts. In the first, Hempel’s deductive-nomological (or covering law) model of explanation is presented. In the second part, the main tenets and assumptions of the Poznań school of methodology are described. The emergence of this school at the end of the 1960s was one of the most important intellectual phenomena in the cultural history of postwar Poland. However,the influence of the Poznań school postponed the popularisation of narrativism in the Polish methodology of history. The third part analyses the manifold reasons for this delayed reception. The popularisation of narrativism was only possible in Poland after 1989 but it had primarily an imitative character. This outline of the cultural and scientific context allows Chris Lorenz’s proposals (on the problem of the accuracy of explanation) to be put in a wider perspective (part four). Namely, this author describes “a theoretical historical debate” on the status of scientific laws and talks about a post-positivistic approach to science represented by Nancy Cartwright. This approach was to introduce new perspectives to the understanding of lawfulness. In the fifth part of the article, the main assumptions and tenets (for example, the modes of explanation) of another post-positivistic approach to science, namely the idealisational theory of science, are presented and compared with the Hempelian model of explanation. In the final part, Hempel’s explanatory sketch is paraphrased using the notion apparatus of the idealisational model of science which provides a solution to the problem of the accuracy of explanation

Praca jest analizą, filozoficzną i metodologiczną, dwóch nurtów współczesnego językoznawstwa ogólnego: generatywizmu i kognitywizmu. Jest ona prowadzona w aparacie Idealizacyjnej Teorii Nauki. Przedmiotem analizy są wybrane założenia filozoficzne obu omawianych nurtów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem prac Noama Chomsky’ego i George’a Lakoffa. Omawia się również badania empiryczne prowadzone w ramach obydwu omawianych nurtów. Celem pracy jest wykazanie podobieństw i różnic między generatywizmem i kognitywizmem językoznawczym oraz wskazanie w jakim stopniu założenia filozoficzne determinują metody i zakres badań prowadzonych przez językoznawców. Najważniejszym zatem celem pracy jest odpowiedź na następujące pytania: 1. Jaka jest struktura metodologiczna językoznawstwa generatywnego? 2. Jaka jest struktura metodologiczna językoznawstwa kognitywnego? 3. Czy struktury te są podobne czy odmienne? Część pierwsza niniejszej pracy wprowadza podstawowe pojęcia Idealizacyjnej Teorii Nauki na tle rysu historycznego tej dziedziny. Część druga aplikuje te pojęcia do założeń filozoficznych językoznawstwa generatywnego i kognitywnego. W części trzeciej analizowane są wybrane procedury badawcze, najpierw współczesnego językoznawstwa generatywnego, a następnie kognitywnego.

Discussions about abstraction are often vitiated by an original sin. When Boethius introduced the term "abstractio"‚ into Latin, he was using it to translate two different Greek words: the Aristotelean "aphairesis"‚ and the Platonic "chorismos". The former was used by Aristotle in the epistemological procedure whereby he constituted, by means of "reduplication", the field of enquiry for scientific and philosophical reflection. The latter, which means "separation", referred instead to the universe of Platonic ideas. Thus, from the very beginning, the important distinction between Aristotelean "abstraction" and Platonic "idealization" was blurred by Boethius‚ use of a single term. The distinction, however, was so important and so profound that it could not be neglected, and it inevitably cropped up again in subsequent periods of philosophical enquiry. Although many scholastic philosophers continued to use Boethius's‚ by now famous "abstractio", they nevertheless asserted that there were two different kinds of abstraction. Cajetan, for instance, distinguished between formal abstraction (the separation of form from substance) and total abstraction (the separation of the universal from the particular). Despite these ancient roots and after the great debate which characterised the empirical and rationalistic tradition, interest in the problem has been absent from the mainstream of mathematical logic and analytic philosophy. It seems that there is a gap between the epistemological theorization, in which it is hard to find new insights on the problem of abstraction, and the historical studies concerning the development of philosophical thought, which present a more fertile ground for it. We have collected the papers of this volume with the awareness of the need for building a bridge between historical research and theoretical speculation. Accordingly the volume consists of both general overviews which sketch the meaning and the fortunes of abstraction in science, philosophy and logic (the first part) and historical case studies which focus on abstraction in particular thinkers (the second part).

