Chapter-3

PLASMA MEMBRANE
Every cell is surrounded by a thin, elastic semipermeable membrane called as plasma
membrane. It serves as a boundary for the cytoplasm.
The term plasma membrane was coined by Nageli and Crammer in 1855. It is also
called as cell membrane or plasmalemma.
Plasma membrane is outer limiting membrane in all animal cells. But in plant cells and
bacterial cells, it is present inner to the cell wall. The plasma membrane separates the cytoplasm
from the surrounding cellular environment. It is semipermeable membrane and plays a passive
role in the exchange of molecules between the cell and its surroundings.
Plasma membrane is about 70-100 Ao in thickness.
[Ao = 10-8 cm (1/00000000 cm)]
1
µ= 1000 of a mm i.e., 10-6 meter
1
Ao = 10000 of a µ i.e., 10-10 meter

Chemical Composition:
The plasma membrane is mainly composed of proteins, lipids and a small proportion
of carbohydrates. The lipid protein ratio varies with cell types.

1. Lipids:
The plasma membrane contains about 20-79 % of lipids. There are several lipids
present in the plasma membrane. The main lipid components are phospholipids,
glycolipids and sterols (Cholesterol).
The lipids of plasma membrane are amphipathic in nature. It consists of a head
and two tails. The head is hydrophilic and polar while the tails are hydrophobic and
non-polar. The lipid molecules form a double layer in the plasma membrane. The tails
are oriented inwards and the heads facing outwards.
 2. Proteins:
The proteins of plasma membrane have high molecular weight. Three different
classes of proteins occur in the plasma membrane—Structural proteins, Carrier
proteins and enzymes.
The structural proteins form backbone of the cell membrane. The carrier
proteins are involved in the active transport. The enzymes include ATPase,
Phosphatase, Hexokinase, RNAase and esterase.
The proteins serve as carriers or channels for transport. They are also involved
in the regulatory or signaling functions.

3. Carbohydrates:
In plasma membrane carbohydrates are present in the form of covalently-linked
molecules with proteins and lipids.
These are of two types: - glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Molecular Models of plasma membrane:

The structure of plasma membrane has been interpreted in various ways by different
cell biologists.
1. Trilaminar model (Robertson, 1950)
2. Biomoleular leaflet model (Danialli Davson, 1934)
3. Lattice model (Wolpers, 1941)
4. Micellar model (Hilleir & Hoffman, 1955)
5. Fluid mosaic model

Structure of Plasma Membrane:

Fluid Mosaic Model:
The fluid mosaic model was proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972 to describe the
structure of plasma membrane. According to this model, lipids are in the form of fluid bilayer
and the proteins do not form a covering of hydrophilic lipid bilayer. The membrane proteins
are partially or wholly embedded in the bi-layer.
 According to this model, the plasma membrane consists of lipids and proteins. The
lipid is in the form of fluid and the proteins are embedded here and therein the lipid in a mosaic
pattern. Hence the name is fluid mosaic model.
The lipids are arranged in the form of two layers, an outer layer and an inner layer. The
proteins do not form layer. Each lipid molecule has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
The heads face outwards and the tails of the two layers face each other.
Lipid molecules are not rigidly positioned in their places. They are always in a constant
motion and undergo lateral diffusion. The proteins bound with them also moves drastically.
The protein molecules are globular and are of two types: 1) Peripheral or Extrinsic proteins
2) Integral or Intrinsic proteins
The peripheral proteins are arranged on the surface and are loosely bound to the lipid.
The integral proteins are deeply embedded and are tightly bound to the lipid molecules. The
peripheral proteins as well as the outer part of integral proteins are studded with sugars. Such
proteins with attached sugars are called glycoproteins. Similarly, sugars are also attached to
the outer surface of some lipids. These lipids with attached sugars are called glycolipids.

If the extrinsic proteins are removed from the membrane, there is no disruption in the
membrane structure. But if intrinsic proteins are removed, the membrane structure is disrupted.

The carbohydrates found in intrinsic proteins and glycolipids form a sugar covering
called glycocalyx. It recognizes certain foreign proteins and protects the cell from extracellular
digestive fluids.
The fluid mosaic model stresses that the plasma membrane is semi-fluid in nature. The
lipids and intrinsic proteins move freely within the lipid bilayer.
Fluid mosaic model is the most accepted model because it convincingly explains the
transport through the membrane.

Transport across membranes:

The main function of the plasma membrane is to regulate the flow of materials in and
out of the cell called transport. This transport of material is regulated by the size of pores
present in the plasma membrane. Plasma membrane is semi-permeable which allows the
passage of a solvent but not of all solutes.
Plasma membrane allows the needed materials to enter the cell and sends out the
unwanted materials from the cell. This property of the plasma membrane is called selective
permeability.
Transport of metabolites through plasma membrane takes place in different ways:
1. Passive Transport: i) Simple diffusion
ii) Facilitated diffusion
2. Active Transport: i) Primary active transport
ii) Secondary active transport

1) Passive Transport:
Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move
substances across cell membranes.
The movement of molecules across the plasma membrane from the region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration is called passive transport.
i) Simple Diffusion:
Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration
to a lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and
reaches equilibrium. Simple diffusion is the forms of passive transport and require none
of the cell's ATP energy.
Simple diffusion is a form of diffusion that does not require the assistance of
membrane proteins. The particle or substance moves from higher to lower concentration.
However, its movement does not need a membrane protein that will help substances to
move through plasma membrane.

ii) Facilitated Diffusion:

It involves the use of membrane proteins (Channels and carriers) to facilitate
the movement of molecules in either direction across a membrane. In this type of
diffusion, energy is not required and it takes place along the concentration gradient.
However, it differs from simple diffusion in some respects-
(a) It requires carrier for transport of the metabolite across the membrane
(b) It Is a stereo specific process i.e., only one isomer is transported.

