Exploratory Factor Analysis

A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female leaders were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness.

Tucker's congruence coefficient as a meaningful index of factor similarity Abstract When Tucker's congruence coefficient is used to assess the similarity of factor interpretations, it is desirable to have a critical congruence level less than unity which can be regarded as indicative of identity of the factors. The literature only reports rules of thumb. The present paper repeats and broadens the approach used in the study by Haven and Ten Berge. It aims to find a critical congruence level on the basis of judgments of factor similarity by practitioners of factor analysis. Our results suggest that a value in the range [0.85 -0.94] corresponds to a fair similarity, while a value higher than 0.95 implies that the two factors or components compared can be considered equal.

This study examined the structure, distribution, and correlates of a new measure of selfreported callous-unemotional (CU) traits in 1,443 adolescents (774 boys, 669 girls) between the ages of 13 to 18 years. The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits was subjected to exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis produced three factors: callousness, uncaring, and unemotional. Fit indexes suggested that the three-factor model, with a single higher-order factor, represented a satisfactory solution for the data. This factor structure fit well for both boys and girls. CU traits correlated significantly with measures of conduct problems and psychosocial impairment. Furthermore, the traits showed predicted associations with sensation seeking and the Big Five personality dimensions, supporting the construct validity of the measure of CU traits.

Recent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld, 1990) with a community sample suggested that the PPI subscales may be comprised of two higherorder factors . However, little research has examined the PPI structure in offenders. The current study attempted to replicate the Benning et al. two-factor solution using a large (N=1224) incarcerated male sample. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of this model with the full sample resulted in poor model fit. Next, to identify a factor solution that would summarize the offender data, EFA was conducted using a split-half of the total sample, followed by an attempt to replicate the EFA solution via CFA with the other split-half sample. Using the recommendations of Prooijen and van der Kloot (2001) for recovering EFA solutions, model fit results provided some evidence that the EFA solution could be recovered via CFA. However, this model involved extensive cross-loadings of the subscales across three factors, suggesting item overlap across PPI subscales. In sum, the two-factor solution reported by was not a viable model for the current sample of offenders, and additional research is needed to elucidate the latent structure of the PPI.

This paper examines the relationships between place attachment and landscape values using two measures of place attachment-a psychometric, scale-based measure . The measurement of place attachment: Validity and generalisability of a psychometric approach. Forest Science, 49(6), 830-840] and a map-based measure derived from mapped special places . Mapping spatial attributes in survey research for natural resource management: Methods and applications. Society and Natural Resources, 18(1), 17-39]. We first examine the external validity of a two-dimensional, psychometric place attachment scale in Australia and its relationship with place-based landscape values. The place attachment scale and landscape value measures were included in a mail survey of residents and visitors to the Otways region (Victoria, Australia). Exploratory factor analysis of resident subgroups and visitors demonstrate the place attachment scale consists of two dimensions with high reliability. We use regression analysis to show that landscape importance values, especially spiritual and wilderness values, are significant predictors of the scale-based measure of place attachment. We then examine the relationship between a map-based measure of place attachment and landscape values. We use spatial cross-correlation and regression analyses to show that aesthetic, recreation, economic, spiritual, and therapeutic values spatially co-locate with special places and thus likely contribute to place attachment. We argue that survey mapping of landscape values and special places provides a reasonable proxy for scale-based measures of place attachment while providing richer, place-based information for land use planning. We conclude by introducing the concept of a map-based place attachment index and suggest that ARTICLE IN PRESS www.elsevier.com/locate/apgeog 0143-6228/$ -see front matter r

This tutorial begins with an overview of structural equation modeling (SEM) that includes the purpose and goals of the statistical analysis as well as terminology unique to this technique. I will focus on confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), a special type of SEM. After a general introduction, CFA is differentiated from exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and the advantages of CFA techniques are discussed. Following a brief overview, the process of modeling will be discussed and illustrated with an example using data from a HIV risk behavior evaluation of homeless adults (Stein & Nyamathi, 2000). Techniques for analysis of nonnormally distributed data as well as strategies for model modification are shown. The empirical example examines the structure of drug and alcohol use problem scales. Although these scales are not specific personality constructs, the concepts illustrated in this article directly correspond to those found when analyzing personality scales and inventories. Computer program syntax and output for the empirical example from a popular SEM program (EQS 6.1; Bentler, 2001) are included.

