What is Cellular Processes?

Cellular processes form a fundamental system that involves complicated

cascades of biochemical reactions and signalling pathways. In order for proper
cell function, these processes are required to be tightly controlled.

Disregulation of any element of these pathways, from over- or underactivity of

an enzyme, increase or decrease in the level of a protein, to under- or
overexpression of an ion channel, can lead to a vast array of human
pathologies. These include: cancer, metabolic diseases, musculoskeletal
disorders, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerated conditions.

Transport Mechanism

The Plasma Membrane which is called the cell membrane has many functions,
but the most basic one is to define the border of the cell and it keeps the cell
functional
• The plasma membrane is selectively permeable
• Flexible

Among the sophisticated functions of the plasma membrane is the ability to

transmit signals by means of complex, integral proteins known as receptors

Fluid Mosaic Model

Describes the structure of the plasma membrane-including phospholipids,

cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates- that gives the membrane a fluid character

The fluid mosaic model explains various observations regarding the structure of
functional cell membranes. According to this biological model, there is a lipid
bilayer (two molecules thick layer) in which protein molecules are embedded.
The lipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts
of carbohydrates are also found in the cell membrane.

This model was proposed by S.J. Singer & Garth L. Nicolson in 1972
Cholesterol – another lipid composed of four fused carbon rings and it is found
alongside the phospholipid in the core of the membrane

Carbohydrates are present only on the exterior surface of the plasma

membrane and are attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins, or attached to
lipids, forming glycolipids

Phospholipids

Consist of three-carbon glycerol backbone with two fatty acid molecules

attached to carbons 1 and 2

This arrangement gives the overall molecule an area described as the head –
which has a polar character or negative charge and the tail – which has no
charge

A molecule with this arrangement of a positively and negatively charge is

referred as Amphiphilic

Proteins

Make up the second major component of plasma membranes

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body.[1] They are one of the
building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel,
proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per
gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important
aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is
its amino acid composition.
Integral proteins – integrated completely into the membrane structure

Peripheral Proteins – are found on the exterior and interior surfaces of

membranes.
Also known as “cell specific” proteins

Carbohydrates

Third major component of plasma membrane

Its chain is consist of (2 – 60)monosaccharide units and can be either straight or
branched

Glycocalyx – known as “sugar coating”

It is highly hydrophilic and attracts large amounts of

water to the surface of the cell

Membrane Fluidity

The mosaic characteristics of the membrane, described in the fluid mosaic

model. Helps to illustrate its nature

Passive Transport

Passive transport – is a naturally occurring phenomenon and does not require

the cell to exert any of its energy

Selectively permeable – they allow some substances to pass through, but not
others.
The interior of the membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane

Diffusion pertains to the spontaneous net movement of particles down their

concentration gradient

Transport proteins are proteins that transport substances across biological

membranes

Channel proteins - ‘facilitate the transport of substances across a cell

membrane.

They do this through the process of either facilitated diffusion or active transport
depending on the concentration gradient, or the difference in the
concentration of substances inside and outside the cell membrane.

Aquaporins - also called water channels, are integral membrane proteins from a
larger family of major intrinsic proteins that form pores in the membrane
of biological cells, mainly facilitating transport of water between cells.

Osmosis - is a type of diffusion that, in biology, is usually related to cells.

Osmosis is when a substance crosses a semipermeable membrane in order to

balance the concentrations of another substance.
Tonicity - is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the water
potential of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane cell
membrane.

Osmolarity - is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of

osmoles of solute per litre (L) of solution (Osm/L). Tonicity, on the other hand,
refers to the relative concentration of two solutions separated by a
semipermeable membrane.

Hypertonic Solution - a solution that has higher osmotic pressure (or has more
solutes) than another solution to which it is compared.

Hypotonic solution is any solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than
another solution.

Isotonic solution - refers to two solutions having the same osmotic pressure
across a semipermeable membrane.

Osmoregulation - the process of regulating water potential in order to keep fluid

and electrolyte balance within a cell or organism relative to the surrounding.

Plasmolysis - the shrinking of protoplasm away from the cell wall of a plant or
bacterium due to water loss from osmosis, thereby resulting in gaps between the
cell wall and cell membrane.

