Cell

 is the basic structural and functional unit of life

 Organismal activity depends on individual and
collective activity of cells
 Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by
subcellular structure
 Continuity of life has a cellular basis
Modern Cell Theory:
 All known living things are made up of cell
 The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
 All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous
Generation does not occur).
 Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell
during cell division.
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
 All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
Brief History of Cell Theory:
 Cytology- a branch of Science that deals with the study of cell
 Cell Biology –is a branch of Science that deals with the study of cell
structure and its function.
 The invention of the microscope in 1595 by Jansen paved the way in the
discovery of the Cell
 Discovered by- Robert Hooke in 1665
 Compared it to the small room inhabited by the monk which is called
“cellula”
 Anton von Leeuwenoek – first observed a living cell under a
microscope
 Brief History of Cell Theory:
 Robert Brown- able to describe nucleus in the orchids cell in 1833
 Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden- proposed the Cell Theory in 1838
 Rudolf Virchow- first observed the division of cells under the microscope
- proposed that all cells comes from existing cells in 1858
 Rudolf Albert von Kolliker- described the mitochondria in 1857 and in 1890 proposed that
cell has a membrane
 Friedrich Miescher – first identified the Nucleic Acids from the Human white blood cell in
1869
 Alexander Fleming – described chromosomes during mitosis in 1879
Brief History of Cell Theory:
 Camillo Golgi – described the Golgi complex in 1898
 James Watson and Francis Crick – described the DNA in 1950
and in 1953 proposed the structure of the DNA which is a
three-dimensional double helix structure.
 George Otto Grey – first to isolate human cells and cultivate it
in a culture medium in 1951
 Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell – first to perform a successful
animal clone in 1996
Function and Characteristics of Cell
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of Molecules
 Cellular Communication
 Reproduction and Inheritance
2 Types of Cell
 Prokaryotic Cell- a cell which has no nucleus
 Eukaryotic Cell- a cell which has nucleus
Organisms can either be:
 Prokaryotes- Unicellular organisms that is composed of a cell
which has no definite nucleus
 Bacteria, Archaeans
 Eukaryotes –Organisms which are either be Unicellular or
Multicellular and composed of cells which has nucleus.
 Unicellular Eukaryotes ex. Protozoans, Yeasts, Algae
 Multicelluar Eukaryotes ex Plants, Animals, Humans
 Higher forms of Organisms including Humans
composed of two types of cells
 Somatic Cells- also called body cells or vegetal cells
 Considered to be asexual cells which are not involve in the
reproduction
 They are the cells which are involves in the formation and
development of the body.
 They divides through the process of binary fission and mitosis
 They are “diploid cells” wherein cells that contain 2 sets of
chromosomes
 Gametes Cells- also called “germ cells”
 Also called Reproductive or Sex cells
 Responsible in the formation of reproductive cells
 They divides through the process of 2 meiosis
 They are “haploid cells” wherein cells that contain 1 sets of
chromosomes
Structure of Cell
List of Organelles of Cells and its Functions
 It is a semi-permeable membrane which separates
intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids
 It encloses the cell and protects its contents.
 Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity and cell
communication.
 Determines what moves into and out of the cell
 Both Lipids and Proteins accounts for the 45-50% each of the
organic molecules present inside of the plasma membrane and
Carbohydrates accounts for the 4-8% of the organic molecules in
the plasma membrane.
 Cholesterol-one of the major lipids in the plasma membrane. Its
amount provides stability in the plasma membrane.
 Glycocalyx is the collection of glycoprotein, glycolipids an
carbohydrates located outside of the plasma membrane.
 Membrane potential is a phenomenon where in an electric charge
difference across the plasma membrane is produce due to cells
regulation of ions in and out of the cell
Fluid Mosaic Model
-it suggest that the plasma membrane is highly flexible and is fluid in nature

 Double bilayer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed proteins

 Bilayer consists of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol,
glycolipids, and glycoproteins.
 Glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrate
 Glycoproteins are proteins with carbohydrate
 Phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic bipoles
Fluid Mosaic Model
Membrane Protein
 Determines some of the function of the plasma membrane and
the cell
2 Types of Membrane Protein
 Integral Protein
 Proteins that penetrates deeply in the lipid bilayer
 Peripheral Protein
 Attached either to the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bi-layer
 Some bound to integral protein, some bound to the polar heads of the
hydrophilic region
Functions of Membrane Proteins

