Lecture Notes on General Topology

by Azhar Hussain
[email protected]

Department of Mathematics University of Sargodha Sargodha, Pakistan

Lecture Notes on

General Topology

Chapter-01
1 Introduction
Top means twisting instruments. Logy a Latin word means Analysis. So, Topology means Twisting Analysis. Topology is the combination of two main branches of Mathematics,one is Set theory and the other is Geometry (rubber sheet geometry). We call Set theory is the language of Topology. The course which we will study is basically known as Point Set Topology or General topology. To dene Topology in an other way is the qualitative geometry. The basic idea is that if one geometric object can be continuously transformed into another, then the two objects are considered as topologically same. e.g. a circle and a square are topologically equivalent. Physically, a rubber band can be stretched into the form of either a circle or a square. Similarly, many other shapes can also be viewed as topologically same. e.g. If we take a piece of rubber and draw a circle on it then stretched it, in usual geometry there is no change but topologically there happened a change and the circle deform into an ellipse (or some other shape depending upon the force of stretchness). This is what the rubber sheet geometry means. The term used to describe two geometric objects that are topologically equivalent is homeomorphic. So, in above example the circle and square, circle and ellipse are homeomorphic.

Topology is the generalization of the Metric Space. The word Topology is composed of two words.

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Lecture Notes on

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Denition 1. Suppose that X be a non-empty set and be the collection of subsets of X, then is called a topology on X if the following axioms are satised. 1. and X are in . 2. The union of the elements of any sub collection of is in . 3. The intersection of the elements of any nite sub collection of is in . We call the set X together with topology is a topological space and denote it (X, ). The subset A of X is an open subset of X if A , so we can say that a topological space together with its subsets are all open, such that X and are both open and also the innite union and nite intersection of open sets is also open. Example 1. Let X = {a, b, c}, and consider the collection = {X, , {a}, {b, c}} X and belongs to . The union of any sub collection of belongs to . The intersection of nite sub collection of belongs to . All the three axios are satised, hence is a topology on X. Exercise 1. Let X = {a, b, c, d}, make all possible topologies on X. Example 2. Consider R, the set of real numbers, with = {S R : x S Now (R, ) is a topological space as, , R trivially. Consider the class {A }, where I such that I we have A . We show that I A . For this, let W = A
I

> 0 such that (x , x + ) S}

Then for all x W I such that x A . So by hypothesis (x , x + ) A W Let A, B , we show that A B . For this, let x A B, then > 0 and (x Take = min( , (x , x + ) A and
) , x

> 0 such that

> 0 such that (x

and

(x , x + ) B B

(x , x + ) A A B

Hence is a topology on R and it is called usual topology on R. by Azhar Hussain 3 Available at www.MathCity.org

Lecture Notes on

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Example 3. Let X be any set, and P (X) called the power set of X consisting of all subsets of X is a topology on X. It is called discrete topology. The collection consisting of the set X and empty set only is also a topology on X, it is called indiscrete topology or trivial topology. Example 4. If 1 and 2 are two topologies on X then show that 1 2 is also a topology on X. Also give an example. Solution. Let 1 and 2 are two topologies on X, we have to show that 1 2 is also a topology on X. For this, 1. Since , X 1 and , X 2 , X 1 2 .

2. Let Gi 1 2 Gi 1 and Gi 2 respectively. Gi 1 and Gi 2 ( 1 and 2 are topologies). Gi 1 2 . 3. Let G1 , G2 1 2 G1 , G2 1 and G1 , G2 2 G1 G2 1 and G1 , G2 2 , ( 1 and 2 are topologies) G1 G2 1 2 . All the axioms are satised, hence intersection of two topologies on X is also topology on X. Exercise 2. Give an example of the above example. Exercise 3. Show by an example that the union of two topologies on a same set X is not a topology on X. Denition 2. Let X be non-empty set and the class of all those subsets of X whose compliment is nite together with , is a topology on X called the Co-nite topology on X. Remark 1. Co-nite topology of a nite set is a discrete topology. Denition 3. Let (X, ) be a topological space and N be an open set of X, let p X then N is called an open Neighborhood of p if p N . And if p does not belongs to N then the set N \p is called Deleted open neighborhood of p. Example 5. Let X{a, b, c} and = {, X, {a}}. Since b X X is an open neighborhood of b. Also a X X, {a} are open neighborhood of a. Denition 4. Let (X, ) be a topological space and A X. Let p X, then p is called Limit or Accumulation Point of A i for every open set G such that p G, contains a point of A dierent from p. In other words (G {p}) A = Example 6. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X. Consider the set A = {a, b, c}, now

