TOPOLOGY

UNIT-I
TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
CHAPTER-2:
Topological Spaces and continuous function.
Section 2.1:
Topological Spaces.
Topological Space (Definition):
A topology on a set X is a collection 𝑟 of subsets of X having the
following properties
i. 𝜙 and X are in 𝑟.
ii. The union of the elements of any subcollection of 𝑟 is in 𝑟.
iii. The intersection of the elements of any sub collection of 𝑟 is in 𝑟.

A set of X for which a topology 𝑟 has been specified is called a topological

space.
Properly, A topological space is an ordered pair (X, 𝑟) consisting of a set X
and a topology 𝑟 on X.
If X is a topological space with topology 𝑟, we say that a subset U of X is an
open set of X if U belongs to the collection 𝑟.
Using this terminology, one can say that a topological space is a set X
together with a collection of subsets of X, called open sets, subset 𝜙 and X are
both open, and such that arbitrary unions and finite intersection of open sets are
open.
Example 1:
Find the topology on X= {a, b, c}.
ℙ(X) = { 𝜙,{a},{b},{a,b}}
𝑟={ 𝜙, 𝑋}
𝑟1={ 𝜙, 𝑋, {𝑎}, {𝑏, 𝑐}}
𝑟2={ 𝜙, 𝑋, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑏}}.
The diagram in the upper right hand corner indicates the topology in which the
open sets are X, 𝜙,{a,b},{b} and {b,c}.
The topology in the upper left hand corner contains only X and 𝜙 , while the
topology in the lower right hand corner contains every subset of X. The other
topologies on X are obtained by permuting a, b and c.
From this example we can see that even a three element set has different
topologies.
But not every collection of subsets of X is a topology on X, neither of a
collection indicated in the figure is a topology, for instance.

Example 2:
 If X is any set, the collection of all subsets of X is a topology on X; it
is called the Discrete Topology.
 The collection consisting of X and 𝜙 is also a topology on X: we shall
call it the Indiscrete topology or the trivial topology.
Finite Complement Topology (Definition):
Let X be a set. Let 𝑟𝑓 be the collection of all subsets U of X such that
X-U either is finite or is all of X. Then 𝑟𝑓 is a topology on X, called the finite
Complement topology or Countable complement of topology.
𝑟= {U/ X-U is either finite or all of X}.
X-U=X ⟹ 𝑈 = 𝜙, 𝜙𝜖𝑟
X-X= 𝜙 ⟹ 𝑋 𝜖 𝑟
Both X and 𝜙 are in 𝑟𝑓 since X – X is finite and X - 𝜙 is all of X.
If {𝑈𝛼}is an indexed collection of elements of 𝑟𝑓, to show that 𝖴 𝑈𝛼 is in 𝑟𝑓
We compute
Let X-𝖴 𝑈𝛼 =∩ (X-𝑈𝛼)
Since each (X-𝑈𝛼) is finite, ∩ (X-𝑈𝛼)𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒. Therefore 𝖴 𝑈𝛼 is in 𝑟𝑓
If 𝑈1,𝑈2, … . . 𝑈𝑛 are non empty elments of 𝑟𝑓.
𝑛
X- 𝑖= 𝑈𝑖 =⋃𝑛 (𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖)
1
⋂ 𝑖=1
As finite union of finite sets(𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖) is finite, X-
⋂𝑛 𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 is finite. i.e 𝑈𝑖 is
⋂𝑛 𝑖=1
in 𝑟𝑓

Countable (Definition):
A set is countable if it is either finite or countably infinite. A set A is
countably infinite if there exists a bijective mapping from 𝑍+ toA.
Uncountable:
A set that is not countable is called uncountable.
Countable complement Topology:
Let X be a set, let 𝑟𝑓 be the collection of all subset U of X such that X-U either
is countable or is all of X. Then 𝑟𝑓 is a topology on X called countable
complement topology.

