Cell Biology FINALS

Essay: Application of cell biology research in medical fields

Topic: to be added’
Goal: <200 words
Regenerative medicine is the newest and emerging medical field that deals with
restoring the function of tissues and organs in patients suffering from severe
injuries or chronic diseases. Remarkable advances in stem cell research have laid
the foundation for cell-based treatments for diseases that cannot be treated with
conventional drugs. Infinite self-renewal and differentiation potential into other
cell types represent stem cells as a limitation in regenerative medicine, and the
trans-differentiation potential of stem cells varies depending on the source, and
regenerative applications vary accordingly. Advances in gene editing and tissue
engineering techniques have made it possible to re-engineer stem cells in vitro to
create 3D organoids and tissue structures for personalized applications.
MCQ Content:
1. Components of animal cell membrane:
Cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins. The lipids are arranged in 2
closely apposed sheets, forming a lipid bilayer.
Eukaryotes have internal membrane, which is similar to cell membrane but differ
in inserted protein.

2. Characteristics of phospholipids in structure cell membrane:

 Phospholipids are the most abundant lipids in the cell membrane.
 The lipid bilayer provides the basic structure and barrier
function of all cell membranes.
 Phosphatidylcholine is the most common phospholipids in cell membrane.
 Structure: hydrophilic head linked to a pair of hydrophobic tails
 Phospholipids are amphipathic, because they have both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic parts.
 Due to amphipathic bilayer, the arrangement satisfies all parties and is
energetically most favorable.
 Amphipathic sheet avoids free edges is by bending and sealing, forming a
boundary around a closed space.  bilayer self-sealing

3. The flexibility of lipid molecules in cell membrane:

The lipid bilayer is a flexible two-dimensional fluid:
 Lipid molecules continuously exchange places with their neighbors on the
same plane
 They also rotate rapidly, some reaching speeds of 500 revolutions per second.
The fluidity of lipid bilayer:
Two major properties affect how tightly packed the lipids in the bilayer:
The length:
 The longer it is, the more tightly packed the amphipathic molecules are  less
freely fluid.
 Variety in length: between 14-24 carbon atoms, with 18-20 atoms being most
usual.
Number of double bonds: indicates the level of unsaturation
 More double bonds the less tightly packed  causing lipids to turn and move
faster  more free fluid (oil – liquid).
 Most phospholipids contain hydrocarbon tail that has one or more double
bonds.
 The hydrocarbon tail with no double bonds and has hydrogen atoms 
saturated.
In bacteria and yeast cells, the hydrocarbon tails are constantly adjusted to
maintain constant fluidity. In high temperature, they increase the length of the
tails and decrease the double bonds.
In animal cells, membrane fluidity is modulated by the inclusion of the sterol
“cholesterol.”
Importance of membrane fluidity:
 In cell signaling, it enables membrane proteins to move.
 It also permits membrane lipids and proteins to enter the bilayer after
synthesis.
 It ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly between daughter
cells when a cell divides.

4. Location of lipid bilayer and post-modification of lipid bilayer

Membrane assembly begins in the ER:
 In eukaryotic cells, new phospholipids are manufactured by enzymes bound to
the cytosolic surface of the ER.
 They are catalyzed by enzymes called “scramblases”, which remove
phospholipids form one half to another.
 Most cell membranes are asymmetrical, it starts in the Golgi apparatus.
 In Golgi, enzymes called “flippases” remove phospholipids from one side of
bilayer to another (cytosol).

5. Association of protein to lipid bilayer

 Most membrane functions are carried out by membrane proteins.
 In animals, proteins constitute about 50% of the mass of most plasma
membranes.
 Membrane protein serve many functions:
o Transporters
o Ion channels
o Anchors
o Receptors
o Enzymes
 Membrane proteins can associate with the lipid bilayer in different ways:
1. Membrane proteins extend through bilayer.
2. Other membrane proteins are located almost entirely in the cytosol.
3. Some proteins are outside the bilayer.
4. Other proteins are bound indirectly to one or the other face of the
membrane.
o Integral membrane proteins – proteins that are directly attached to lipid
bilayer, can be removed by disrupting the bilayer detergents.
Can either be transmembrane, associated with the lipid monolayer, lipid-linked.
 o Peripheral membrane proteins – they can be released from the membrane
by extraction procedures.

6. Explain detergent plasma membrane disruption

 Detergents are the most widely used disruptive agents.
 Membrane proteins can be solubilized in detergents.
 They are amphipathic, lipid-like molecules, only have a single hydrophobic tail.
 They are shaped like cones, tend to aggregate into micelles, are more
cylindrical in shape.
 When the hydrophobic ends interact with the hydrophobic ends of
transmembrane proteins and phospholipids, they disrupt the lipid bilayer and
separate proteins from most of the phospholipids.