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1. a X, but there is no open set G(say) in X for which we have (G {a}) A = . Hence a is not a limit point of A. 2. b X, and since the open set containing b are {b, c, d, e} and X, and each contained a point of A dierent from b. 3. c X, and since the open set containing c are {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e} and X, but the open set {c, d} does not contained a point of A dierent from c. 4. d X, and since the open set containing d are {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e} and X and each contained a point of A dierent from d. 5. e X, and since the open set containing e are {b, c, d, e} and X, and each contained a point of A dierent from e. Denition 5. The set of all limit points of A X is called the Derived Set of A and is denoted by A . Example 7. In example 6. the derived set is {b, d, e}. Exercise 4. Let X = {a, b, c}, the collection = {, X, {a}} is a topology on X and A = {b, c} X, nd the derived set of A. Denition 6. Let (X, ) be a topological space and A X, then A is called Closed set of X if Ac is open. Remark 2. The empty set and the set X are both open and closed. Example 8. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X, then the closed subset of X are , X, {b, c, d, e}, {a, b, e}, {b, e}, {a}. Example 9. If (X, ) is a discrete topology then every subset of X is closed because compliment of all such subsets is open. Theorem 1. Let X be a topological space. Then the class of closed subsets of X possesses the following properties. 1. and X are closed sets. 2. The intersection of any number of closed sets is closed. 3. The union of any two closed sets is closed. Proof. 1. Since , X and and X are both open as well as closed.

2. Let {Ai } be the collection of members of then i Ai . i.e. i Ai is open. (union of open sets is open) Taking complement and using DeMorgans Law we get ( i Ai )c = i Ac is closed. i Ai is open i. Ac is closed i. i Hence intersection of any number of closed sets is closed.

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3. Let A, B implies A B . And since A, B then both A and B are open. Also since intersection of open sets is also open, so A B is open. Ac , B c and (A B)c are closed. (A B)c = Ac Bc

Union of any two closed sets is closed in (X, ). Hence the class of closed subsets of X possesses all the three properties describe in statement. Theorem 2. A subset A of a topological space X is closed i A contains each of its limit point. Proof. Assume that A is closed, then we are to show that A A. Let p be a limit point of A such that p A then p Ac . But Ac is open since A is closed. Hence p A for Ac is open set, such that p Ac and Ac (Ac {p}) A= A=

Which is a contradiction to the fact that p A. Thus A A if A is closed. Conversely. Now assume that A A, then we are to show that A is closed. For this, we show that Ac is open. Let p Ac then p A, so an open set G such that p G and (G {p}) But p A, hence G A= So G Ac . Thus p is an interior point of Ac and so Ac is open. A is closed. Denition 7. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. The closure of A is the intersection of all closed supersets of A. i.e. Closure of A is the smallest closed superset of A. Closure of a set A is denoted by A. Example 10. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X, nd {b}, {a, c}, {b, d}. Solution 1. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X, then the closed subset of X are , X, {b, c, d, e}, {a, b, e}, {b, e}, {a}. 1. For {b}, the closed supersets of {b} are X, {b, c, d, e}, {a, b, e}, {b, e}, now the intersection of all these closed supersets of {b} is {b, e} A=

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2. For {a, c}, the closed supersets of {a, c} is the only X, now the intersection of all these closed supersets of {a, c} is X 3. For {b, d}, the closed supersets of {b, d} are X, {b, c, d, e}, now the intersection of all these closed supersets of {b, d} is {b, c, d, e} Theorem 3. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then the closure of A is the union of A and its derived set. i.e. A=A A Proof. Let x A then x belongs to each closed superset of A, say F . Also we know that AA If x A then x A A . If x A then we are to show that x A . For this suppose that x A . Then an open set G containing x such that (G {x}) A=

i.e. G A= A Gc . Then F is a closed superset of A and then x F . This is a contradiction to the fact that x A. Therefore x A . Hence x A A . So, AA A (1)

Now let x A A , then x A or x A . If x A then clearly x A. AA If x A then x A , so we are to show that x A. i.e. x belongs to each closed superset of A. Assume that there is a closed superset F of A such that x F . Then x F c = G (an open set). Since x A , i.e. x is a limit point of A. So G A = F c A = G = Fc Which is a contradiction to the fact that A F . Accordingly x belongs to each closed superset of A. So x A, hence A A A From (1) and (2) we have A=A A

(2)

Exercise 5. Let A and B be the subsets of topological space (X, ), then (A Exercise 6. If A B then every limit point of A is also a limit point of B.