Comparable topologies
Suppose that 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ are two topologies on a given set X. Then we say
that 𝑟 is comparable with 𝑟′ if either 𝑟 ′ ⊃ 𝑟 or 𝑟 ⊃ 𝑟 ′
Example:
Let X= {1,2,3}
ℙ(X)= { 𝜙, X,{1} ,{2},{3}, {1,2},{2,3},{3,1}}.
𝑟 = {{1},{3},{1,3}, 𝜙, X}
𝑟′= {{1},{3},{1,3},{2,3}, 𝜙, X}.
𝑟 ⊆ 𝑟′
Therefore is comparable with 𝑟′.
Not Comparable
Suppose that 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ are two topologies on a given set X. Then we say
that 𝑟 is not comparable with 𝑟 ′ if either 𝑟 ′ ⊅ 𝑟 or 𝑟 ⊅ 𝑟′.
Example:
Let X={a,b,c}.
ℙ(X)={ 𝜙,X,{a},{b},{c},{a,b},{b,c}}
𝑟 = {𝜙 , X,{a}, {b, c}}
𝑟 ′ ={ 𝜙,X,{a},{b},{a,b}}
𝑟 ′ ⊄ 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ′ ⊅ 𝑟 .
𝑟 is not comparable with 𝑟′.
Coarser Topology
Suppose that 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ are two topologies on a given set X. If 𝑟′ ⊃ 𝑟.
we say that 𝑟′ is finer than 𝑟.
If 𝑟 ′ is properly contains 𝑟, we say that 𝑟 ′ is strictly finer than 𝑟 we also say that
𝑟 is coarser than 𝑟′, or strictly coarser.
Example:
Let X={p, q, r}
ℙ(X)= { 𝜙,X,{p},{q},{r},{p,q},{q,r},{p,r}}
𝑟 = { 𝜙,X,{p},{q},{p,q}}
𝑟′={ 𝜙,X,{p},{q},{p,q},{q,r}}.
𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 ′ ⇒ 𝑟 is coarser than 𝑟′.
Definition:
Let X be any set, Let 𝑟𝑐 be the collection of all subsets U of X such
that X-U is either is countable or is all of X.
𝑟𝑐= {U/X-U is either countable or all of X}
Proof:
 i. 𝑟𝑐= {U∈ 𝑋/X-U is a countable or X-U=X}
X-𝜙=X ⟹ 𝜙 ∈ 𝑟𝑐
X-X= 𝜙 is countable set.
⟹ 𝜙, 𝑋 ∈ 𝑟𝑐
ii. Let {𝑈𝛼}be a indexed family of element of 𝑟𝑐.
𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝑟𝑐 ⟹ 𝑋 − 𝑈𝛼 is countable or X-𝑈𝛼 = 𝑋.
Claim(i):
U𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝑟𝑐.
X- (U𝑈𝛼)=⋂𝛼∈𝐼(𝑋 − 𝑈𝛼) [Demorgen’s law]
=is either countable or all of
X.
⟹U𝑈𝛼 ∈ 𝑟𝑐.
iii. Let {𝑈1, 𝑈 2 ,… … 𝑈𝑛} be nonempty element of 𝑟𝑐.

Claim: 𝑈𝑖 ∈ 𝑟 𝑐
𝑖=1
⋂𝑛
𝑛
X- 𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 )=⋃𝑖=1(𝑋 − 𝑈𝑖)
(⋂ 𝑛

= is countable set.
Therefore 𝑖=1 𝑈𝑖 ∈ 𝑟𝑐.
⋂𝑛
𝑟𝑐 is a topology on X. This is called Countable Complement Topology.

Basis for the Topology:

If X is a set, a basis for a topology on X, is a collection B of
subsets of X (called basis element) such that
1. For each x∈X there is atleast one basis element B containing x.
2. If x belongs to the intersection of two basis elements 𝐵1𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐵2,
then there is a basis element 𝐵3 containing x such that 𝐵3 ⊆ 𝐵1
∩
𝐵2