1648 Westphalia ile şekillenmeye başlamış olsa da tam manası ile Birinci Dünya Savaşı akıbetin de modern devlete geçiş süreci ile başlayan Uluslararası İlişkiler disiplini göz ardı edilemeyecek kadar ehemmiyet kazanmıştır. Diğer Sosyal bilim dallarına nazaran daha genç olan bu disiplin bir o kadar dinamik ve kapsayıcıdır. Uluslararası İlişkiler disiplininde diğer sosyal bilim dallarından hukuk vazgeçilmez bir parçası olarak mevcut konumu bulunmaktadır. Alınan kararlar olaylara bakış açısı hukuka aykırı olmayacak şekilde biçimlendirilmektedir. Öbür yandan yapılan analizlerde geçmiş yani ''tarih'' biliminden yararlanmak jeopolitik açıdan coğrafyadan yararlandığı sosyal bilim dallarının her biri ile içli dışlı olduğu kapsamlı bir disiplindir. Uluslararası İlişkilerde dış politika analizi en başta idealizm ve realizm üzerine kurulmuştur. En başta bu görüşlerin çıkmasının ana nedeni düşünürlerin insanın doğasından yola çıkışıdır. İnsanın özü iyi olarak varsayan ve ilişkileri bunun üzerinden temellendiren kesim tarafından idealizm ortaya çıkmıştır. İdealizme göre insanlar özgür ve barışçıl şekilde yaşamak isterler. Kimse birbirine zarar vermeden el birliği ile güzel bir yaşam sürmektir. Bireylerin her birinin eşitlik ve özgürlük haklarını savunur ve dünyayı buna göre tasfirini çıkarırlar. Diğer kesim ise insanın o kadar iyi olduğu düşünülmez. İnsan doğası gereği bencil bir canlı olarak ele alırlar. İdealizimin aksine ahlakın, erdemin ilişkiler üzerinde bir etkisi yoktur. Savaş kaçınılmazdır. Uluslararası sistemi anarşik bulurlar. Bu taraftaki düşünürler için dünyada herkes güç için mücadele verir. Bu güç için verilen mücadelede kullanılan her yol mübah olduğu varsıyalabilir. Devletler kendileri için vardır ve çıkarları konusu hangi yönde ağır basarsa o yöne doğal bir eğilim sağlarlar. İdealizmde temel bireyler üzerinde kurulurken Realizmde ise devletlerin askeri siyasi gücü ön plandadır. Realizmde temel aktörler ulus devletlerdir idealizmde ise ulus devletlerin yanı sıra sivil toplum örgütleri ve diğer uluslararası kurumlarda aktör niteliğindedir. Dış politika analizi Uluslararası ilişkilerin bir alt disiplini olarak ele alınmaktadır. Devletlerin dış ilişkilerinde yürütüyor olduğu siyasi adımlardan daha çok bir analiz çıkarma yönünde çalışmalar sağlanmaktadır. Yaşanan mevcut olaylar tüm koşullar ve şartlar ele alınarak olabilecek, karşılaşılabilecek durumların varsayımları göz önünde bulundurularak karşılaşılması en olası olan ihtimale göre alınacak önlem ve tedbirlerin alınması noktasında tavsiye çalışmalarıdır. Askeri, ekonomi, siyasi vb. alanlarda yaşanan olayları çok boyutlu ele alarak bir analitik varsayım meydana getirilmektedir. Devletlerin kimlikleri kişilikleri vardır. Devletler ile ilişki kurarken bu kimliklere göre ilişkiler kurulur ve değerlendirme sağlanır. Bir devletin ekonomi, askeri ve siyasi özellikleri genel özellikleridir. İnsanda ki dış görünüş olarak kabul edebilir yüzeysel ama mühim konulardır. Bu özelliklerin yanı sıra bir devletin jeopolitik konumu devletin kaderini tayin eder. Dış politika analizlerinde bir çok faktör ele alınır. Bu dış faktörler hangi koşullarda oluştuğu incelenir ve sonuca varılır. Analizi sadece devlet liderlerinin konuşmaları, yaşanan hadiseler, askeri güç ya da ekonomiyi baz alarak ulaşmaya çalışmak büyük eksik kalır. Neticede devletlerin bir tarihi, sosyokültürel bir yapısı ve psikolojik sorununa neden açmış yaşanan dramatik hadiseleri olabilir. Bu yüzden dış politika analizi sağlarken devletlerin sadece dışarıdan verdiği izlenim değil, geçmişten gelen kötü ve iyi hatıralarını da göz önünde bulundurmak sağlıklı olacaktır. Her devletin bir insan gibi kişiliği vardır yaşanan her hadise her devlette aynı izi bırakmayacağı gibi her devletin belli olaylar karşısında aynı tepkiyi vermeyeceğini bilmek gerekir. İnsanların ne kadar birbirleri ile dostluk ve etkileşimi varsa devletlerde bu şekilde daha kapsamlı bir mekanizma olarak ele alınarak incelenmelidir. Bu yüzden dış politika analizi detaylı ve derin bir bilgi birikimi ile sağlanması alınacak kararların daha iyi sonuçlar vermesini beraberinde getirecek nitelikte önem taşır. Analizler çıkartılırken devlet liderinin kişiliği o an ki verebilecek kararlarda ehemmiyet taşır ve her ne kadar rasyonel bir şekilde analizler sağlanmaya çalışılsa da alınan kararlar rasyonellikten uzak olabilir.