The role of carrier protein is simply to facilitate the diffusion of a polar or

charged solute. Carriers are proteins with relatively low molecular weight (9 to 40,000)
but they are highly selective. The metabolite binds to the carrier protein at the outer
surface of the membrane to form carrier metabolite complex. This diffuses along the
concentration gradient i.e., from high concentration to low concentration regions.

The metabolite is then released towards the inner surface of the membrane as
there is low concentration of metabolites on the inner side. It is continued as long as a
concentration gradient is developed. The transport of glucose into the erythrocytes is a
good example of facilitated diffusion.
2) Active Transport:
The movement of molecules and ions from the region of lower concentration to
the region of higher concentration, against the concentration gradient is called active
transport. The transport takes place from region of low concentration to high
concentration using an input of energy. This energy is provided by the mitochondria.
In this case, substances do not move by themselves, but they are carried by some
carriers present in membrane. These carriers are mainly proteins. This form of transport
requires energy and carriers.

In primary active transport, the energy obtained by ATP hydrolysis used directly for
transport. E.g., Na+-K+ pump

In secondary active transport, indirect energy source is required. E.g., transport of

glucose and amino acids is coupled to active transport of Na+.
❖ Endocytosis:
It is the bulk transport of materials into the cells by vesicles. Vesicle formation
takes place by in-folding of the cell membrane. It does not occur in plant cells due to
rigid cell wall.
It is the engulfing of food or foreign particles through the plasma membrane.
There are two types of endocytosis: 1) Phagocytosis
2) Pinocytosis
1. Phagocytosis: (Cell eating)
(Greek- Phagein= to eat; kytos= cell)
The cell ingests or swallows foreign bodies, bacteria, harmful matter and other
inert substances and the process is called phagocytosis.
It is the engulfing of solid particles through the plasma membrane. It is observed
in number of protozoans and leucocytes. The cells exhibiting phagocytosis are called
phagocytes.

Fig. Phagocytosis

The solid particles are absorbed at the surface of plasma membrane. Later on,
they are taken into the cytoplasm by the infoldings of plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane gets pinched off in the form of small vesicle called phagosomes. Then
the phagosomes fuse with lysosomes to form the digestive vacuoles. The food is
digested inside the vacuole and the digested food diffuses into the cytoplasm. The
vacuole containing undigested food is called residual vacuole. The undigested food
particles are thrown out by the process of exocytosis.

2. Pinocytosis: (Cell drinking)

(Greek- Pinetin= to drink; kytos= cell)
It is the process of engulfing fluid particles through the plasma membrane.
Intake of fluid material into the cell by the formation of pinocytic vesicles or
pinosomes is called pinocytosis.
 Fluids in contact with the plasma membrane move through temporarily formed
deep invaginations into the cell. The plasma membrane gets pinched off in the form of
small vesicles called pinosomes. The pinosomes empty their contents in the
cytoplasm. Pinocytosis is found in protozoa and best studied in amoeba.

❖ Exocytosis: (Cell vomiting)

The process of exudating the secretory products from the secretory cells to the
outsid e of the cell is called exocytosis. It is also called as reverse endocytosis.

Other functions of cell membrane in brief:

1. Protection: The primary function of the plasma membrane is to protect the cell from its
surroundings. The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins, selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and regulates
the movement of substances in and out of cells. Plasma membranes must be very
flexible in order to allow certain cells, such as red blood cells and white blood cells, to
change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries.

2. Cell Recognition: Cell-cell recognition occurs when two molecules restricted to the plasma
membranes of different cells bind to each other, triggering a response for
communication, cooperation, transport, defence, and/or growth. This type of binding
requires the cells with the signalling molecules to be in close proximity with each other.
 The sites for cell recognition are located on the surface of plasma membrane.
e.g., Mammalian leucocytes recognize foreign cells like bacteria and engulf them by
phagocytosis.

3. Shape: The cell membrane is rather fluid but also slightly rigid. This allows the cell to
change shape but it cannot change shape very much. This membrane is called the fluid
mosaic model as it is a mixture of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins and
carbohydrates. Cholesterol is also found in the membrane. It prevents lower
temperatures from inhibiting the fluidity of the membrane and prevents higher
temperatures from increasing fuidity.
Cholesterol is only found in animal cells.

4. Storage: The adenosine triphosphate (ATP) consists of an adenosine molecule bonded to

three phosphate groups in a row. In a process called cellular respiration, chemical
energy in food is converted into chemical energy that the cell can use, and stores it in
molecules of ATP.

5. Cell Signalling: Among the most important functions of the plasma membrane is its ability
to transmit signals via complex proteins. These proteins can be receptors, which work
as receivers of extracellular inputs and as activators of intracellular processes, or
markers, which allow cells to recognize each other.
Cells typically communicate using chemical signals. These chemical signals, which are
proteins or other molecules produced by a sending cell, are often secreted from the cell and
released into the extracellular space. There, they can float – like messages in a bottle – over to
neighbouring cells.