A Topology 𝑟 generated by B:
If the basis B satisfies the above two conditions. Then we defined
the topology 𝑟 generated by B as follows,
A subset U of X is said to be an open in X (ie, to be an element of
𝑟) if for each x∈ U there is a basis element B∈ 𝑩 such that x∈ 𝐵 & B⊆ 𝑈.
Note that every basis element is itself an element of 𝑟.
Result : The collection 𝑟 generated by the basis 𝑩 is a topology on X.
Proof:
Let U be an empty set. Then U is an Open set.
Therefore 𝜙 ∈ 𝑟.
For each x ∈ X there is a basis element B ∈ 𝑩 such that x ∈ 𝐵 and B⊂ X.
Hence X ∈ 𝑟
Let {𝑈𝛼}where 𝛼 ∈ 𝐽 be elemens of
𝑟. To show that
U =⋃𝛼∈𝑐 𝑈𝛼 belongs to 𝑟.
Given x∈ 𝑈 there is an index 𝛼 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈𝛼.
Since 𝑈𝛼 is open, there is a basis element B such that x∈ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈𝛼 then x∈ 𝐵 and
B⊂ U, so that U is open.
Now consider two elements 𝑈1&𝑈2 of 𝑟
TO PROVE:
𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 belongs to 𝑟
Given x ∈ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2
This implies that x ∈ 𝑈1& 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈2
Choose a basis 𝐵1 containing x ∋ 𝐵1 ⊂ 𝑈1
Choose also a basis 𝐵2 containing x ∋ 𝐵2 ⊂ 𝑈2
⟹ 𝐵1 ⊂ 𝑈1 & 𝐵2 ⊂ 𝑈2
⟹ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2 & 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2
Choose a basis a element 𝐵3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 x ∋ 𝐵3 ⊂ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2.
Then x∈ 𝐵1 ∩ 𝐵2 ⊂ 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2.
So 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 belongs to 𝑟 ( by definition)
Finally we show that by induction that any finite intersection 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 … … .∩ 𝑈𝑛
of elements of 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟
The fact is trivial for n=1. Suppose we assume that this fact is true for n-1.
Now 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 … … .∩ 𝑈𝑛=(𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 … … .∩ 𝑈𝑛−1) ∩ 𝑈𝑛
By hypothesis, (𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 … … .∩ 𝑈𝑛−1) belongs to 𝑟
By the proof of n=2 the intersection of (𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 … … .∩ 𝑈𝑛−1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈𝑛 belongs
to 𝑟.
Therefore the collection of open sets generated by the basis form a topology on
X.
EXAMPLE 1:
Let 𝑩 be the collection of all circular regions in the plane. Then 𝑩
satisfies both conditions of a basis.
EXAMPLE 2:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑩 be the collection of all rectangular regions in the plane, where the
rectangles have sides parallel to co-ordinate axes . Then 𝑩 satisfies both
conditions of a basis.
EXAMPLE 3:
If X is any set the collection of all one point subsets. Let X in a basis for
the discrete topology on X.
Lemma 2:
Statement: Let X be a set; Let B be a basis for a topology 𝑟 on X. Then
𝑟 equals the collection of all union of elements of B.
PROOF:
Let 𝑟 be the topology generated by basis B and let 𝐵′ be the collection of
all union of elements of B.
Claim:
𝑟 = 𝐵′
By the definition of basis, B ∈ 𝑟 for all B∈ B.
By the definition of topology all union of all elements of B is in 𝑟.
ie., every element of 𝐵′ ∈ 𝑟
∴ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝑟 (1)
Conversely,
Let U ∈ 𝑟 then by definition, for each x∈ 𝑈 there exist 𝐵𝑥 ∈ 𝑩 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝑥 ⊆ 𝑈
Now, U=⋃𝑥∈𝑈 𝐵𝑥 ∈ 𝐵′
⟹ 𝑟 ⊆ 𝐵′

(2) From (1) & (2)

𝑟 = 𝐵′
Hence the lemma.
Equivalence condition for a topology 𝑟′ to be finer than 𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑋.
Statement:

PROOF:
(1) ⟹ (2)
Assume that 𝑟′ is finer than 𝑟.
Let x ∈ 𝑋 and B∈ 𝑩 with x∈ 𝐵. Now B ∈ 𝑟 ⟹ 𝐵 ∈ 𝑟′
By the definition 𝑟 ′ (𝑟 ′ is the topology generated by 𝐵1 ) there exist 𝐵1 ∈ 𝐵′
such that x∈ 𝐵′ ⊂ 𝐵.
(2) ⟹ (1)
Assume for x ∈ 𝑋 and each basis element B∈ 𝑩 containing x, there is a basis
element𝐵1 ∈ 𝐵′ such that x∈ 𝐵′ ⊂ 𝐵.
Let U∈ 𝑟( 𝑟 is the topology generated by B)
Therefore for every x∈ 𝑈 there exist x∈ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈.
By (2) there exist 𝐵′ ∈ 𝐵 such that x∈ 𝐵′ ⊂ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑈.
x∈ 𝐵′ ⊂ 𝑈
⟹U∈ 𝑟 ′ (𝑟′ is the topology generated by 𝐵 ′ )
⟹ 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟′
Hence the lemma.
Lemma :
Statement: Let (X, 𝑟) be a topological space. Suppose that 𝑪 is a collection of
open sets of X such that for each x in X and each open set U of X, there is an
element C of 𝑪 such that x∈C⊂ 𝑈. Then 𝑪 is a basis for the topology of X.
PROOF:
TO PROVE: 𝑪 is a basis.
Given x∈ 𝑋, since X itself is an open set, By hypothesis,
For each x∈ 𝑋 there exist C of 𝑪 such that x∈C ⊆ X.
This proves first condition of basis.
Let x∈ 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2. since 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are open in X, 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 is also open.
Applying the hypothesis to 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐶2 there exist 𝐶3 ∈ 𝑪 such that x ∈ 𝐶3 ⊆ 𝐶1 ∩
𝐶2
Thus second condition of basis is satisfied.
Hence C is a basis.
TO PROVE:
The topology 𝑟 of X for which 𝑪 is a basis and the topology 𝑟′ generated
by 𝑪 are one and the same.
ie., 𝑟 = 𝑟′
Let U ∈ 𝑟. By definition of the basis 𝑪, for every x∈U there exist C ∈ 𝑪 such
that x∈ C ⊆U.
⟹ 𝑈 ∈ 𝑟 ′ ( By definition of topology generated by basis)
⟹ 𝑟 ⊆ 𝑟′

