Introduction

Cells are the basic units of life that are capable of carrying out all the processes
of life. They are the building blocks of all organisms. Some living organisms
are made up of only one cell and are called unicellular, while the rest are made
up of many cells called multicellular organisms. In both unicellular and
multicellular organisms, the cells are kept separated from each other and
surroundings by a barrier called plasma membrane or cell membrane.

Cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is a physical barrier between
a cell and the surrounding environment. It is the outermost part of the cell in
animals. However, in plants, bacteria, and fungi, it is surrounded by a thick cell
wall. Everything that is contained within the cell is not allowed to leave it
unless allowed by the plasma membrane. Similarly, nothing can enter the cell
unless it is permeable through the cell membrane.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The structure of the cell membrane is described by the fluid mosaic model, a
universally accepted model of the plasma membrane. According to this model,
the cell membrane is considered as a liquid having two surfaces. It is composed
of a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. Let us study the detailed
composition of this lipid bilayer and other substances found in the cell
membrane.

Lipid Bilayer

The lipid bilayer is made up of two layers of phospholipids that are amphipathic
compounds. Recall that a phospholipid molecule has a polar head and two
nonpolar tails. The phospholipid molecules are arranged into two layers form a
lipid bilayer. They are organized in such a way that the tails of the molecules in
two layers face each other, while their heads are directed opposite. The heads
are in contact with the water in the cytoplasm as well as in the extracellular
fluid.

Certain hydrophobic interactions develop among the tails of phospholipids,

forming a spherical hydrophobic barrier around the cell. As a result, water and
other dissolved substances in the cytoplasm or the extracellular fluid cannot

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enter or leave the cell. However, lipid-soluble compounds can easily cross this
lipid bilayer. It is also impermeable to polar as well as charged compounds.

Other lipids

In addition to the phospholipids, two other types of lipids are also present in the
cell membrane. These are cholesterol and glycolipids. The percentage of these
lipids in the cell membrane varies from cell to cell.

Cholesterol
It is abundantly present in the cell membranes of animal cells. Cholesterol
molecules are present in the spaces among the hydrophobic tails of
phospholipids in the lipid bilayer.

The function of cholesterol is to regulate the fluidity of the cell membrane.

According to the fluid mosaic model, the cell membrane is just like a fluid in
which the individual components can move freely. Cholesterol molecules in the
lipid bilayer check this mobility. The role of cholesterol is temperature-
dependent. At high temperatures, it decreases the mobility of phospholipid
molecules while at a lower temperature, it promotes their mobility.

Glycolipids
The amount of glycolipids also varies from cell to cell. They are mostly seen in
the membranes of nerve cells. The hydrophobic chains of such lipids have an
even number of fatty acids. The fatty acid chains are buried inside the lipid
bilayer while the carbohydrate component is present either on the cellular or
extracellular face of the membrane.

The glycolipids serve to stabilize the cell membrane. They are also responsible
for cell to cell interactions. Some glycolipids in the membrane also serve as cell
surface receptors. The blood antigens are also glycolipids in nature, present on
the cell membrane of red blood cells. The carbohydrate part of glycolipid is
antigenic.

Proteins

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Proteins are the second-largest component of cell membranes. They make
around 50% of the total cell membrane. They can be divided into two types;

 Integral proteins
 Lipid anchored proteins
 Peripheral proteins
Integral Proteins
These are the integral components of the cell membrane. Integral proteins are
those that span throughout the width of the cell membrane. Therefore, they are
also called transmembrane proteins.

A transmembrane protein has the following structures;

 A hydrophilic domain that is present on the cytosolic side of the

membrane. This domain interacts with the molecules present in the
cytoplasm of the cells.
 A hydrophobic domain that spans the width of the lipid bilayer. It is
responsible for anchoring the protein in the cell membrane.
 Another hydrophilic domain that is present on the extracellular side
of the membrane. It interacts with the molecules in the surrounding
environment of the cell.
Examples of integral proteins are transport channel proteins like glucose
transporter, potassium channels, etc.

Anchored Proteins
Such proteins are not in contact with the cell membrane. They are attached to a
lipid residue that is inserted into the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The
protein is present either in the cytoplasm or in the extracellular fluid.

Examples of anchored proteins include alkaline phosphatase enzyme on the

extracellular surface and G-proteins coupled to receptors on the cytoplasmic
side of the membrane.