 Marker molecules
 cells surface molecules that allow cells to identify other cells or molecules.
 Mostly glycoproteins and glycolipids
Attachment Proteins
 It allows cells to attach to other cells or extracellular and intracellular molecules.
 Comprises of Integral Protein
 Cadherins- membrane proteins which allows cells to attach to other cells.
 Integrins- membrane proteins which allows cells to attach to other extracellular
molecules.
Transport Proteins
 Integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move on from one side of the
plasma membrane to another side..
Three (3) characteristics:

 Specificity- means each transport proteins binds only to specific type of

ion or molecule
 Competition- result of similar molecules binding to the transport
protein.
 Saturation- means that the rate of movement of molecules across the
membrane is limited by the number of available transport proteins
Transport Proteins

Specifity Competitions Saturation

Types of Transport Proteins
Channel Proteins
 It forms a ”channel” that serves as a passageway for molecules to pass through.
 are proteins that have the ability to form hydrophilic pores (channels) in cells’ membranes,
transporting molecules down the concentration gradient.
 allow the transport across the membrane either of one type of molecule or of several types of
similar molecules and have different diameters, and are electrically charged groups, and high
selectivity.
 It provides a hydrophilic passageway for water and other small, polar ions.
 firmly and permanently situated in the plasma membrane, with their hydrophobic domains
interacting with the membrane’s lipids.
 Channels that remain open to both the cell’s interior and exterior are referred to as pores.
 Some channel proteins are open all the time, others can be opened or closed in response to a
specific signal (such as an electrical signal or the binding of a molecule).
Two types of Channel Proteins
 Non-gated Channel Protein
 allows ions and water to flow freely from one side of a membrane to another.
 often found within organelles and places where ion gradients are not maintained.
 These proteins allow ions and water to flow through the cell membrane, which is normally
hydrophobic and would resist the passage of these molecules.
 usually formed from identical subunits, which attach to each other in a circle. While the inside of
the circle is hydrophilic, the amino acids exposed within the hydrophobic cell membrane are also
non-polar.
 Gated Channel Protein
 It is a type of channel protein which responds to stimuli
 It function by changing its confirmation upon receiving signal or stimuli.
 It holds back the tide of ions until they are signaled to open.
Two types of Channel Proteins
Classification of Channel Proteins

 Potential-dependent channel proteins – activated by a change in the membrane potential;

 Ligand-dependent channel proteins – activated by binding to a ligand-mediator, hormone;
 Mechanically dependent channel proteins – activated by mechanical deformation of the cell
membrane.
Classification of Channel Proteins
 Leaked Ion Channels (Non-gated Channel)-
 responsible for the plasma membrane’s permeability to ions when the
plasma membrane is at rest

 Gated Ion Channel

 Can be open or closed

 Ligand Gated Ion Channel

 Small molecules that binds to the proteins or glycoproteins

 Voltage-gated ion channels.

 If there is a change in membrane potential
Receptor Proteins
 are proteins or glycoproteins in the plasma membrane that have an exposed receptor site on
the outer cell surface, which can attach to specific chemical signals.
 Can be part of intercellular communication
 cell can release a chemical signal that diffuses to another cell and binds to its receptor
Carrier Proteins
 are integral membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of
the plasma membrane to another
 a type of protein that transports specific substance through intracellular
compartments, into the extracellular fluid, or across cells
 they have binding sites from where molecules can bind to.
 Involves in bot active and passive transport of molecules
 capable of transporting molecules against their concentration gradient, as in
active transport.
 Responsible for the diffusion of sugars, amino acids, and nucleosides
Types of Carrier Proteins
 ATP- driven
 Requires ATP to transport molecules
 It moves 3 sodium ions (Na+) from the inside of a cell and then replaces them with 2
potassium ions (K+) from the outside for each ATP molecule it uses.
 It is a form of active transport wherein chemical energy (ATP) fuels the process and is called
primary active transport.
Types of Carrier Proteins
 Electrochemical potential-driven carrier proteins
 Uses electrochemical potential gradient to fuel their transport activity.
 It is a form of active transport which is also referred to as secondary active transport.
 Types of Electrochemical potential-driven carrier proteins:
 Uniporter
 transport a single molecule from one side of the membrane to the other.
 Symporter
 carrier protein that moves two molecules in the same direction
 Antiporter
 carrier protein that moves two molecules in opposite directions
Types of Electrochemical potential-driven carrier proteins:
Examples of Carrier Proteins
Membrane Transport Mechanism