(1) Conversely,
Let W∈ 𝑟 ′ then W= 𝖴C∈𝐶C (by previous lemma). Since each C∈ 𝑟 and 𝑟 is a
topology, 𝖴C∈𝐶 C∈ 𝑟 ie., W ∈ 𝑟
⟹ 𝑟′ ⊆ 𝑟

(2) From (1)&(2)

𝑟 = 𝑟′
Hence the lemma.

EXAMPLE 4:
The collection B of all circular regions in the planes generates the same
topology as the collection 𝐵′ of all rectangular regions.
PROOF:
Let 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟′ be the topologies generated B and 𝐵′ respectively.
For every x ∈ RxR with x∈ B there exist 𝐵′ such that x∈ 𝐵′ ⊆ 𝐵.
∴ 𝑟 ⊆ 𝑟′ (1)
For every X∈ B⊆ 𝐵′.
∴ 𝑟 ′ ⊆ 𝑟---------------(2)
From (1) & (2) 𝑟 = 𝑟′
Hence the proof.
STANDARD TOPOLOGY:
If 𝑩 is a collection of all open intervals in the real line.
(a,b)={x / a< x < b},
the topology generated by B is called the Standard Topology on real line.
LOWER LIMIT TOPOLOGY:
If B' is a collection of all half open intervals of the form
[a,b) = {x ϵ R/a ≤ x < b}
where a<b the topology generated by B' is called lower limit topology on R.
when R is given lower limit topology we denote it by Rl.
K-TOPOLOGY:
Let K denote the set of all numbers of the form 1/n for n ϵ Z+
Let B'' be the collection of all open intervals [a,b) along with all sets
of the form (a,b)-K
i.e, B'' = {(a,b)/a,b ϵ R} 𝖴 {(a,b) – K / a,b ϵ R}
the topology generated by B'' is called K-topology on R.
When R is given this topology, we denote it by Rk.
LEMMA : The lower limit topology 𝑟' on R is strictly finer than the standard
topology 𝑟.
PROOF:
Let 𝑟, 𝑟 ', 𝑟 '' be the topologies of R, Rl, Rk respectively and B, B', B''
be their respective bases.
(i) 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 ' (𝑟′𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑟)
Let x ϵ R such that x ϵ (a,b). Then x ϵ [x,b) ⊂ [a,b].
Therefore 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 '.
(ii) 𝑟 ⊈ 𝑟 ' (𝑟′𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑟)
Given the basis element [x,d) there exists no (a,b) such that
x ϵ (a,b) ⊂[x,d)
Therefore 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 '.
(iii) 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 ′′
Given a basis element (a,b) of 𝑟 and a point x ϵ (a,b). This same
interval is a basis element for 𝑟″, that contain x.
 (iv) 𝑟 ′′ is strictly finer than 𝑟
Consider the basis element (-1,1) - K of 𝑟 ′′, 0 ϵ (-1,1) – K.
There exists no (a,b) such that 0 ϵ (a,b) ⊂ (-1,1) – K.
Therefore 𝑟 ′′ is strictly finer than 𝑟
Therefore 𝑟 ⊂ 𝑟 ′′ hence proved.
DEFINITION:
A subbasis S for a topology on X is a collection of subsets of X
whose union equals X.
The topology generated by the subbasis S is defined to be the
collection 𝑟 of all unions of finite intersections of elements of S.
To verify the topology generated by the subbasis S is in fact topology for this it
is enough to prove the collection B of all finite intersection of elements of S is
the basis.