B) = A

B.

Denition 8. Let A X and p X, then p is called Closure Point of A i p A. by Azhar Hussain 7 Available at www.MathCity.org

Lecture Notes on

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Remark 3. From Theorem (3) a point p X is closure point of A X i p A or p A . Denition 9. A subset A of a topological space X is said to be Dense in X i A = X. Example 11. Consider the set Q of rational numbers. We know that R=Q Q (3)

Where Q is the set of irrational numbers. And since in the usual topology of R every real number a R is a limit point of Q, i.e. a Q . So Q=Q Q (4) Where Q is the set of irrational numbers and also the derived set of Q. Hence from (1) and9 (2) Q=R Denition 10. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. A point p A is called Interior Point A if there exist an open set G such that p G which contained in A. i.e. p G A where G is open. The set of interior points of A is called the interior of A and is denoted by int(A) or A . Example 12. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X and A = {b, c, d} is a subset of X, nd A . Solution 2. To nd the interior of A, we have to check b, c, d as interior points. 1. Since b A, and the open subsets containing b are X, and {b, c, d, e}, but b X A and also b {b, c, d, e} A, so b A . 2. Since c A, and the open subsets containing c are X, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, and {b, c, d, e}, and since c {c, d} A so c A . 3. Since d A, and the open subsets containing d are X, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, and {b, c, d, e}, and since d {c, d} A so d A . Theorem 4. Prove that for any set A and B we have 1. If A B then A B . 2. (A 3. A B) = A B (A B. B) .

Proof. 1. Consider the topology on X and let A, B X such that A B. We know that A A and B B, interior is the largest open set. A A B A B A is an open subset of B. But B is the largest open subset of B A B .

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2. We know that A B A and also A B B. And we know that if A B then A B , (A B) A and (A B) B (1) Now, A A and B B (A B) A B A B A B. A B is an open subset of A B, but (A B) is the union of all open subsets of A B. A B (A B) (2) From (1) and (2) A B = (A B)

3. We know that A A B and B A B And we know that if A B then A B . A (A B) and B (A B) A B (A B) . Proposition 1. Show that the interior of A is the union of all open subsets of A. Furthermore 1. A is open. 2. A is the largest open subset of A, i.e. if G is an open subset of A then G A A. 3. A is open i A = A . Proof. Let {Gi } be collection of all open subsets of A. If x A then by denition X belongs to an open subset set of A, i.e. there exist i0 such that x Gi0 . Since x Gi0 x i Gi , so A
i

Gi

(5)

Now let y i Gi , then there exist some i0 such that y Gi0 , where Gi0 A i.e. y Gi0 A (i.e. y is an interior point of A) y A Gi A
i

(6)

From (5) and (6) A =

Gi

i.e. the interior of A is the union of all open subsets of A. 1. Since A = i Gi A is the union of open sets. A is open since it is the union of open sets. 2. If G is an open subset of A then G {Gi } G i Gi G A A = i Gi But A A, so G A A.

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3. Let A is an open set then we show that A = A Now since A is an open subset of of itself and A is the largest open subset of A A A But A A So from (7) and (8) A = A Now let A = A then we show that A is open. And since A is open since it is the union of open subsets and also A = A A is open. (8) (7)

Denition 11. The interior of the compliment of A is called the Exterior of A and is denoted by ext(A) i.e. ext(A) = int(Ac ). Denition 12. The set of point which do not belongs to int(A) as well as ext(A) called the Boundary of a set A and is denoted by b(A). Example 13. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X and A = {b, c, d} is a subset of X, nd ext(A) and b(A). Solution 3. Since ext(A) = int(Ac ), so Ac = {a, e}. Now we will check a and e as interior points. 1. Since a Ac and the open set containing a are X, {a}, and {a, c, d}, and a {a} Ac a int(Ac ). 2. Since e Ac and the open set containing e are X, and {b, c, d, e}, but e X Ac and also e {b, c, d, e} Ac . e int(Ac ) So a is the only interior point of Ac . int(Ac ) = {a} = ext(A). Now, since the boundary of A consists of all such points which or neither in ext(A) nor in int(A), so b(A) = {b, e}. Example 14. Consider the set Q of rational numbers, nd int(Q), ext(Q) and b(Q). Solution 4. For int(Q): Let a Q and consider an open interval (b, c) where b and c are real numbers such that a (b, c). Now, a (b, c) Q a int(Q) And since a was arbitrary element. Q has no interior point. int(Q) = . For ext(Q): Since ext(Q) = int(Qc ) (1) where Qc is the set of irrational number. Now, let a Qc be an arbitray element and consider the open by Azhar Hussain 10 Available at www.MathCity.org