 Passive Transport
 It is a kind of membrane transport mechanism which do not use
energy as they transfer molecules in and out of the cell
 Active Transport
 Kind of membrane transport which uses energy as they transfer
molecules from intracellular to extracellular.
Kinds of Passive Transport
 Diffussion
 Random movement of molecules results in net movement from areas of
higher to lower concentration
 Example are lipophilic molecules (such as many drugs), or very polar
molecules, such as O2, water and CO2, which are small enough to pass
through the membrane’s porous matrix.
Osmosis
 Osmosis is the transport of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane that separates two
solutions of differing solute concentration.
 During osmosis, the solvent moves from the solution that is lower in solute concentration to
the solution that is higher in solute concentration.
 Osmotic pressure describes the minimum pressure that, when applied to the solution phase,
prevents the solvent from passing through a semipermeable membrane into the solution.
 Example: water moving from the intestines to blood
Terminologies based on Osmotic pressure
Terminologies based on amount of concentration
Facilitated Diffusion
 is the transport of substances across a biological membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration with the help of a transport molecule.
 Examples of biological processes that entail facilitated diffusion are glucose and amino acid
transport, gas transport, and ion transport.
Kinds of Active Transport
 Active transport
 ATP-powered pumps combine with substances and move them across the plasma
membrane; ATP is used; substances can be moved from areas of lower to higher
concentration; it exhibits the characteristics of specificity, saturation, and competition.
 Substances too large to pass through channels and too polar to dissolve in the lipid bilayer
are transported; substances that are accumulated in concentrations higher on one side of
the membrane than on the other are transported.
 Ions, such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+, are actively transported
Secondary Active Transport
 Ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active transport, which establishes an ion
concentration gradient; ATP isrequired; ionsthen move back down their concentration gradient
by facilitated diffusion, and another ion or molecule moves with the diffusion ion (symport) or
in the opposite direction (antiport).
 Some sugars, amino acids, and ions are transported.
 There is a concentration gradient for Na+ into intestinal epithelial cells. This gradient provides
the energy for the symport of glucose. As Na+ enter the cell, down their concentration gradient,
glucose also enters the cell. In many cells, H+ are moved in the opposite direction of Na+
(antiport).
Endocytosis
 The plasma membrane forms a vesicle around the substances to be
transported, and the vesicle is taken into the cell; this requires ATP; in receptor-
mediated endocytosis, specific substances are ingested.
 Phagocytosis takes in cells and solid particles; pinocytosis takes in molecules
dissolved in liquid.
 Immune system cells called phagocytes ingest bacteria and cellular debris;
most cells take in substances through pinocytosis
Exocytosis
 Materials manufactured by the cell are packaged in secretory vesicles that fuse
with the plasma membrane and release their contents to the outside of the
cell; this requires ATP.
 Proteins and other water-soluble molecules are transported out of cells.
 Digestive enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, and glandular secretions are
transported, and cell waste products are eliminated
PART OF CELLS
Cells Organelles
 is a subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in the
cell, much like an organ does in the body.
 also called vesicles within a cell.
Two Types of Organelles
 Membrane-Bound Organelles
 Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Nucleus,
mitochondria and chloroplast
 Non-membrane-Bound Organelles
 Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton
Nucleus
 Double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells.
 It is the largest organelle, which functions as the control center of the cellular
activities and is the storehouse of the cell’s DNA.
 By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
 It is a porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between
cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also
carries another essential structure called chromosomes.
Nuclear Envelope
 is a highly regulated membrane barrier that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm in
eukaryotic cells.
 It contains a large number of different proteins that have been implicated in chromatin
organization and gene regulation.
 consists of two lipid bilayer membranes: an inner nuclear membrane and an outer nuclear
membrane. The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space.
 It is usually about 20–40 nm wide. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with
the endoplasmic reticulum membrane.
Ribosome
 A ribosome functions as a micro-machine for making proteins.
 Ribosomes are composed of special proteins and nucleic acids. The
TRANSLATION of information and the Linking of AMINO ACIDS are at the heart
of the protein production process. A ribosome, formed from two subunits
locking together, functions to:
 Translate encoded information from the cell nucleus provided by messenger
ribonucleic acid (mRNA),
 Link together amino acids selected and collected from the cytoplasm by
transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA). (The order in which the amino acids are linked
together is determined by the mRNA) and
 Export the polypeptide produced to the cytoplasm where it will form a
functional protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid.
They are the transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials
throughout the cell.