PROOF:
Given x ϵ X.
=>x ϵ S where S ϵ S
=>xϵ B where B ϵ B
Let x ϵ B1 ∩ B2.
Then let B1 = S1 ∩ S2 ∩..........∩ Sn.
B2 = S1' ∩ S2' ∩...........∩ Sm'.
Now,
x ϵ B1 ∩ B2 = ( S1 ∩ S2 ∩ ……. ∩ Sn ) ∩ (S1' ∩ S2' ∩ ……. ∩ S '. )
m 1

ϵB
x ϵ B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2
Now the union of all elements of B is a topology.
THE ORDER TOPOLOGY:
ORDER SET:
A set with simple order relation is called an ordered set.
ORDER RELATION:
A relation ⊂ on a set A is called an order relation ( or a simple order or
a linear order ) if it has the following properties.
(i) Comparability:
For every x and y in A for which x ≠ y either x ⊂ y or y ⊂ x.
(ii) Non-Reflexivity:
For no x in A the relation x ⊂ x holds.
(iii) Transitivity:
If x ⊂ y and y ⊂ z then x ⊂ z.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the relation on the Real line consisting of all pairs (x, y) of all
real numbers such that x < y, it is an order relation called the usual order
relation on the real line .
(i) and (ii) exist => strictly partially ordered.

INTERVALS OF THE ORDERED SET:

Le X be a set having a simple order relation < .Given elements a & b of
X such that a < b, there are 4 subsets of X that are called the intervals of the
ordered set a and b. They are the following properties:
(a,b) = {x/ a < x < b}
[a,b) = {x/ a ≤ x < b}
(a,b] = {x/ a < x ≤ b}
[a,b] = {x/ a ≤ x ≤ b}
A set of the type (a,b) is called an open interval in X and the set of the
type [a,b] is closed interval in X and the other two types [a,b),(a,b] are called
half open intervals.

EXAMPLE:
Let X ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Define < relation in X
Consider, (X,<) the ordered
set (3,7) = {x/3<x<7}
 = {4,5,6}.
[3,7] = {x/3≤x≤7}
= {3,4,5,6,7}.
[3,7) = {x/3≤x<7}
= {3,4,5,6}.
(3,7] = {x/3<x<7}
= {4,5,6,7}.
ORDERED TOPOLOGY:
Let X be a set with a simple order relation.
Assume X has more than one element. B be the collecion of all sets of
the following types:
(i) All open intervals (a,b) in X.
(ii) All intervals of the form [ao,b] where ao is the smallest element
(if any) of X.
(iii) All intervals of the form (a,bo] where bo is the largest element (if
any) of X.
The collection B is a basis for a topology on X which is the ordered
topology.
NOTE:
(i) If X has no smallest element there are no sets of type (ii).
(ii)If X has no largest element then there are no sets of type
(iii).
RESULT:
The above collection of sets B is a basis.
PROOF:
(i) Let x ϵ X
If x is the smallest element of X, then x lies in all sets of type (ii).
If x is the largest element of X, then x lies in all sets of type
(iii).
If X is neither the smallest nor the largest element of X then
x lies in a set of type (i).
Thus x ϵ X => B ϵ B such that x ϵ B.
 (ii) The intersection of any two sets of the three types maintained above
is again a set of one of those types hence if x ϵ B1 ∩ B2, there exist
B3 such that x ϵ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2.
Hence B is a Basis.

EXAMPLE 1:
The standard topology on R is just the ordered topology derived from
the usual order “ < “ on R.

EXAMPLE 2 :
Consider the set R x R in the dictionary order.
Let us denote the general element of R x R by x x y to avoid difficulty
with notation.
The dictionary order in R x R is defined as a x b < c x d if a<c
or if a = c then b < d.
Consider B which is the collection of all open intervals of the form
(axb, cxd).
Note that R x R has neither the largest nor the smallest elements.
Now B generates a topology called a ordered topology on R x R.
These two types of interavals are indicated in figure.
The subcollection consisting of only intervals of the second type is also
a basis for the order topology on R x R.