In 1978, Comrey wrote a guide to factor analysis in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. This paper provides an update of the information given by Comrey in relation to exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for work and ogvliutional psychologists, and particularly those involved with test development, interpretation and validation. In doing so, it offers a user's guide to contemporary methods and available techniques and introduces heuristics for dealing with problems of skew and kurtosis, social desirability response set, and factor naming.

The contribution of this work is a classification of corporate social action underlying the Social Ratings Data compiled by Kinder Lydenburg Domini Analytics, Inc. We compare extant typologies of corporate social action to the results of our exploratory factor analysis. Our findings indicate four distinct latent constructs that bear resemblance to concepts discussed in prior literature. A key finding of our research is that positive and negative social action are both empirically and conceptually distinct constructs and should not be combined in future research. Additionally, we recommend that some prior research results be reconsidered to determine whether these newly derived measures might clarify some previous findings.

Moral competence among adolescents can be approached in terms of good character. Character is a multidimensional construct comprised of a family of positive traits manifest in an individual's thoughts, emotions and behaviours. The Values in Action Inventory for Youth (VIA-Youth) is a self-report questionnaire suitable for adolescents that measures 24 widely valued strength of character. Data from several samples bearing on the internal consistency, stability, and validity of the VIA-Youth are described, along with what is known about the prevalence and demographic correlates of the character strengths it measures. Exploratory factor analysis revealed an interpretable four-factor structure of the VIA-Youth subscales: temperance strengths (e.g., prudence, self-regulation), intellectual strengths (e.g., love of learning, curiosity), theological strengths (e.g., hope, religiousness, love), and other-directed (interpersonal) strengths (e.g., kindness, modesty). The uses of the VIA-Youth in research and practise are discussed along with directions for future research. r

Common factor analysis (CFA) and principal component analysis (PCA) are widely used multivariate techniques. Using simulations, we compared CFA with PCA loadings for distortions of a perfect cluster configuration. Results showed that nonzero PCA loadings were higher and more stable than nonzero CFA loadings. Compared to CFA loadings, PCA loadings correlated weakly with the true factor loadings for underextraction, overextraction, and heterogeneous loadings within factors. The pattern of differences between CFA and PCA was consistent across sample sizes, levels of loadings, principal axis factoring versus maximum likelihood factor analysis, and blind versus target rotation.

The purpose of this study was to explore the ability of place attachment to predict place-specific and general pro-environment behavioural intentions. The study sample (n = 355) consisted of visitors to a Canadian national park, Point Pelee National Park. The place attachment scale utilized in this study was designed to measure three subdimensions: place identity, place dependence, and place affect. Exploratory factor analysis of data measured by these scales revealed two place attachment subdimensions. Place affect, an individual’s emotions and feelings for a place, acted as a more generalized or pervasive phenomenon. Place affect items loaded on both the place identity (an individual’s cognitive assessment of a place) and place dependence (an individual’s functional assessment of a place). Structural equation modeling confirmed the strength of place attachment’s ability to predict place-related pro-environment intentions. It also identified place attachment’s prediction of pro-environment behavioural intensions related to everyday life. Place identity mediated the effects of place dependence in predicting pro-environment intentions. Further research which utilizes in-depth and longitudinal case studies is suggested to explore the role of place-specific emotion and feelings, as well as place identity in fostering environmentally-responsible action as these factors are theorized to play an important role in promoting pro-environmental behaviour. Studies of place attachment to everyday settings rather than iconic national parks are also called for.

Objective: To translate the Perceived Stress Scale and to assess its psychometric properties in a sample of general Greek population. Methods: 941 individuals completed anonymously questionnaires comprising of PSS, the Depression Anxiety and Stress scale (DASS-21 version), and a list of stress-related symptoms. Psychometric properties of PSS were investigated by confirmatory factor analysis (construct validity), Cronbach's alpha (reliability), and by investigating relations with the DASS-21 scores and the number of symptoms, across individuals' characteristics. The two-factor structure of PSS-10 and PSS-14 was confirmed in our analysis. We found satisfactory Cronbach's alpha values (0.82 for the full scale) for PSS-14 and PSS-10 and marginal satisfactory values for PSS-4 (0.69). PSS score exhibited high correlation OPEN ACCESS

The present series of studies sought to develop and conceptually validate a taxonomy of reasons that give rise to academic amotivation and to investigate its social antecedents and academic consequences. In Study 1 (N ϭ 351), an exploratory factor analysis offered preliminary support for an academic amotivation taxonomy comprising four dimensions: ability beliefs, effort beliefs, characteristics of the task, and value placed on the task. In Study 2 (N ϭ 349), the proposed taxonomy was further corroborated through 1st-and 2nd-order confirmatory factor analyses, and its discriminant validity and construct validity were documented. Study 3 (N ϭ 741) offered evidence for a model of the relationships among social support (from parents, teachers, and friends), amotivation, and academic outcomes (e.g., achievement, academic self-esteem, intention to drop out). Results are considered in terms of an increased conceptual understanding of academic amotivation, and implications for curricula and interventions are discussed.