Two Types Of Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and
vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved with protein
manufacture.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated
with the production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the
cell.
Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi Apparatus also termed as Golgi Complex.
 It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is mainly composed of a series of
flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
 This cell organelle is primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and
packaging proteins and lipid to targeted destinations.
 Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and are present in both
plant and animal cells.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for
the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double
membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.
 The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The inner
compartment is called ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer membrane forms
a continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either
round or oval in shape.
 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces energy in the form of ATP
and helps in the transformation of the molecules.
 For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria have their
own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other molecules that help in
protein synthesis.
Vacuoles

 Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes

which are found in cells. They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by
a membrane.
 The vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that a cell
might need to survive. In addition to this, it also stores waste
products.
 The waste products are eventually thrown out by vacuoles. Thus,
the rest of the cell is protected from contamination.
 The animal and plant cell have different size and number of
vacuoles. Compared to the animals, plant cell have larger vacuoles.
Lysosomes
 A tiny, circular-shaped, single membrane-bound organelles, filled with digestive
enzymes
 Helps in the digestion and removes wastes and digests dead and damaged cells.
Therefore, it is also called as the “suicidal bags”.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells.
 They are jelly-like substances, found between the cell membrane and nucleus.
 They are mainly composed of water, organic and inorganic compounds. The
cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the cell
organelles are embedded.
 These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for controlling all
metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the
chemical reactions within a cell.
Centrioles
 The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular structures
known as centrioles.
 Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin
protein, and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets.
 The core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is proteinaceous.
 The hub connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of
proteins. The centrioles from the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise
to spindle fibers during cell division.
Cytoskeleton
 It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run
throughout the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane.
 It is found in all living cells, notably in the eukaryotes.
 The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins that can
divide rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement of the cells.
 The primary functions include providing the shape and mechanical resistance to
the cell against deformation, the contractile nature of the filaments helps in
motility and during cytokinesis.
Microtubules
 major components of the cytoskeleton. They are found in all eukaryotic cells, and they are
involved in mitosis, cell motility, intracellular transport, and maintenance of cell shape.
 Microtubules are composed of alpha- and beta-tubulin subunits assembled into linear
protofilaments
 polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to
eukaryotic cells.
Cytosol
 is a semi-fluid substance filling the interior of the cell and embedding the other organelles and
subcellular compartments.
 is enclosed by the cell membrane and the membranes of different organelles, thus making up a
separate cellular compartment. Together, the cytosol and all organelles, except the nucleus,
make up the cytoplasm.
 The cytosol has an important role in providing structural support for other organelles and in
allowing transport of molecules across the cell. For example, metabolites often need to be
transported across the cytosol from the area of their production to the site where they are
needed, and various signals need to be transduced from the cell membrane to target
compartments.
Proteasomes
 are protein complexes which degrade unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis, a chemical
reaction that breaks peptide bonds.
 Enzymes that help such reactions are called proteases.
 Proteasomes are part of a major mechanism by which cells regulate the concentration of
particular proteins and degrade misfolded proteins.
 Proteins are tagged for degradation with a small protein called ubiquitin. The tagging reaction is
catalyzed by enzymes called ubiquitin ligases. Once a protein is tagged with a single ubiquitin
molecule, this is a signal to other ligases to attach additional ubiquitin molecules.
Cilia and Flagella
 Cilia and flagella are motile cellular appendages found in most microorganisms and animals, but
not in higher plants.
 In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move a cell or group of cells or to help transport
fluid or materials past them. The respiratory tract in humans is lined with cilia that keep inhaled
dust, smog, and potentially harmful microorganisms from entering the lungs.
 Flagella are found primarily on gametes, but create the water currents necessary for
respiration
 In eukaryotic cells, cilia and flagella contain the motor protein dynein and microtubules, which
are composed of linear polymers of globular proteins called tubulin.
 A plasma membrane surrounds the entire axoneme complex, which is attached to the cell at a
structure termed the basal body (also known as a kinetosome). Basal bodies maintain the basic
outer ring structure of the axoneme, but each of the nine sets of circumferential filaments is
composed of three microtubules, rather than a doublet of microtubules. T
GENES, GENETIC
INFORMATION, HEREDITY
GENES
 are the functional units of heredity, the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring
 Each gene is a segment of a DNA molecule that specifies the structure of an RNA molecule.
 It is a Continuous string of nucleotides, containing a region that codes for a RNA molecule
 Has a Promoter and a Terminator Region
 Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not
code for proteins.
 is a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that encodes the
synthesis of a gene product, either RNA or protein.
 vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases
Nitrogen base
 also known as nitrogenous bases or often simply bases, are nitrogen-containing biological
compounds that form nucleosides, which, in turn, are components of nucleotides.
 Nitrogen bases- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Tyrosine, Uracil
 Two groups
 Purines- composed of Adenine and Guanine
 Pyridines- composed of Cytosine, Tyrosine, or Uracil
 Pairing of Purines and Pyridines is called Base complement
Nitrogen Base
GENETIC CODE
 The information contained in mRNA, called the genetic code, is carried in sets of three
nucleotide units called codons.
 A codon specifies an amino acid during translation. For example, the codon GAU specifies the
amino acid aspartic acid, and the codon CGA specifies arginine. Although there are only 20
different amino acids commonly found in proteins, 64 possible codons exist.
 Therefore, an amino acid can have more than one codon. The codons for arginine include CGA,
CGG, CGU, and CGC. Furthermore, some codons act as signals during translation. AUG, which
specifies methionine, also acts as a start codon, which signals the beginning of translation. UAA,
UGA, and UAG act as stop codons, which signal the end of translation. U
Gene Expression