EXAMPLE 3:
The positive intergers Z+ form an ordered set with a smallest element 1.
 Z+ ={1,2,3,.............}
The basis for the ordered topology is all open intervals of the form (a,b)
and all half open iontervals of the form [1,c).
The ordered topology on Z+ is a discrete topology, for every one point set
is open.
If n>1 then the one point set {n} = (n-1,
n+1). If n =1, the one point set {1}
=[1,2).
EXAMPLE 4:
The set X= {1,2} x Z+ in the dictionary order is an ordered set with the
smallest element.
Denoting 1 x n by an and 2 x n by bn, we can represent X by
X = {a1,a2,…… b1,b2,.......}
The ordered topology on X is not a discrete topology.
Most one points sets are open,but there is an expection- the one point
set {b1}. For, any open set containing b1 must contain a basis element about b1
and any basis element containing b1 contains points of the ai sequence.
RAYS:
If X is an ordered set and a is an element of X there are subsets of X
called rays, determined by a.
These are following:
(a,∞) = {x/a < x}
(-∞,a) = {x/a > x}
[a,∞) = {x/a ≤ x}
(-∞,a] = {x/a ≥ x}
The open rays in X are open sets in the ordered topology.
If X has largest element, say “ bo”, then (a,∞] = (ao, bo].
If X has no largest element, then
(a,∞) = Union of all basis element of the form (a,x).
(i.e), (a,∞) = 𝖴 a<x,xϵX. (a,x)
Similarly if X possess the smallest element , say “ ao”, then
(-∞,a) = [ao, a).
If X does not possess a smallest element, then
 (-∞,a) = 𝖴x<a (x,a).
REMARK:
The open rays form a subbasis for the ordered topology on X.

PRODUCT TOPOLOGY ON X x Y
DEFINITION:
Let X and Y be topological spaces the product topology on X x Y is
the topology having as basis the collection B of all sets of the form,
B = { U x V / U is an open subset of X,
V is an open subset of Y}
To verify
that:
B = { U x V / U is an open subset of X,
V is an open subset of Y} is a basis.
(i) Let (x,y) ϵ X x Y. Since X is open in X, Y is open in
Y X x Y is itself a basis element.
Thus (x,y) ϵ X x Y ϵ B .
(ii) Let (x,y) ϵ B1 ∩ B2 ϵ B
where B1 = U1 x V1 and B2 = U2 x V2
(x,y) ϵ (U1 x V1) ∩ (U2 x V2)
But ( U1 x V1) ∩ (U2 x V2) = (U1 ∩ U2) x ( V1 ∩ V2)
Therefore (x,y) ϵ ( U1 ∩ U2) x ( V1 ∩ V2)
where ( U1 ∩ U2) is open subset in X and ( V1 ∩ V2 ) is open subset in Y.
Thus (x,y) ϵ (U1 ∩ U2) x (V1 ∩ V2) ⊆ ( U1 ∩ V1) x ( U2 ∩ V2)
⊆ B1 ∩ B2 ϵ B.
(i.e) (x,y) ϵ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2.
Therefore B is a basis.
THEOREM: If B is a basis for a topology of X and C is a basis for a
topology of Y. Then the collection D = { B x C / B ϵ B, C ϵ C} is a basis for the
topology of X x Y.
PROOF:
Let W be an open set of X x Y and let a point x x y ϵ W.
 By the definition of product topology W is a basis element, U x V such
that x x y ϵ U x V ⊆ W.
Since B is a basis for X, U is open in X and x ϵ U there exist a B ϵ B
such That x ϵ B ⊆ U...................................................(1)
Since C is a basis for Y and V is open in Y with y ϵ V there exist C ϵ C
such that y ϵ C ⊆ V...................................................(2)
From (1) and (2)
x x y ϵ B x C ⊆ U x V.
As U x V ⊆ W, we have
x x y ϵ B x C ⊆ W.
By Lemma ,
“ Let X be a topological space. Suppose that T is a collection of open sets
of X such that for open set U of X and x in U, there is an element C of T such
that x ϵ C ⊆ U. Then T is a basis for the topology of X”.
Hence D is a basis of X x
Y. Hence the proof.