This study used a nonreferred sample of twins to contrast the performance of individuals with reading disability (RD; n = 93), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 52), RD and ADHD (n = 48), and neither RD nor ADHD (n = 121) on measures of phoneme awareness (PA) and executive functioning (EF). Exploratory factor analysis of the EF measures yielded underlying factors of working memory, inhibition, and set shifting. Results revealed that ADHD was associated with inhibition deficits, whereas RD was associated with significant deficits on measures of PA and verbal working memory. The RD + ADHD group was most impaired on virtually all measures, providing evidence against the phenocopy hypothesis as an explanation for comorbidity between RD and ADHD.

The study aims to develop and assess metric proprieties of the Portuguese version of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. A sequential sample includes 1322 participants diagnosed with cancer, stroke, epilepsy, coronary heart disease, diabetes, myotonic dystrophy, obstructive sleep apnoea, depression and a non-disease group, which completed the HADS. The first step includes translation, retroversion, inspection for lexical equivalence and content validity, and cognitive debriefing. Then we reproduce oblique exploratory factor analysis and use confirmatory factor analysis. We explore the sensibility of the questionnaire. The validation process of the Portuguese HADS version shows metric properties similar to those in international studies, suggesting that it measures the same constructs, in the same way, as the original HADS form.

Despite the popularity and potential of self-leadership strategies in modern organizations, no acceptably valid and reliable self-leadership assessment scale has heretofore been developed. The present study tests the reliability and construct validity of a revised selfleadership measurement scale created on the basis of existing measures of self-leadership. Results from an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) demonstrate significantly better reliability and factor stability for the revised scale in comparison to existing instruments. Further, results from a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) utilizing structural equation modeling techniques demonstrate superior fit for a higher order factor model of self-leadership, thus providing evidence that the revised scale is measuring self-leadership in a way that is harmonious with selfleadership theory. Based on these results, the revised scale appears to be a reasonably reliable and valid instrument for the measurement of self-leadership skills, behaviors, and cognitions. Implications for future empirical self-leadership research are discussed.

Competitiveness has been identified in the tourism literature as a critical factor for the success of tourism destinations. Many studies focus on the main factors affecting destination competitiveness. Nevertheless, there is still no evidence of a significant impact of these factors on the performance of a destination. This study aims at filling this gap, by adapting and extending the Richie & Crouch's model and applying it on a unique dataset of 610 small and medium Italian Destinations of Excellence. To reduce the large set of variables, a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. The dependency between the performance scores and the explanatory variables was analysed by an ordinary least square and a partial least square regression.

Video games are often regarded as promising teaching and learning tools for the 21st century. One of the main arguments is that video games are appealing to contemporary students. However, there are indications that video game acceptance cannot be taken for granted. In this study, a path model to examine and predict student acceptance of video games is proposed, and empirically tested by involving 858 secondary school students. The results show that students' preference for using video games in the classroom is affected directly by a number of factors: the perceptions of students regarding the usefulness, ease of use, learning opportunities, and personal experience with video games in general. Gender effects are found as well, but appear to be mediated by experience and ease of use.

This paper addressed two questions: (1) Do environmental attitudes form a two-factor second-order structure as proposed by (Pers. Individ. Diff. 34 (2003) 783) and others? If so, (2) do these two factors differentially predict self-reported ecological behaviour and economic liberalism? A questionnaire with 99 items from established measures of environmental attitudes was administered to 455 undergraduate students and two procedures were used to test the higher-order factor structure of these attitudes. First, all the items were forced into two-factor and one-factor solutions using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and the fit of these solutions then tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Second, EFA was used to extract first-order factors, which were themselves factor analysed to extract second-order factors. CFA indicated that a correlated two-factor solution, consisting of a Preservation factor and an Utilization factor, provided the best fit to the data. Discriminant validity was demonstrated by showing that selfreported ecological behaviour was predicted by the Preservation factor, and not by Utilization, while attitudes toward economic liberalism were predicted by Utilization, and not by Preservation. r