7. Khả năng thấm của chất qua màng lipid

Lipid bilayers are impermeable to ions and most uncharged polar molecules.
Ion concentrations: Inside and Outside
 Most important inorganic ions for cells: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-, H+ (protons).
 Na+ is the most abundant positively charged ion (cation) outside the cell.
 K+ is the most abundant inside the cell.
 Quantity of positive charge inside is balanced by exact quantity of negative
charge.
 Na+ is balanced by Cl-, K+ inside is balanced by negatively charged organic and
inorganic ions (nucleic acids, proteins, cell metabolites).
 Differences in concentration of inorganic ions across a cell membrane create a
membrane potential.

8. Differentiate ion channels and transporters. How does matter go in and

out of cells?
 Two classes of membrane transport proteins: Transporters and Channels
 They are present in all cell membranes.
 Channels: discriminate size and electric charge, when the channel is open, any
ion or molecule that is small and carry appropriate charge can pass through.
 Transporter: transfers molecules or ions that into binding sites on the protein,
they bind their solutes with great specificity  gives transporters their
selectivity.
 Solute cross membranes: Passive or Active transport
 Passive: molecules move “downhill” from high concentration to lower
concentration, without energy needed by the transport protein.
 Both the concentration gradient and membrane potential influence the passive
transport of charged solutes.
 Active: molecules move “uphill” by coupling it to some other process that
provides energy, carried out by pumps, which harness an energy source to
power the transport process.
 Water moves passively across cell membranes down its concentration gradient
– osmosis.
.
9. Types of transporters?
 Each transporter is highly selective, transferring one type of molecule.
 Passive transporters: moves a solute along its electrochemical gradient
 Example: glucose transporter (in the plasma membrane).
 Pumps: actively transports a solute against its electrochemical gradient.
 Pumps can carry out active transport in 3 main ways:
i. ATP-driven pumps: Na+ pump transports Na+ out of the cell against its
electrochemical gradient
In animal cells, the Na+ uses energy supplied by ATP to expel Na+ and bring in K+.
Ca2+ pumps keep the Cytosolic Ca2+ concentration low.
ii. Coupled pumps – exploit solute gradients to mediate active transport.
Symport: The pump moves both solutes in the same direction across the
membrane.
Antiport: moves them in opposite directions.
Uniport: moves only one type of solute.
The Electrochemical Na+ gradient drives coupled pumps in the plasma membrane
of animal cells.
Electrochemical H+ gradients drive coupled pumps in plants, fungi, and bacteria.
(created by H+ pumps)
iii. Light-driven pumps

10. Glycolysis and Structure of glucose and pyruvate

 Glycolysis is in stage 2 of catabolism. It is a chain of reactions that split each
molecule of glucose into two smaller molecules of pyruvate, and is an oxidative
process despite not using oxygen.
 Some enzymes involved in glycolysis:
i. Kinase: catalyzes addition of a phosphate group
ii. Isomerase: catalyzes the rearrangement of bonds
iii. Dehydrogenase: catalyzes the oxidation of a molecule (via removing
hydrogen atom)
iv. Mutase: catalyzes shifting of a chemical group from one position to
another
 Glycolysis extracts energy from the splitting of glucose.
 Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol, it generates two carriers: ATP and NADH.
 Net result: glucose  2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
Structure of glucose: six-carbon atom.
Molecular structure: C6H12O6
Structure of pyruvate: three-carbon molecule.

11. Năng lượng được dự trữ ở energy carriers ở đâu (which part of the cell)?
Glycolytic enzymes couple oxidation to energy storage in activated carriers:
 Part of the energy released by oxidation of aldehyde is stored in NADH, and is
stored in high-energy thioester bond that links glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to
the enzyme.
 Oxidation of an aldehyde to a carboxylic acid releases energy, much of which is
captured in ATP and NADH.

12. Ý nghĩa của Citric cycle ngoài việc generate NADH

 Citric cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, its products are CO 2 and
NADH.
 The citric cycle catalyzes the oxidation of carbon atoms of acetyl groups in
acetyl CoA, converting them into CO2.
 Each turn of the cycle produces one molecule of FADH2 (reduced flavin
adenine dinucleotide) from FAD and one molecule of GTP from GDP.
 Like NADH, FADH2 is a carrier of high-energy electrons and hydrogen.
 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle provide the precursors needed for cells to
synthesize many important organic molecules.

13. Relation of ATP and ADP

 Molecules that contain phosphate bonds that have high energy  transfer
their phosphate group to ADP to form ATP. (in 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate;
phosphoenolpyruvate)
 Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form a sugar phosphate, ADP and H+.
 In oxidative phosphorylation, phosphorylation of ADP to generate ATP on the
matrix side of the inner membrane.

