Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher

Education And Scientific Research

University of Esraa
College of Pharmacy

Human Physiology Introduction

and Homeostasis
LEC. SABA NASEER ABBAS
2024-2025
Objectives
By the end of this lecture the student should be able to answer the following:
1. Describe the basic components of the cell membrane
2. Explain the transport processes through cell membranes.
3. Define diffusion and its types.
4. List the factors that affect the net rate of diffusion.
5. Define osmosis.
6. Explain the active transport of substances through membranes.
7. Give examples on the types of active transport.
8. Explain homeostasis.
Physiology: science that describes how the body function and survive in
continually changing environments.
The levels of structural complexity:
1. CHEMICAL LEVEL -includes all chemical substances (atoms, ions& molecules) necessary for
life.
2. CELLULAR LEVEL - cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body, there
are many different types of cells (e.g., muscle, nerve, blood, etc..).
3. TISSUE LEVEL - a tissue is a group of cells that perform a specific function and the basic types
of tissues in the human body include epithelial, muscle, nervous and connective tissues and
glands.
4. ORGAN LEVEL - an organ consists of 2 or more tissues that perform a particular function (e.g.;
heart, liver, stomach)
5. SYSTEM LEVEL - an association of organs that have a common function; there are 11 major
systems in the human body, including; digestive, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, respiratory,
urinary, reproductive, muscular, lymphatic, skeletal, and integumentary (skin and associated
glands).
The levels of
structural
complexity
Body Composition
In the average young adult male, 18% of the body weight is protein and related
substances, 7% mineral and 15% fat. The remaining 60% is water.
1. Cells
◦ CELLS ARE THE LIVING UNITS OF THE BODY
◦ The basic living unit of the body is the cell. Each organ is an aggregate of many different
cells held together by intercellular supporting structures. Each type of cell is specially
adapted to perform one or a few particular functions. They all share the same basic
characteristics.
2. BODY FLUIDs, The (Internal Environment)
◦ The fluid inside cells is the intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment.
◦ The fluid outside cells is the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment, which is subdivided
into the interstitial fluid and the blood plasma.
The volume of total body water is approximately 60% of body weight in men and
50% in women
Cell structure
Composed of 3 major components:
1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane) Thin
membrane composed mostly of lipids and
proteins that separate cell’s contents from its
surroundings.
◦ It acts as:
1. Physical barrier.
2. Its proteins selectively control the movement of
molecules between intracellular fluid ICF and
extracellular fluid ECF.
2. Nucleus
❑ Typically, largest single cell component.
❑ Surrounded by nuclear envelope perforated by
nuclear pores.
Control center of the cell.
❑ Contains DNA; the genetic material that:
❖Directs protein synthesis.
❖ Serves as genetic draft during cell replication.
3. Cytoplasm
it contains different organelles each with different function that help the cells to fulfil its
individual function:
1. Cytoskeleton; interconnected system of protein fibres and tubes (microtubules,
microfilaments, intermediate filaments)extends throughout the cytosol, gives cell shape,
framework, regulates various movements.
2. Cytosol; intracellular fluid (ICF); semiliquid, gel-like mass
3. Organelles; structures suspended in ICF; each has specific role and work in integrated
manner. Most cells have 6 organelles types:
A. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER); series of membranes that contain protein-and lipid-manufacturing
factories (ribosomes; produce proteins)
B. Golgi complex; raw proteins are processed, sorted, packaged, and directed to proper destination
Fluorescent light micrograph showing their
nuclei (purple) and cytoskeletons (yellow and
blue)
CYTOPLASM
C. Lysosomes: contain powerful enzymes that break down organic molecules,
vary in size and shape depending on what they are digesting. -Average cell
has about 300 lysosomes -Digest extracellular material brought into cell -
Remove worn out organelles (Autophagy, Apoptosis)
D. Peroxisomes; house oxidative enzymes that degrade toxic wastes produced
with cell or toxins that have entered cell (such as alcohol)
E. Mitochondria; powerhouse of cell; extract energy from food nutrients and
transform it into usable form for cellular activities: Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). -Number varies widely depending on cell’s energy requirements
F. Ribosomes; make proteins by translating ribonucleic acid (RNA) into chains of
amino acids in sequence controlled by deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)-exist free
in cytosol or attached to rough ER
Basic structure of cell membrane
1. lipid bilayer, which is a thin, double-layered film of lipids—each layer only
one molecule thick—that is continuous over the entire cell surface.
◦ Interspersed in this lipid film are large globular proteins.
◦ One end of each phospholipid molecule is soluble in water; that is, it is hydrophilic.
◦ The other end is soluble only in fats; that is, it is hydrophobic.
◦ The phosphate end of the phospholipid is hydrophilic, and the fatty acid portion is
hydrophobic.
2. Membrane carbohydrates: (glycoproteins,
glycolipids) small amount located only at outer
surface.
3. Membrane Proteins: attached to or inserted within
lipid bilayer. Anatomically, 2 groups: a. Peripheral:
attach loosely to other proteins that span the
membrane or to lipid bilayer. b. Integral: tightly
bound into the phospholipid bilayer.
◦ Transmembrane Proteins are integral proteins that
extend all the way through the membrane.
Proteins that penetrate the membrane are
hydrophobic
4. Some membranes have microvilli, cilia, flagella
 Membrane proteins
Membrane proteins have many functions:
1. Receptors for hormones:
2. Pumps for transporting: materials across the membrane
3. Ion channels:
Create water-filled passageway to enable water-soluble substances that are small enough to enter or pass through membrane
without coming into direct contact with hydrophobic lipid interior.
o Restricted to ions and water.
o May be specific for 1 ion.
o May allow ions of similar size & charge to pass.
o May be open or gated.
4. Adhesion molecules: for holding cells to extracellular matrix
5. Cell recognition antigens: Recognition of “self-glycoproteins” on surface of membrane structural proteins; maintain shape
of cell.
General Functions of the cell membrane
1. Physical Isolation.
2. Supporting and hold the cytoplasm.
3. Transport: Helps determine cell’s composition by selectively permitting certain substances to
pass between cell and its environment (selective barrier).
4. Structural-participates; in joining of cells to form tissues & organs.
5. Recognition: Plays key role in enabling cell to respond to changes in cell’s environment (The
immune response; is the ability to distinguish between self and non-self, every cell in the body
carries distinctive molecules that distinguishes it as "self"). Normally the body's defenses do not
attack tissues that carry a self-marker. Rather, immune cells coexist peaceably with other body
cells in a state known as self-tolerance.
Membrane Transport
Membrane Permeability: Permeability refers to ability of the membrane to allow
substances to enter/leave cell.
They could be: 1. Permeable 2. Impermeable 3. or Selectively permeable.
Two properties influence whether substance can pass through unassisted:
1. Solubility of particle in lipid (highly lipid-soluble particles dissolve & pass through).
2. Size of particle
Terms you should know
❖ Concentration gradient; difference in concentration of substance between
two places (sometimes called chemical gradient)
❖ Solution: is a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or more
substances
❖ Solvent: a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution.
❖ Solutes: a substance that can be dissolved by a solvent to create a solution
Two general types of movement occurs
across cell membrane.
1. Passive transport: (Diffusion): which is Passive, does not require input of energy (uses only
energy of molecular movement).
◦ Includes: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis.