Peripheral Proteins
These are the proteins that are present only on one side of the cell membrane.
They are present in association with the integral proteins or with the peripheral
parts of the lipid bilayer.

These are the temporary proteins and lose their association with the cell
membrane as soon as they have performed their function. Examples of such
proteins include hormones attached to receptor proteins, etc.

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Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are also present in the cell membranes. However, they are
always present in conjugation with lipids or proteins. They are involved in cell
to cell recognition and other inter-cellular interactions.

Glycocalyx is formed by glycoproteins and glycolipids around some eukaryotic

and prokaryotic cells. It is responsible for cell to cell adhesions. It is mostly
seen in the case of the epithelial cells and bacterial cells.

Membrane Polarity

An important concept that must be understood in the context of cell membranes

is membrane polarity. It means that the charges on the two sides of the cell
membrane are not equal.

In a resting cell, the cytoplasm has more negative charges as compared to the
extracellular fluid. It is due to the presence of organic anions in the cytoplasm.
Also, potassium ions keep diffusing outside the cell down the concentration
gradient. This further makes the cytoplasm negative as compared to the
extracellular fluid.

On the other hand, extracellular fluid is rich in cations, the major cations being
the sodium ions. Due to this difference of charges on both sides, the cell
membrane is never neutral. Rather, it shows electrical polarity. The cytoplasmic
side carries a negative charge while the extracellular side carries a positive
charge with respect to each other.

Functions

In this section, we will discuss the several functions performed by cell

membrane concerning a cell.

Cell membrane acts as Barrier

This is the most important function performed by the cell membrane. It acts as a
barrier that controls the movements of substances across the cell. It is a
selectively permeable membrane that allows only limited substances to pass
through it.

Different substances can cross the cell membrane via one of the following
processes.
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Passive Diffusion
It is the movement of substances down their concentration gradient without
using energy or any carrier protein. Cell membrane allows simple diffusion of
only lipid-soluble substances. The hydrophobic compounds like steroid
hormones can easily cross the cell membranes via simple diffusion. Besides,
gases like CO2 and O2 can also freely diffuse across the cell membranes.
However, polar substances like water as well as charged compounds cannot
simply diffuse through the cell membranes. They need some type of channel
proteins to cross them.

Facilitated Diffusion
This type of diffusion is facilitated by some channel proteins. It is the process
by which substances move down the concentration gradient by passing through
a channel protein. Polar and charged compounds use specialized transmembrane
proteins called channel proteins to cross the cell membranes.

Examples of such protein channels are potassium channels that allow the
diffusion of potassium ions, and aquaporins that allow the diffusion of water
molecules across the membranes.

Nutrients such as sugars and amino acids also enter or leave the cell via
specialized transport channels.

Active Transport
It’s the movements of substances against the concentration gradient using
energy in the form of ATP. It takes place via specialized transmembrane
proteins that have an integral ATPase activity so the they can breakdown the
ATP and use the energy that is released.

Cell membrane is necessary for Cell Signalling

Cell signalling is the process by which various metabolic processes taking place
in the cell are controlled and regulated to maintain homeostasis. It is necessary
for the overall coordination of the body.

Cells respond to the signals when a ligand binds to the cell surface receptors.
These receptors are mostly proteins present in the cell membrane. This is true
for all types of signalling molecules except the steroid hormones that are lipid-
soluble.

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Cell membrane anchors the Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeletal framework of the cell is necessary for the maintenance of its
shape and structure. It provides structural and mechanical support to the cell.
Cytoskeleton is anchored to the cell membrane via linker proteins such as
integrin. The microfilaments and other components of the cytoskeleton are kept
anchored to the cell membrane via these anchoring proteins.

The anchoring of the cytoskeleton is necessary for its function. If the framework
is not anchored, it will not be able to provide mechanical support to the cell.

Cell membrane is Involved in Cell-to-Cell recognition

This function is performed by glycolipids and glycoproteins present on the outer

surface of cell membranes. Cells belonging to the same tissue have a particular
arrangement of glycolipid and glycoproteins on the membrane that can be
recognized by partner cells but not by the cells of the other tissues.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

These are the methods of transporting bulk substances across the cell
membranes. In endocytoses, the membrane of the cell extends around the large
substance to form an endocytic vesicle. This vesicle is later taken in by the cell
as it breaks from the cell membrane. During exocytosis, the preformed vesicles
fuse the cytoplasmic surface of the cell membrane. The vesicle becomes a part
of the membrane while the substance is dumped into the extracellular fluid.