14. Các dạng dự trữ energy và sự chuyển hóa of matter (e.g glucose 
glycogen/fat)
In animal cells: glucose  glycogen/fat
Any excess glucose is used to make glycogen or fat.
Glycogen:
 Glucose is stored in the form of glycogen, this large polysaccharide is stored as
small granules in the cytoplasm, mainly in liver and muscle cells.
 When more ATP is needed, glycogen is broken down by enzyme “glycogen
phosphorylase.”
 Glycogen synthetic and degradative pathways are in opposite directions.
 Glycogen synthetase is activated by glucose 6-phosphate, while glycogen
phosphorylase is inhibited by it.
 The pathways are controlled by hormones: insulin, adrenaline, glucagon.
Fat:
 Fat is considered the more important storage material, because oxidation of a
gram of fat releases about twice as much energy as oxidation of a gram of
glycogen.
 Fat is stored as droplets of water-insoluble triacylglycerols in specialized fat
cells call “adipocytes.”
 In response to hormonal signals, fatty acids can be released into the
bloodstream.
In plant cells: glucose  starch/triacylglycerols
Although animal cells cannot convert fatty acids to sugars, they can convert sugars
to fats.
Starch:
 Plants convert sugars (made through photosynthesis) into starch, similar to
animal glycogen.
Triacylglycerols:
 The fat in plants are triacylglycerols, they differ in the types of fatty acids that
predominate.
The embryo uses these food stores as sources of energy, and to build cell walls
and to synthesize other biological molecules.
Plant seeds often contain large amounts of fats and starch. Germinating seeds
convert the stored fat and starch into glucose.
In plant cells, fats and starch are both stored in chloroplasts, they serve as food
reservoirs to produce ATP in mitochondria during periods of darkness.

15. Electron transport chain’s location in the cell

 Electron transport chain happens in the final stage of food oxidation –
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Oxidative phosphorylation happens in both eukaryotic cells and in aerobic
bacteria.
 Electron transport chain – a series of electron carriers embedded in the
inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells and plasma membrane of
aerobic bacteria.
 Energy is released to drive H+ across the inner membrane  generates a
proton gradient across the inner membrane.
 Most prominent reaction: phosphorylation of ADP to create ATP on the
matrix side of inner membrane.

16. Cơ chế năng lượng của ATP synthase (chuyển hóa năng lượng của ATP
synthase)
ATP synthase uses the energy stored in the electrochemical proton gradient to
produce ATP:
 ATP synthase – a multi-subunit protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 ATP synthase can operate in reverse – use energy of ATP hydrolysis to pump
protons “uphill”, they function like H+ pumps in this mode.
 Depending on the magnitude of electrochemical proton gradient across the
membrane, ATP synthase can either make ATP or consume ATP.
 In bacteria, ATP synthase is reversed when bacterium runs out of oxygen. ATP
synthase may use ATP generated in the cell by glycolysis to pump protons out
of the cell.

17. Làm sao electron đi từ complex này qua complex khác?

 High-energy electrons are transferred along a series of electron carriers (called
electron transport chain). These electron transfers release energy that is used
to pump protons.
 Chemiosmotic coupling – cells can harness energy of electron transfers.
 In photosynthesis, the high-energy electrons come from chlorophyll.
 Chemiosmotic generation of energy starts when NADH and FADH2 donate
high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 The movement of electrons is coupled to the pumping of protons: electrons
are passed along the chain to molecular oxygen to form water.

18. Các dạng protein transport in cell?

19. Transport into mitochondria
Protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane by proteins in
the electron-transport chain:
 Each electron-transport chain contains >40 proteins, grouped into 3 large
respiratory enzyme complexes:
i. NADH dehydrogenase complex
ii. Cytochrome c reductase complex
iii. Cytochrome c oxidase complex
 The movement of electrons through these complexes is accompanied by
pumping of protons from mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space.
 This transfer of electrons is favorable – weak electron affinity  stronger
electron affinity until they combine with O2 to form water.

Proton pumping produces a steep electrochemical proton gradient across the

inner mitochondrial membrane:
pH gradient and membrane potential work together to create a steep
electrochemical proton gradient  ideal for H+ to flow back into mitochondrial
matrix.
The greater the membrane potential, the more energy is stored in the proton
gradient.

20. Một số đặc điểm của proteins đi vào ER

21.Đặc điểm của lysosome

Lysosome: intracellular degradation
 Lysosome is considered as digestive enzyme, it degrades worn-out organelles,
macromolecules and particles taken into the cell by endocytosis.
 Before reaching the lysosome, endocysed materials must first pass through
“endosomes” – which sort the ingested molecules and recycle some of them
back to the plasma membrane.