This study examined whether anxiety symptoms in preschoolers reflect subtypes of anxiety consistent with current diagnostic classification systems, or should be better regarded as representing a single dimension. Parents of a large community sample of preschoolers aged 2.5 to 6.5 years rated the frequency with which their children experienced a wide range of anxiety problems. Exploratory factor analysis indicated four

The ISI subject categories classify journals included in the Science Citation Index (SCI). The aggregated journal-journal citation matrix contained in the Journal Citation Reports can be aggregated on the basis of these categories. This leads to an asymmetrical transaction matrix (citing versus cited) which is much more densely populated than the underlying matrix at the journal level. Exploratory factor analysis leads us to opt for a fourteen-factor solution. This solution can easily be interpreted as the disciplinary structure of science. The nested maps of science (corresponding to 14 factors, 172 categories, and 6,164 journals) are brought online at http://www.leydesdorff.net/map06/index.htm. An analysis of interdisciplinary relations is pursued at three levels of aggregation using the newly added ISI subject category of "Nanoscience & nanotechnology." The journal level provides the finer grained perspective. Errors in the attribution of journals to the ISI subject categories are averaged out so that the factor analysis can reveal the main structures. The mapping of science can, therefore, be comprehensive at the level of ISI subject categories.

The aim of the present study was to investigate if the original factorial structure of the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) was replicated in Finland and The Netherlands. A postal questionnaire survey of drivers was carried out in Britain, Finland and The Netherlands. Exploratory factor analysis together with target (Procrustes) rotation and factorial agreement indexes were calculated to investigate the applicability of Finnish and Dutch versions of DBQ. Results of the factor comparisons showed that the DBQ four-factor structures found in Finland and The Netherlands were congruent but not perfect with the target structure found in Britain. Reliabilities of the scales were around the same level as in the British data. In addition to the four first-order factors, two second-order factors (deliberate violations and unintentional errors) were found in all three countries which supports the original structure by Reason et al. [Ergonomics 33 (1990[Ergonomics 33 ( ) 1315. Issues related to cross-cultural use of traffic behaviour questionnaires are discussed.

The nature and structure of well-being is a topic that has garnered increasing interest with the emergence of positive psychology. Limited research to date suggests two separate but related factors of subjective well-being and psychological well-being. Subjective well-being comprises an affective component of the balance between positive and negative affect, together with a cognitive component of judgments about one's life satisfaction. Psychological well-being is conceptualised as having six components, including positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, self-acceptance, purpose in life and personal growth. In the current study, we used exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis to examine the higher order factor structure of subjective and psychological well-being in a series of large UK samples. Analyses showed that subjective well-being and psychological well-being loaded separately onto two independent but related factors, consistent with previous research. Further, we demonstrated that these loadings did not vary according to gender, age or ethnicity, providing further support for the robustness of this higher order factor structure. The discussion locates these findings in context and explores future research directions on the associations between subjective and psychological wellbeing over time.

This paper analyzes the results of a survey that aims to explore World Bank project success factors and specifically the relationship between critical success factors (CSFs) and project success as perceived by World Bank Task Team Leaders (project supervisors). The exploratory factor analysis highlights a specific set of five CSFs: monitoring, coordination, design, training, and institutional environment. The regression analysis shows that there is a statistically significant and positive relationship between each of the five CSFs and project success. Consistent with theory and practice, the most prominent CSFs for project supervisors are design and monitoring. The findings contribute to the project CSF literature by conceptualizing project supervision as a multidimensional construct and by confirming supervision as a generic CSF for World Bank projects. The World Bank project supervisors and managers should strengthen project design and monitoring and thus improve project implementation as well as the chances for project success.

The authors present 3 studies on the initial validity and reliability of the Scale of Ethnocultural Empathy (SEE), a self-report instrument that measures empathy toward people of racial and ethnic backgrounds different from one's own. Specifically, the exploratory factor analysis yielded 4 factors: Empathic Feeling and Expression, Empathic Perspective Taking, Acceptance of Cultural Differences, and Empathic Awareness. A confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence for the stability and generalizability of this 4-factor solution. The SEE was correlated in the predicted directions with general empathy and attitudes toward people's similarities and differences. High internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates were also found across the three studies. A discussion of how this scale can add to the research and practice regarding empathy and multicultural issues is provided.