Lecture Notes on

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interval (b, c) where b and c are real numbers such that a (b, c). Now a (b, c) Qc a int(Qc ) And since a was arbitrary Qc has no interior point. int(Qc ) = = ext(Q) using(1)

For b(Q): Since exterior and interior both are empty so all real numbers belongs to the boundary of Q. i.e. b(Q) = R Theorem 5. Show that 1. A = A b(A).

2. A = A b(A). 3. A is closed i b(A) A. 4. A is both open and closed i b(A) = . Proof. 1. To prove A = A b(A). R.H.S. A b(A), and by denition of b(A), i.e. b(A) = A AC . A b(A) = A ( (A) Ac ). (A Ac ), A b(A) = (A A) by distributive law. (A Ac) =A A=A A =A X X = A Ac =A = L.H.S. 2. To prove that A = A b(A). R.H.S. A b(A) = A (A Ac ) b(A) = (A Ac ) c )c = A (A A A B = A Bc c = A (Ac (A)c ) By DeMorgens Law. c ) (A (Ac )c ) A b(A) = (A A (1) Now A Ac = A a and A (Ac )c = A So, (1) becomes A b(A) = A = A = L.H.S A b(A) = A 3. Suppose that A is closed then we show that b(A) A. Since A is closed then A = A and also A = A b(A). = A b(A) A A = A b(A) b(A) A. Now, if b(A) A then we show that A is closed. Since A = A b(A), and b(A) A then A=A A is closed. by Azhar Hussain 11 Available at www.MathCity.org

Lecture Notes on

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4. Case-I: A is open i b(A) = Suppose that A is open then we show that b(A) = . Since A = A b(A) and A = A A = A b(A) b(A) = Now, if b(A) = then we show that A is open. Since A = A b(A) = A A = A A is open. Case-II: A is closed i b(A) = Suppose that A is closed the we show that b(A). Since A = A A is closed, and also A = A b(A) = A b(A) A b(A) = Now, if b(A) = then we show that A is closed. Since A = A b(A) A = A A=A A is closed. Note 1. A subset A of a topological space X is said to be nowhere dense in X if the interior of closure of A is empty. i.e. int(A) = .
1 Example 15. Let A = {1, 2 , 1 , 1 , .........} is a subset of R. Prove that A is nowhere dense in R. 3 4 Solution: Let A R, where A = {1, 1 , 1 , 1 , .........}, then clearly 0 is the only limit point of A. 2 3 4 A = {0}. 1 Now, since A = A A = {1, 1 , 1 , 4 , .........} {0} 2 3 1 1 1 A = {0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , .........}. Now if we take take any element of A, e.g. 0 A, then by denition an open interval (r, r) such that 0 (r, r) A. Similarly, we can check all elements of A and we conclude that int(A) = So, A is nowhere dense in R

Example 16. Let A = {x : x Q 0 < x < 1}, then show that A is nowhere dense in R. Solution: Let A = {x : x Q 0 < x < 1}, then clearly int(A) = Now, A=A A A = (0, 1) {0, 1}

A = [0, 1] Now, int(A) = int([0, 1]) = (0, 1) = A is not nowhere dense in R. Denition 13. Let X be a topological space and o X. A subset N of X is a Neighborhood of p i an open set G such that pGN The class of neighborhood of p X is denoted by Np , and is called Neighborhood System of p. by Azhar Hussain 12 Available at www.MathCity.org

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Remark 4. The relation N is a Neighborhood of a point p is the inverse of the relation p is an interior point of p Example 17. State the neighborhood of a point a, where a R. And then for a complex number p. Solution: Let a be any real number, i.e. a R. Now for each a R there exist an open interval (a , a + ) such that a (a , a + ) [a , a + ] So each close interval with center [a , a + ] with center a is a neighborhood of a. And hence the intervals [a 2, a + 2], [a 3, a + 3], ....... are neighborhood of a. Similarly, if we take a point p on a complex plane R , then every closed disc {q R : d(p, q) < = 0} with center p is a neighborhood of p, since it contains the open disc with center p. Proposition 2. 1. N is not empty and p belongs to each member of N .