The artist Mike Kelley's work concepts are borrowed from historical facts, cultural phenomenas and psychoanalysis. Just like a conceptual artist Mike Kelley transforms ideas to objects. He writes texts and poems, he deals with caricature, he performs, paints and draws. The starting point

Esta investigación procura explicar cómo se representa el imaginario social uruguayo en los medios de comunicación. Para ello se analizaron programas pertenecientes al género híbrido entre talent show y
reality show de tipo gastronómico. Los seleccionados para integrar el corpus de dicho estudio son: Masterchef Argentina (2015), La Comanda (2013) y Masterchef Uruguay (2017). El motivo por el cual se seleccionó un programa extranjero es para realizar una comparación y poder notar las diferencias que se presentan en el imaginario de cada región. Por esta razón la metodología empleada es un análisis de tipo cualitativo y comparativo. Dicha pesquisa explicitará las características de los programas seleccionados. Por otro lado, se intentará observar la importancia del Estado uruguayo representada en los medios, idea relacionada con el concepto sociopolítico de mesocracia (Real de
Azúa). La relevancia del Estado en los medios de comunicación se discutirá, a partir de la comparación entre La Comanda, (formato televisivo con características paraestatales) y Masterchef (formato con características glocales). Por último, se buscará explicar la expresión que adopta la identidad de los integrantes de cada programa, ya que en el accionar de los sujetos, se puede observar la idealización social, la cual tiende a ir en sintonía con el imaginario social de cada territorio. Desde esta perspectiva, es importante observar el funcionamiento mediático de un formato televisivo 'glocal', que resulta de la mezcla de una receta internacional y de su adaptación a diversos contextos nacionales/locales.

This new study provides a refreshing look at the issue of exceptions and shows that much of the problem stems from a failure to recognize at least two kinds of exception-ridden law: ceteris paribus laws and ideal laws. Billy Wheeler offers the first book-length discussion of ideal laws. The key difference between these two kinds of laws concerns the nature of the conditions that need to be satisfied and their epistemological role in the law's formulation and discovery. He presents a Humean-inspired approach that draws heavily on concepts from the information and computing sciences. Specifically, Wheeler argues that laws are best seen as algorithms for compressing empirical data and that ideal laws are needed as 'lossy compressors' for complex data.

Major figures in the metaphysics of science receive special attention such as Ronald Giere, Bas van Fraassen, Nancy Cartwright, David Lewis and Marc Lange. This book is essential reading for philosophers of science and will interest metaphysicians, epistemologists and others interested in applying concepts from computing to traditional philosophical problems.