 is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene
product that enables it to produce end products, protein or non-coding RNA
 It involves two process: Transcription and Translation
 transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied to make an RNA molecule. This step is
called transcription because it involves rewriting, or transcribing, the DNA sequence in a similar
RNA "alphabet." In eukaryotes, the RNA molecule must undergo processing to become a
mature messenger RNA (mRNA).
 translation, the sequence of the mRNA is decoded to specify the amino acid sequence of a
polypeptide. The name translation reflects that the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA
sequence must be translated into the completely different "language" of amino acids.
Transcription
 Transcription is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.
 The segments of DNA transcribed into RNA molecules that can encode proteins
are said to produce messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Other segments of DNA are copied into RNA molecules called non-coding RNAs
(ncRNAs). Averaged over multiple cell types in a given tissue, the quantity of
mRNA is more than 10 times the quantity of ncRNA (though in particular single
cell types ncRNAs may exceed mRNAs).
 Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the
nucleotide sequence in DNA
Steps in Transcription
 RNA polymerase, together with one or more general transcription factors, binds to promoter
DNA.
 RNA polymerase generates a transcription bubble, which separates the two strands of the DNA
helix. This is done by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary DNA nucleotides.
 RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides (which are complementary to the nucleotides of one
DNA strand).
 RNA sugar-phosphate backbone forms with assistance from RNA polymerase to form an RNA
strand.
 Hydrogen bonds of the RNA–DNA helix break, freeing the newly synthesized RNA strand.
 If the cell has a nucleus, the RNA may be further processed. This may include polyadenylation,
capping, and splicing.
 The RNA may remain in the nucleus or exit to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore complex.
Translation
 is the process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of
messenger RNA (mRNA).
 During translation, an mRNA sequence is read using the genetic code, which is a set of rules
that defines how an mRNA sequence is to be translated into the 20-letter code of amino acids,
which are the building blocks of proteins.
 The genetic code is a set of three-letter combinations of nucleotides called codons, each of
which corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal.
 Translation occurs in a structure called the ribosome, which is a factory for the synthesis of
proteins. The ribosome has a small and a large subunit and is a complex molecule composed of
several ribosomal RNA molecules and a number of proteins.
Steps involving Translation
 During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the start of the mRNA sequence.
 Then a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule carrying the amino acid methionine binds to what is
called the start codon of the mRNA sequence.
 The start codon in all mRNA molecules has the sequence AUG and codes for methionine.
 During the elongation stage, the ribosome continues to translate each codon in turn. Each
corresponding amino acid is added to the growing chain and linked via a bond called a peptide
bond.
 Elongation continues until all of the codons are read.
 Lastly, termination occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, and UGA).
Since there are no tRNA molecules that can recognize these codons, the ribosome recognizes
that translation is complete.
Translation Process
CELL DIVISION
CELL DIVISION
 Is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
 Usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
 In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division; a vegetative division,
whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis),
and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
MEIOSIS
 is a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent
cell by half and produces four gamete cells.
 This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual reproduction.
During reproduction, when the sperm and egg unite to form a single cell, the
number of chromosomes is restored in the offspring.
 Meiosis begins with a parent cell that is diploid, meaning it has two copies of
each chromosome. The parent cell undergoes one round of DNA replication
followed by two separate cycles of nuclear division.
 The process results in four daughter cells that are haploid, which means they
contain half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cell.
 CELL CYCLE
Interphase: period of growth and DNA replication between cell divisions
Three phases:
◦ G1 Phase
◦ Production of Orgnaelles
◦ S Phase
◦ Replication of chromosomes
◦ Now two strands called sister chromatids joined by a centromere
◦ G2 Phase
◦ Cell Growth
◦ new cytoplasm forms
◦ All other structures needed for mitosis form
• DNA containing cell’s genetic
code
• Each chromosome has a
matching pair
-- Homologous Pair
• During interphase, each
chromosome copies itself
• Mitosis = nuclear division
• Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis (cell division)
• The steps of mitosis ensure that each new cell
has the exact same number of chromosomes as
the original
MITOSIS
Process that divides cell nucleus to produce two new nuclei each with a complete set of
chromosomes
Continuous process
Four phases (PMAT)
◦ Prophase
◦ Metaphase
◦ Anaphase
◦ Telophase
 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
DNA found on chromosomes located in nucleus of cell
Cell cycle continuous process
◦ Cells grow
◦ DNA replicated
◦ Organelles duplicated
◦ Divide to form daughter cells