2. The intersection of any two members of N belongs to lN . 3. Every superset of a member of N belongs to N . 4. Each member N N is a superset of a member G N where G is a neighborhood of if each of its points, i.e. G N for every g G. Proof. 1. since N is the class of all neighborhood of p X. So it cannot be empty and p N N N is obvious by denition. 2. Let N = {Gp : p X GP is n.hood of p} Let p Gp and p Hp then p Gp Hp N . So it is clear that Gp Hp is open or close neighborhood of p according as Gp and Hp is open or closed respectively. 3. Every superset of each member of N belongs to N . As Gp Hp N and Hp Kp N and the largest superset is superset of itself. i.e. for Kp being largest superset Kp Kp N 4. N N is a superset of G N is clear. As pGN and G is a neighborhood of each of its point is clear as pGGpG G is a neighborhood of p p G.

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Denition 14. Let X be a topological space and (a1 , a2 , a3 , .......) be a sequence of points of X, now this sequence < an > is said to be converges to a point b X, or in other words b is a limit point of < an >, i.e. lim an = b
n

i for each open set G containing b a positive integer n0 N such that n > n0 an G , i.e. if G contains almost all, i.e. all except a nite number of the terms of the sequence. Example 18. Let (a1 , a2 , a3 , .......) be a sequence of points in indiscrete topological space (X, ). Find out the point b in X such that sequence converges to b. Solution: Let (a1 , a2 , a3 , .......) be a sequence of points in indiscrete topological space (X, ).i.e. = {X, }. X is the only set containing any point b X. Also X contains every term of the sequence (an ). Hence the sequence (a1 , a2 , a3 , .......) converges to every point b X. Denition 15. Let 1 and 2 be two topologies on a non-empty set X. Now, suppose that each member of 1 is also a member of 2 , i.e. 1 2 Then we say 1 is Coarser,smaller or weaker than 2 or 2 is Finer, longer or smaller than 1 . Example 19. Let X = {a, b}, and let D = {X, , {a}, {b}} be discrete topology, I = {X, } be indiscrete topology and = {X, , {a}} is any other topology then observe that the topology is coarser than D and ner than I. i.e. D I Denition 16. Let (X, ) be a topological space and A be any non-empty subset of X. Now,the collection A obtained by taking the intersection of A with the members of denes a topology on A, we call this Relative topology on A, and the topological space (A, A ) is called the subspace of (X, ). In other words a subset H of A is A -open set, i.e.open relative to A, i a -open subset G of X such that H=G A Example 20. Let X = {a, b, c, d, e}, and = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} be a topology on X and A = {a, d, e} is a subset of X, then nd the topology relative to A. Solution: Since = {, X, {a}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d, e}} and A = {a, d, e}, now taking the intersection of A with the members of we get X A = A, A = , {a} = {a}, {c, d} A = {d}, {a, c, d} A = {a, d}, {b, c, d, e} A = {d, e} So, we write the resultant in a collection A = {A, , {a}, {d}, {a, d}, {d, e}, } and clearly this collection forms a topology on A.

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2
2.1

Base for a Topology

We can dene a Base for a topology in two ways as 1. A Base for a topology on X is the class B1 of open subsets of X such that every element of is the union of members of B1 . 2. Let X be any set, a basis for a topology on X is the class B2 of open subsets of X such that (a) For every element x X there is at least one element in B2 say B1 for which x B1 . (b) If x belongs to B1 and B2 such that B1 , B2 B2 then B3 B2 containing x such that B3 B1 B2 . If the collection B2 satises the above two conditions then we can dene a topology on X generated by B2 as follows; A subset G of X is said to be open in X (i.e. an element of ) if for every element g G we have an element B of B2 such that such that g B and B G. Note that each basis element is itself an element of . Now we show that the above two denitions for basis of a topology are equivalent. i.e. We show that the basis dene above generates the same topology. i.e. B1 = B2 For this, we will show that B1 is a subset of B2 and B2 is a subset of B1 . Case-I: First, we show that B1 B2 . For this consider an open set G of (X, ). By 1st denition we have some elements Ai of B1 such that there union is the entire G. i.e. Ai = G
i