2. Active transport: requires energy (ATP) to transport substance across.

◦ divided into primary and secondary active transport.
◦ Active transport of Na+ and K+ is one of the major energy-using processes in the body. On the
average, it accounts for about 24% of the energy utilized by cells, and in neurons it accounts for
70%. Thus, it accounts for a large part of the basal metabolism.
1. Passive transport (Diffusion)
➢ Divided into two subtypes called simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion.
A. Simple diffusion: means that kinetic movement of molecules
or ions occurs through a membrane opening or through
intermolecular spaces without any interaction with carrier
proteins in the membrane.
◦ Simple diffusion can occur through the cell membrane by two
pathways:
1. Through the interstices of the lipid bilayer if the diffusing substance is
lipid soluble.
2. Through watery channels that penetrate all the way through some of
the large transport proteins.
1. Passive transport (Diffusion) cont.
B. Facilitated diffusion (passive transport)
Requires interaction of a carrier protein.
The carrier protein aids passage of the molecules or ions through
the membrane by binding chemically with them and shuttling them
through the membrane in this form.
Rate of diffusion is affected by (Fick’s Law
of Diffusion
1. Surface area of membrane
2. Magnitude of concentration gradient
3. Molecule size & weight
4. Temperature 5. Thickness of cell membrane
5. Lipid solubility of substance
❖ Ions can also permeate membrane along electrical gradient: Electrical forces; (like charges
repel, opposite charges attract).
Carrier-Mediated Transport, Co-transport
or Assisted Membrane Transport
❖ Large, poorly lipid- soluble molecules, such as proteins, glucose, etc. cannot cross plasma
membrane on their own no matter what forces are acting on them, so need the aid of a carrier
protein.
❖ Carrier protein spans thickness of plasma membrane
❖ Carrier proteins bind to specific substances and transport them by changing shape.
❖ Carrier mediated Transport, demonstrates 3 properties:
1. Specificity
2. Competition
3. Saturation