◦ 2 Main steps:
1: Mitosis (4 steps—Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
Nucleus divides
2: Cytokinesis—Cytoplasm divide, forming 2 cells

Each new daughter cell is genetically identical to parent cell

Mitosis
 is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell
division).
 During mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical cells.
 The major purpose of mitosis is for growth and to replace worn out cells.
 Involve five phases, based on the physical state of the chromosomes and
spindle. These phases are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. Cytokinesis is the final physical cell division that follows telophase,
and is therefore sometimes considered a sixth phase of mitosis.
Prophase
 Mitosis begins with prophase, during which chromosomes recruit condensin
and begin to undergo a condensation process that will continue
until metaphase.
 In most species, cohesin is largely removed from the arms of the sister
chromatids during prophase, allowing the individual sister chromatids to be
resolved.
 Cohesin is retained, however, at the most constricted part of the chromosome,
the centromere.
 the spindle also begins to form as the two pairs of centrioles move to opposite
poles and microtubules begin to polymerize from the duplicated centrosomes.
Prometaphase
 Begins with the abrupt fragmentation of the nuclear envelope into many small vesicles that will eventually
be divided between the future daughter cells.
 The breakdown of the nuclear membrane is an essential step for spindle assembly. Because the
centrosomes are located outside the nucleus in animal cells, the microtubules of the developing spindle
do not have access to the chromosomes until the nuclear membrane breaks apart.
 Prometaphase is an extremely dynamic part of the cell cycle. Microtubules rapidly assemble and
disassemble as they grow out of the centrosomes, seeking out attachment sites at chromosome
kinetochores, which are complex platelike structures that assemble during prometaphase on one face of
each sister chromatid at its centromere.
 As prometaphase ensues, chromosomes are pulled and tugged in opposite directions by microtubules
growing out from both poles of the spindle, until the pole-directed forces are finally balanced. Sister
chromatids do not break apart during this tug-of-war because they are firmly attached to each other by
the cohesin remaining at their centromeres.
 At the end of prometaphase, chromosomes have a bi-orientation, meaning that the kinetochores on sister
chromatids are connected by microtubules to opposite poles of the spindle.
Metaphase
 chromosomes assume their most compacted state during metaphase, when the
centromeres of all the cell's chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle.
 particularly useful in cytogenetics, because chromosomes can be most easily
visualized at this stage. Furthermore, cells can be experimentally arrested at
metaphase with mitotic poisons such as colchicine.
 complex checkpoint mechanism determines whether the spindle is properly
assembled, and for the most part, only cells with correctly assembled spindles
enter anaphase.
Anaphase
 The progression of cells from metaphase into anaphase is marked by the abrupt
separation of sister chromatids. A major reason for chromatid separation is the
precipitous degradation of the cohesin molecules joining the sister chromatids
by the protease separase.
 Two separate classes of movements occur during anaphase.
 During the first part of anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten, and
the chromosomes move toward the spindle poles.
 During the second part of anaphase, the spindle poles separate as the non-
kinetochore microtubules move past each other. These latter movements are
currently thought to be catalyzed by motor proteins that connect microtubules
with opposite polarity and then "walk" toward the end of the microtubules.
Telophase and Cytokinesis
 Mitosis ends with telophase, or the stage at which the chromosomes reach the
poles. The nuclear membrane then reforms, and the chromosomes begin to
decondense into their interphase conformations.
 Telophase is followed by cytokinesis, or the division of the cytoplasm into two
daughter cells. The daughter cells that result from this process have identical
genetic compositions.