22. Các loại hormone trong cell signaling

 23. Tính chuyên biệt giữa receptor và signal ligands
Target cells possess proteins called “receptors” that recognize and respond
specifically to the signal molecule. Each receptor is activated by only one type of
signal.
Two kinds: cell-surface receptors and intracellular receptors.
Signal ligands: signaling molecules.
Signal molecules can be proteins, peptides, amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acid
derivatives, dissolved gases.
Extracellular signal molecules: hormones.
 24. Acetylcholine neurotransmitter, Cơ chế tác động của Acetylcholine
 Site of origin: nerve terminals
 Chemical nature: derivative of choline
 Actions of Acetylcholine: Excitatory neurotransmitter at many nerve-muscle
synapses and in CNS

25. Các loại cell surface receptor (loại nào ít? Nhiều?)
All cell-surface reception proteins bind to an extracellular signal molecule and
transduce its message into one or more intracellular signaling molecules that alter
the cell’s behavior. Most of these receptors belong to one of the 3 large classes:
 i. Ion channel-couple receptors: function in the simplest and most direct
way, are important in nerve cells and electrically excitable cells (e.g.
muscle cells)
Change the permeability of the plasma membrane to selected ions  altering the
membrane potential  produce an electrical current (if conditions are right)
ii. G-protein-coupled receptors: form the largest family of cell-surface
receptors, >700 GPCRs in humans, important for every cell type
Activate membrane-bound, trimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) 
activate/inhibit an enzyme or ion channel  initiate intracellular signaling cascade
iii. Enzyme-coupled receptors: are important for every cell type,
Act as enzymes or associate with enzymes inside the cell, when stimulated the
enzymes can activate a wide variety of intracellular signaling pathways.
Largest class of enzyme-coupled receptors – receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).

26. Phân loại giữa primary và secondary cell wall

Primary wall: cam slowly expand to accommodate cell growth
Secondary cell wall: more rigid, is often produced once cell growth stops and the
wall no longer needs to expand.

27. Phân tử kết nối cell và cell, cell và skeleton (how they move?)
The cytoskeleton is responsible for large-scale movements, including the crawling
of cells along a surface, contraction of muscle cells, changes in cell shape, etc.
The cytoskeleton is built on a framework of 3 types of protein:
i. Intermediate filaments:
They are anchored to the plasma membrane at the cell-cell junctions called
“desmosomes,” where the plasma membrane is connected to that of another cell.
 The intermediate filaments are stabilized and reinforced by accessory proteins
such as “plectin” – cross-link the filaments into bundles and link them to
microtubules, to actin filaments, and to adhesive structures in the
desmosomes.
 The disassembly and reassembly of the nuclear lamina are controlled by the
phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the lamins.
ii. Microtubules
 They are mainly responsible for transporting and positioning membrane-
enclosed organelles within the cell and for guiding the intracellular transport of
various cytosolic macromolecules.
 The microtubules disassemble and reassemble into a structure called mitotic
spindle.
 They can also form stable hairlike structures that extend from the surface of
many eukaryotic cells to swim.
 Microtubules can be modified by drugs, they also organize the cell interior.
 Microtubules and motor proteins position organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Motor proteins drive intracellular transport, different motor proteins transport
different types of cargo along microtubules.
 Motor proteins transportation:
Dyneins: (-) end
Kinesins: (+) end
iii. Actin filaments
 They are responsible for many of the cell’s movements, especially involved in
cell surface.
 Actin-dependent movements usually require actin’s association with a motor
protein called “myosin.”
 A naked actin filament can disassemble from both ends.
 Actin monomers add to (+) end at a rate faster than the bound ATP can be
hydrolyzed.
 At (-) end, ATP is hydrolyzed faster than new monomers can be added.
 Myosin binds to and hydrolyze ATP, which provides the energy for their
movement along actin filaments towards the plus end.
 Muscle contraction depends on interacting filaments of actin and myosin.

28. Các loại junctions of cell và cell

The cell junctions that hold an epithelium together by forming mechanical
attachments are of three main types:
i. Adheren junctions: form adhesion belts around epithelial cells in the
small intestine.
 ii. Desmosomes: link the keratin intermediate filaments of one epithelial
cell to those of another.
iii. Hemidesmosomes: anchor the keratin filaments in an epithelial cell to
the basal lamina.
 Gap junctions allow cytosolic inorganic ions and small molecules to pass from
cell to cell.
 All of these junctions provide mechanical strength – the proteins that form the
cell adhesion span the plasma membrane and are linked inside the cell to
cytoskeletal filaments.
 Adherens junctions and desmosomes are both built around transmembrane
proteins that belong to the cadherin family.

29. Đặc điểm của epithelial cells?

 Epithelia (singular epithelium) – multicellular sheets in which the cells are
joined together, side to side.
 Cover the external surface of the body as well as internal cavity.
Epithelial sheets are polarized and rest on a basal lamina:
An epithelial sheet has two faces:
 The apical surface is free and exposed to the air or to fluid.
 The basal surface is attached to a sheet of connective tissue called the basal
lamina.