Osmoreceptor - is a sensory receptor primarily found in the hypothalamus of

most homeothermic organisms that detects changes in osmotic pressure.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active Transport - In cellular biology, active transport is the movement of

molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a
region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient.

Unlike passive transport, which uses the kinetic energy and natural entropy of
molecules moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to
move them against a gradient, polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active
transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of
molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If the
process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is
termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of
an electrochemical gradient. Examples of active transport include the uptake
of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root
hair cells of plants.

An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually

for an ion that can move across a membrane.

Antiporter - is a cotransporter and integral membrane protein involved in

secondary active transport of two or more different molecules or ions across a
phospholipid membrane such as the plasma membrane in opposite directions.

Symporter is an integral membrane protein that is involved in the transport of

many differing types of molecules across the cell membrane.

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Primary Active Transport – the functions with the active transport of sodium and
potassium allow secondary active transport to occur.

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Secondary active transport, is transport of molecules across the cell membrane
utilizing energy in other forms than ATP. This energy comes from the
electrochemical gradient created by pumping ions out of the cell. This Co-
Transport can be either via antiport or symport.

BULK TRANSPORT

The movement of macromolecules such as proteins or polysaccharides into or

out of the cell is called bulk transport.

ENDOCYTOSIS

Endocytosis - is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell.
The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane,
which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested
material.

Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large

molecules, parts of cells, and even whole cells, into a cell. There are different
variations of endocytosis, but all share a common characteristic: the plasma
membrane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket around the target particle.
The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a newly-
created intracellular vesicle formed from the plasma membrane.

Phagocytosis - is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to

engulf a large particle , giving rise to an internal compartment called
the phagosome.

- is the process by which large particles, such as cells or relatively large particles,
are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms invade the human
body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil will remove the invaders
through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is
then destroyed by the neutrophil.

Clathrin - is a protein that plays a major role in the formation of coated vesicles.

Transcytosis - (also known as cytopempsis) is a type of transcellular transport in

which various macromolecules are transported across the interior of a cell.

Pinocytosis - otherwise known as fluid endocytosis and bulk-phase pinocytosis,

is a mode of endocytosis in which small particles suspended in extracellular fluid
are brought into the cell through an invagination of the cell membrane, resulting
in a suspension of the particles within a small vesicle inside the cell.

- is the process by which large particles, such as cells or relatively large particles,
are taken in by a cell. For example, when microorganisms invade the human
body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil will remove the invaders
through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is
then destroyed by the neutrophil.

Caveolae – Are smaller than those in pinocytosis

Potocytosis - is a type of receptor-mediated endocytosis in which small

molecules are transported across the plasma membrane of a cell.

Exocytosis
Is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid.

Waste material is enveloped in a membrane and fuses with the interior of the
plasma membrane.
Exocytosis is composed of five main stages. The first stage is called vesicle
trafficking. This involves the steps required to move, over a significant distance,
the vesicle containing the material that is to be disposed. The next stage that
occurs is vesicle tethering, which links the vesicle to the cell membrane by
biological material at half the diameter of a vesicle. Next, the vesicle’s
membrane and the cell membrane connect and are held together in the
vesicle docking step. This stage of exocytosis is then followed by vesicle priming,
which includes all of the molecular rearrangements and protein and lipid
modifications that take place after initial docking. In some cells, there is no
priming. The final stage, vesicle fusion, involves the merging of the vesicle
membrane with the target membrane. This results in the release of the
unwanted materials into the space outside the cell.

Realization

Knowing cellular processes , it actually has a lot of processes and disregulation

of these would result to cancer, metabolic diseases and many more and it is
very significant and in these processes we encountered the active and passive
transport as well as osmosis, endocytosis and exocyctosis and many more these
cellular process have a lot of process and its very fascinating to just see how
theses process are functioning in our body

Advantages of Cellular Process

Studying cells helps us understand how organisms function. Cellular components

work together to carry out life functions. Cellular processes enable organisms to
meet their basic needs.

Disadvantages of Cellular Process

Disregulation of any element of these pathways, from over- or underactivity of
an enzyme, increase or decrease in the level of a protein, to under- or
overexpression of an ion channel, can lead to a vast array of human
pathologies. These include: cancer, metabolic diseases, musculoskeletal
disorders, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerated conditions.