Hence each Ai is a subset of G. Now, every point g G is contained at least one of the Ai s and so each of them is a subset of G. As for g G we have g {g} G. Finally, since every element of X belongs to at least one element of (call it G) (this because of X ) and since G is the union of members of B1 , so by above argument there exists an element of B1 which contained that point and is a subset of G. That is, for some Ai B1 such that g Ai G Hence every such Ai B1 is an element of B2 , and since G was arbitrary so this all holds for all elements of to access all the elements of B1 and so B1 B2 (9)

Case-II: Now we prove B2 B1 . For this, suppose that G is an open set and let g G then by 2nd denition there exists an element Bi (for some i) of B2 such that g Bi G (for some i). And since g was arbitrary so this all holds for each g G. Now, taking union of all such elements of B2 we get Bi = G f or each i
i

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Hence all such Bi s satisfy the condition for being in B1 w.r.t the open set G. And since G was arbitrary, all above holds for every G , and hence we can prove for all elements of B2 . And so every element of B2 is also an element of B1 , so B2 B1 So from (9) and (10) we get B1 = B2 Example 21. Let X = {a, b, c, d} be a topological space and consider the class B = {X, , {b}, {d}, {b, c}, {a, b}} of subsets of X, show that B form a base for a topology. Solution: Since B = {X, , {b}, {d}, {b, c}, {a, b}} be the class of subsets of X. Now taking the union of members of B we get = {X, , {b}, {d}, {b, d}, {b, c}, {a, b}, {a, b, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, c}} which is clearly denes a topology on X generated by the class B and it is called base for . Exercise 7. Apply the 2nd denition on the above example and nd the topology. Remark 5. : 1. The class of all open intervals on the real line R form a base for the usual topology on the real line. 2. The class of all open discs on the plane R2 form a base for the usual topology on the plane R2 . 3. The class of all singletons of a set form a base for the discrete topology. Theorem 6. Let B be a class of subsets of a non-empty set X. Then B is a base for some topology on X i it possesses the following properties. 1. X = {B : B B} B2 then B3 B (10)

2. For any B1 , B2 B, B1 B2 is the union of members of B or if x B1 such that x B3 B1 B2 .

Proof. Suppose that B is the base for some topology on X. Since X and are open then X is the union of members of B. i.e. X = {B : B B}, so (1) is satised. Now let B1 , B2 B, then B1 , B2 are open therefore B1 B2 is also open. Now, x B1 B2 , then by denition of base there is B3 B such that x B3 B1 B2

Conversely: Suppose for a class B of subsets of X condition (1) and (2) holds, then we are to show that B is the base for some topology on X. Let be the collection of subsets of X obtained by taking union of members of B, we are to show that is a topology.

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1. From (1), X = {B : B B}, and by denition is the empty sub-collection of members of B i.e. = {B B : B B}, hence . 2. Let Gi be the collection of members of then each Gi is the union of members of B. Then i Gi is also the union of members of B. i.e. i Gi . 3. Let G, H , then we show that G H . For this, let {Gi : i I} and {Hj : j I} be two families of members of B such that G=
i

Gi and H =
j

Hj

Then H = ( i Gi ) ( j Hj ) = {Gi Hj : i I j I} By (2), Gi Hj is the union of members of B i, j. Then G H = {Gi Hj : i I j I} is also the union of members of B and so belongs to . Hence is a topology on X w.r.t the base B. G

Denition 17. Let (X, ) be a topological space, a class S of open subsets of X, (i.e. S ) is a subbase for on X i nite intersection of members of S form a base for . Then S is called Subbase for . Example 22. Every open interval (a, b) in the real line R is the intersection of two innite open intervals (a, ) and (, b) (a, b) = (a, ) (, b) But the open intervals form a base for the usual topology on R, hence class S of all innite open intervals form a subbase. Example 23. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and S = {{a, b}{b, c}{d}} be the class of subsets of X. Now, by taking the nite intersection of members of S we have B = {{a, b}, {b, c}, {d}, {b}, , X}, hereX = {B : B B}

Now we show that B is a base. For this, taking union of members of B we get = {{a, b}, {b, c}, {d}, {b}, , X, {a, b, d}, {b, c, d}, {b, d}, {a, b, c}} which is a topology on X. So, B is a base for and S is the subbase for on X. Theorem 7. Any class A of subsets of a non-empty set X is the subbase for a unique topology on X. i.e. Finite intersection of members of A form a base for a topology on X. Proof. We show that the nite intersection of members of A satised the two conditions. i.e. to be a base for a topology on X. 1. X = {B : B B} 17 Available at www.MathCity.org

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2. B1

B2 is the union of members of B for B1 , B2 B

X will be the empty intersection of A and so X B and so X= {B : B B} B2 is also a nite

If B1 , B2 B then B1 and B2 are nite intersection of members of A. So B1 intersection of members of A and there fore belongs to B. Accordingly, B is a base for topology on X for which A is a subbase.