*pdf of book cover only
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Idealizations are assumptions made without regard for whether they are true and often with full knowledge they are false. Physicists sometimes assume a surface is a frictionless plane, or that gases are 'ideal' or 'perfect.' Biologists sometimes assume a population of animals is infinite in size. And economists sometimes assume humans are perfectly rational agents. These are all idealizations.

In this book, I motivate a strong view of idealizations' centrality to science, and I reconsider the aims of science in light of that centrality. On the account I develop, science does not pursue truth directly, but instead aims to support human cognitive and practical ends. Those are projects to which idealizations can directly contribute in a number of ways.

The first three chapters are used to develop my account of idealization's central role in science. In Chapter One, I discuss how science is shaped by its human practitioners and by the world's complexity. Together, these two ideas inspire a view of science as the search for causal patterns, a search that relies heavily on idealizations. Idealizations contribute to science in a variety of ways, including by playing a positive representational role. These ideas are developed in Chapter Two. In Chapter Three, I detail case studies that demonstrate the ubiquity of idealization in science, as well as the wide range of purposes it serves.

The last four chapters explore the implications of this account of idealization for central philosophical debates about the aims of science. Chapter Four motivates the idea that the epistemic aim of science is not truth but human understanding. Understanding is a cognitive achievement, and, unlike truth, it can be directly furthered by idealizations. In Chapter Five, I develop an account of scientific explanation that does justice to how the production of understanding depends on human cognizers. Then, in Chapter Six, I challenge classic conceptions of scientific levels of organization and develop a view that better accords with idealized representation across all fields of science. Finally, Chapter Seven shows how this account of idealization and the aims of science expands the influence of human characteristics and values on science's aims and products, while also constraining scientific and metaphysical pluralism.

Alman İdealizmi içinde, özgürlük sorunu, Felsefe'nin en önemli sorunlarından biridir; ancak Schelling'in, İnsan Özgürlüğünün Özü Hakkında Felsefî Soruşturmalar'ıyla birlikte özgürlük ve sistem ilişkisi, daha da büyük bir önem kazanır. Schelling'le birlikte özgürlük sorunu, Kant'ın etkisiyle Felsefe'nin gündeminden düşen kötülüğün kaynağı tartışmasını yeniden gündeme getirmiştir. Leibniz'den Hegel'e uzanan düşünce geleneği içinde özgürlük sorununu Schelling, kötülük problemi çerçevesinde incelemiş ve Alman İdealizmi'ne yeni olanaklar sunmak istemiştir. Felsefe târihine bakıldığında, kötülüğün kaynağı ve "tanrısal yaratım" arasında sürekli bir çatışma olduğu kolayca görülebilir. Pek çok filozof için tanrısal yaratım, özü gereği iyi olmak zorundadır; Tanrı'nın kötülüğe nasıl izin verdiği sorunu ise önemli bir tartışma konusudur. Tanrı kavramından aynı şeyi anlamasalar da filozoflar, tanrısal yaratımın özü gereği iyi olmak zorunda olduğu konusunda hemfikirdirler. Schelling ise kötülüğün kaynağı tartışması ve tanrısal yaratımın özü arasındaki ilişkiyi, özgürlük sorunu içinde ele alacak ve özgürlüğün sistem içinde ele alınabilirliğini göstermeye çalışacaktır. 1

The theoretical approach in defining the means for mass communication expressed in functionalist theory, especially in John Riley’s model, determines mass media as a social subsystem which is functionally connected with other systems in society that arises from their mutual conditionality and their causative and consequential connection with politics, economy, education, socialization and culture. The functions of articulating opinion by themselves problematize the creation of creative-thinking public because the imposition of topics, representation of individuals, values and norms of a culture, a space, a time is mediated by the ideological and functional mechanism of an organized structuring and transfer of messages simultaneously to as big an audience as possible. The vastness of the audience simply cannot by itself be understood as democratization of the culture in its broadest sense or simply because it is not a high, elite culture intended solely for a certain number of users....