The aim of the present study was to develop and evaluate a multidimensional measure of distress experienced by partners of Australian combat veterans. The Partners of Veterans Distress Scale (POV-DS) was developed using factor analysis on a sample of 665 female members of Partners of Veterans Association of Australia. Content validity for the scale was established by using focus groups and expert feedback during item development phase. In addition, two self-report inventories were administered to assess physical/mental health, and satisfaction with life. Following principal-axis factoring, 45 items were retained, loading on seven distinct but correlated factors: Sleep problems, Hyper-vigilance, Social isolation, Financial problems, Intimacy problems, Exhaustion, and Negative affect. The factor structure was cross-validated using confirmatory factor analysis on a hold-out sample. The distress subscales all exhibited excellent internal consistency (alphas ranged from 0.84 to 0.95). Va...

In Behavioral Activation (BA) for depression ), which has recently received empirical support in a large randomized trial, therapists pay close attention to the function of behavior and the role of aversive controlling stimuli and escape and avoidance behavior in depression. A key variable to measure in studies of BA is when and how clients become more activated over the course of treatment. This study sought to develop an initial set of items for the Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS), submit these items to an exploratory factor analysis in an initial administration (Study 1, N = 391), and submit the resulting scale to a confirmatory factor analysis in a second administration (Study 2, N = 319). Results indicated four factors (Activation, Avoidance/Rumination, Work/School Impairment, and Social Impairment) with good factor structure, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability. Evidence for construct and predictive validity is presented.

Psychometric properties of mathematics anxiety measures have not adequately been studied. Using a large sample size (N = 1,239), the authors developed an abbreviated math anxiety measure, examined its psychometric properties, and assessed the generalizability of the model across samples. Exploratory factor analysis yielded a nine-item measure and strong internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and good convergent/divergent validity was demonstrated with an independent sample. When administered to a replication sample, indexes suggested an excellent model fit. The Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS) may represent a more parsimonious and valid approach to assess mathematics anxiety.

Cognitive processes in the aftermath of experiencing a major life stressor play an important role in the impact of the event on the person. Intrusive thoughts about the event are likely to be associated with continued distress, while deliberate rumination, aimed at understanding and problem-solving, should be predictive of posttraumatic growth (PTG). The Event Related Rumination Inventory (ERRI), designed to measure these two styles of rumination, is described and validation information is provided. Using a college student sample screened for having experienced highly stressful life events, data were obtained (N=323) to conduct an exploratory factor analysis that supported the two factors of the ERRI. Separate confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) on two additional samples (Ns=186 and 400) supported a two-factor model. The two ERRI factors were validated by comparison with related variables and by assessing their contributions to predicting distress and PTG in two samples (Ns=198 and 202) that had been combined to conduct the second CFA. Data indicate the ERRI has solid psychometric properties, captures variance not measured by stable differences in cognitive styles, and the separate factors are related to posttraumatic distress and growth as predicted by existing models of PTG.

Psychometric properties of the Hypersexual Behavior Inventory (HBI) are reported using treatment-seeking samples of hypersexual men. Study 1 details item reduction and exploratory factor analysis of the HBI. Study 2 provides results of a confirmatory factor analysis yielding a 3-factor model measuring Control, Consequences, and Coping associated with sexual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Concurrent and discriminant validity was established with measures of theoretically related and dissimilar constructs. The psychometric properties of the HBI suggest it reflects the proposed DSM-V classification criteria for hypersexual disorder and has both the clinical and research utility to advance a more comprehensive understanding of hypersexuality.

In this invited article, Cabrera-Nguyen provides guidelines for reporting scale development and validation results. Authors' attention to these guidelines will help ensure the research reported in JSSWR is rigorous and of high quality. This article provides guidance for those using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). In addition, the article provides helpful links to resources addressing structural equation modeling, multiple imputation for missing data, and a general resource for quantitative data analysis.

Clinical databases have accumulated large quantities of information about patients and their medical conditions. Relationships and patterns within this data could provide new medical knowledge. Unfortunately, few methodologies have been developed and applied to discover this hidden knowledge. In this study, the techniques of data mining (also known as Knowledge Discovery in Databases) were used to search for relationships in a large clinical database. Specifically, data accumulated on 3,902 obstetrical patients were evaluated for factors potentially contributing to preterm birth using exploratory factor analysis. Three factors were identified by the investigators for further exploration. This paper describes the processes involved in mining a clinical database including data warehousing, data query and cleaning, and data analysis.