Theorem 8. Let A be the class of non-empty subsets of X. Then the topology on X generated by A is the intersection of all topologies on X which contains A. Proof. Let A be collection of subsets of X and {i } be the class of topologies on X which contained A, and let = i and A
i

we wish to prove that = . Since is a topology containing A, and is the intersection of all such topologies so we have Now suppose G then by denition of topology we have G= {Ai1 Ai2 ......... Ain : Aik A} (12) (11)

But A Aik A Aik {Ai1 Ai2 ......... Ain } G = {Ai1 Ai2 ......... Ain } From (12) and (13) From (11) and (14) = (13)

Denition 18. Let X be a topological space and let p X. A class Bp of open subsets of X containing p is called a local base at p i for each open set G containing p, Gp Bp such that p Gp G. Example 24. Consider the usual topology ??12) on the plane R2 , and let p R2 . Then the collection of all open discs with centered p is a local base at p. Similarly, the class of open intervals (a , a + ) in the real line with centered a R is a local base at he point a. Proposition 3. A point p in a topological space X is a limit point of A X i each member of some local base Bp at p contains a point of A dierent from p. by Azhar Hussain 18 Available at www.MathCity.org

Lecture Notes on

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Proof. Suppose that p is a limit point of A, i.e. (G {p}) where p G G. But Bp , so in particular (B {p}) A= A=

for all B Bp . Conversely: Suppose that there is some local base Bp at p such that each member of Bp contains a point of A dierent from p. We are to show that p is a limit point. For this, let G be an open subset of X that contains p. Then B0 Bp for which p B0 G. But then (G {p}) A (B0 {p}) A = So (G {p}) A = , which implies that p is a limit point of A. Theorem 9. Let S be a subbase for a topological space Y . Then a function f : X Y is continuous i the inverse of each member of S is an open subset of X. Proof. Let S be a subbase for any topology on Y and let for every S S we have f 1 [S] . We are to show that f is continuous. i.e. for G f 1 [G] . Let G then by denition of subbase G = (Si1 Si2 ....... Sin )
i

where Sik S. Hence f 1 [g] = f 1 [i (Si1 Si2 ....... Sin )] = i f 1 [Si1 Si2 ....... Sin ] = i (f 1 [Si1 ] f 1 [Si2 ] ........ f 1 [Sin ]) But Sik S f 1 [Sik ] . Hence f 1 [G] . Since it is the union of nite intersection of open sets. Accordingly f is continuous. Conversely Suppose that f is continuous then the inverse of all open sets including the members of S is open. Theorem 10. A function f : X Y is continuous i the inverse image of every closed subset of Y is closed in X. Proof. Suppose f : X Y is continuous. Let F Y be closed. Then F c = Y F is open in Y . Since f is continuous so f 1 [F c ] = f 1 [Y F ] = f 1 [Y ] f 1 [F ] But f 1 [Y ] = X, so f 1 [F c ] = X f 1 [F ] is open in X, which implies that f 1 [F ] is closed. Conversely Assume that the inverse image of every closed subset of Y is closed in X. We prove that f is continuous. Let G Y be open then Gc = Y G is closed and by assumption f 1 [Y G] = f 1 [Y ] f 1 [G] = X f 1 [G] i.e. X f 1 [G] closed in X. f 1 [G] is closed in X. Hence f is continuous. by Azhar Hussain 19 Available at www.MathCity.org

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References 1. General Topology, Schaums outline series. 2. James R. Munkers, Topology(second addition), Pearson Prentice Hall,Inc.2006 3. Sheldon W. Davis, Topology, The McGraw Hill companies 2005 4. Notes on Introductory Point set Topology by Allen Hatcher. 5. Notes on Topology by Keith Jones. 2005 6. Jesper M.Moller, General Topology.

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