Two forms of carrier-mediated transport depending on whether energy must be supplied to

complete the process: facilitated diffusion (and active transport discussed later)
Properties of facilitated diffusion
1. Facilitated diffusion cannot cause net transport of molecules from a low to a
high concentration, as this would require input of energy
2. ATP energy not required
3. Transport rate reaches a maximum when all of the protein transporters are
being used (saturation)
4. It's very specific it allows cell to select substances taken up
5. Sensitive to inhibitors that react with protein side chains
 Passive transport (Diffusion) cont.
C. Osmosis (water diffusion)
o The most abundant substance that diffuses through the cell membrane is water.
o Normally, the amount that diffuses in the two directions is balanced so precisely that zero net
movement of water occurs. Therefore, the volume of the cell remains constant.
a. Movement of water down its concentration gradient across a selectively permeable
membrane (many cell types have aquaporins that allow passage of water)
b. Water moves by osmosis to the area of higher solute concentration, i.e. to dilute the area.
c. As solute concentration increases, the water concentration decreases correspondingly.
d. Osmolarity: measure of a solutions total concentration given in terms of number of ions
(osmole/liter),normal osmolarity of body fluids is 300mOsm/L (millosmole/liter). (Osmolarity
tendency of a solution to pull water in)
osmosis often produces significant
volume changes, causing swelling or
shrinking;
a) If the external solution balances the
osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm it is
said to be isotonic.
b) If the external solution is more
dilute than the cytoplasm it is
hypotonic
c) if the external solution is more
concentrated it is hypertonic.
Active Transport
When a cell membrane moves molecules or ions “uphill” against a concentration gradient (or
“uphill” against an electrical or pressure gradient), the process is called active transport.
• Active transport is divided into two types according to the source of the energy used to cause
the transport:
1. Primary active transport: the energy is derived directly from breakdown of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) or of some other high – energy phosphate compound.
2. Secondary active transport: the energy is derived secondarily from energy that has been
stored in the form of ionic concentration differences of secondary molecular or ionic
substances between the two sides of a cell membrane, created originally by primary active
transport.
In both instances, transport depends on carrier proteins that penetrate through the cell
membrane
Properties of Active transport
1. Can transport substances from a low concentration to a high concentration ("uphill"
transport)
2. ATP energy required
3. Examples: The Na+ /K+ -ATPase (known as the “sodium pump”), Ca2+ -ATPases (the
Ca pump), H+ / K+ -ATPases, H+ -ATPases, multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters
4. Transport rate reaches a maximum when all of the protein transporters are being
used (saturation).
5. Very specific, allows cell to select substances taken up
6. Sensitive to inhibitors that react with protein side chains
❑Note: about a third of your basal metabolism is used in active transport of various
substances.
Sodium -Potassium Pump as an example
of Primary Active Transport
1. Most important form of active transport in cells.
2. Maintains concentration gradients of NA+ and K+ across cell membrane.
3. Moves 3 sodium ions from inside cell to ECF.
4. Moves 2 potassium ions from ECF into cell.
5. Net movement =high Na+ concentration in ECF and high K+ concentration in ICF.
6. Transmembrane potential: inside of cell has slight negative charge as compared to outside of
cell
7. Difference in charges=a potential. reflects unequal distribution of positive and negative
charged ions.
Secondary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport: Combines active transport and
facilitated diffusion.
➢ Examples: Glucose transport across the wall of the gut.
➢Na+ gradient is produced by the Na pump (active transport)
➢The Na+ concentration gradient is used to produce secondary transport of
sugars and amino acids (facilitated diffusion)
➢Some sugar and amino acid transporters must bind Na as well as the sugar or amino acid (coupled
transport)
➢Both Na+ and the organic molecule must be present at the same time and on the same side of the
membrane
➢Since there is more Na outside the cell, sugars and amino acids get transported mainly from the
outside to the inside
➢The sugar and amino acid transporters do not use ATP directly, but ATP is required to set up the Na
gradient.
There are many examples of secondary
active transporters
Cotransporters (symporters) couple the movement of two or more solutes in the same
direction.
Examples of Na+ -driven cotransporters include Na+ /glucose uptake in the intestine and Na+
/Cl uptake in the kidney.
Exchangers (antiporters) couple the movement of two solutes in the opposite direction. Na+ -
driven exchangers include Na+ /Ca+2 and Na+ /H+ exchange, which are important for
maintaining low intracellular [Ca+2]and [H+ ], respectively.
Homeostasis:
describes the state of maintenance of nearly constant conditions in
the internal environment.
Essentially all organs and tissues of the body perform functions that
help maintain these relatively constant conditions.
◦ E.g: the lungs provide oxygen to the extracellular fluid to replenish the
oxygen used by the cells.
◦ the kidneys maintain constant ion concentrations.
◦ the gastrointestinal system provides nutrients