EXAMPLE :
We know the standard topology on R is a ordered topology. The product
of this topology with itself is called the standard topology of R x R = R2.
It has a basis the collection of all products of open sets of R.
The above theorem says, that a much smaller collection of all products,
(a,b) x (c,d) of open interavls in R, will also serve as the basis, for the topology
of R2.
PROJECTION:
Let ∏1 : X x Y → X be defined by the equation
∏1 ( x,y ) = x
Let ∏2 : X x Y → Y be defined by the equation
∏2 (x,y) = y.

The maps ∏1 and ∏2 are called the projections of X x Y onto its first and
second factors respectively.
If U is a subset of X, then ∏1-1 (U) is precisely the set U x Y, which is
open in X x Y.
 Similarly, if V is open in Y, then ∏ -12 (V) = X x V, is open in X x Y.
The intersection of these two sets is the set U x V, (i.e) ∏1 -1 (U) ∩ ∏2 -2
(V).

THEOREM: The collection S ={ ∏1 -1(U) / U is open in X} 𝖴

{ ∏ 2-1(V) / V is open in
Y} is a subbasis for the product topology on X x Y.
PROOF:
Let 𝑟 denote the product topology on X x Y.
Let 𝑟' be the topology generated by S. Because every element of S ϵ 𝑟.
(every element of S is open in X x Y), arbitrary unions of finite intersection of
elements of S also belongs to 𝑟
Thus, 𝑟' ⊂ 𝑟.
Conversely,
Every basis element U x V for the topology 𝑟 is a finite intersection of
elements of S, as
U x V = ∏1-1 (U) ∩ ∏2-2(V).
Any open set in 𝑟 (union of basis element in 𝑟) is an open set in 𝑟'.
Therefore, 𝑟 ⊆ 𝑟 '.
Therefore, 𝑟 = 𝑟 '.
Hence the
theorem.

THE SUBSPACE TOPOLOGY

DEFINITION:
Let X be a topological space wih topology 𝑟. If Y is the subset of X.
Then the collection
 𝑟y = { U ∩ Y / U is open in X }
is a topology on Y called the subspace topology.
With this topology, Y is called a subspace of
X. To verify 𝑟y is a topology on Y.
(i) φ = φ ∩ Y, where φ ϵ
𝑟. Therefore φ ϵ 𝑟 y.
Y = X ∩ Y, where Y ϵ 𝑟.
Therefore, Y ϵ 𝑟y.
φ , Y ϵ 𝑟y.
(ii) Let W1, W2,……. ϵ 𝑟y. Then Wi = Ui ∩ Y, where Ui is
open in X. Now, 𝖴α ϵ I Wα = 𝖴α ϵ I (Uα ∩ Y)
= (𝖴α ϵ I Uα) ∩ Y
Therefore 𝖴α ϵ I Wα ϵ 𝑟y as 𝖴Uα is open in X.

(iii) Let W1,W2,….. Wm ϵ 𝑟y.

(W1 ∩ W2 ∩ ….. ∩ Wm) = (U1 ∩ Y) ∩ (U2 ∩ Y) ….. ( Um ∩ Y)
= (U1 ∩ U2 ∩ ….. ∩ Um) ∩ Y
Therefore, W1 ∩ W2 ∩ ….. ∩ Wm ϵ 𝑟y.
as (U1 ∩ U2 ∩ ….. ∩ Um) is open in X.
Thus 𝑟 y is a topology on Y.
LEMMA: If B is a basis for the topology of X then the collection
By = {B ∩ Y / B ϵ B}
is a basis for the subspace topology on Y.

PROOF:
Assume B is a basis for the topology of X.
To prove : By is a basis for 𝑟y.
Let us use the lemma, “Let X be a topological space. Suppose that 𝐶 is a
collection of open sets
of X such that for each open set U of X and x in U, there is an
element C of 𝐶 such that x ϵ C ⊆ U. Then
𝑟 is a basis for the topology 𝑟 of X” .
Let W ϵ 𝑟y.
Then W = U ∩ Y for some U open in
X. Let y ϵ W => y ϵ U ∩ Y.
=> y ϵ U.
=> there exists B ϵ B such that y ϵ B ⊆ U
=> y ϵ B ∩ Y ⊆ U ∩ Y = W
Thus for each open set W ϵ 𝑟y containing y, there exist an element of By,
B ∩ Y ,such that y ϵ B ∩ Y ⊆
W. Therefore, By is a basis for 𝑟y.
NOTE:
Any set open in (X, 𝑟) need not be open in (Y, 𝑟y) and any set open in
(Y, 𝑟y) need not be open in X.
LEMMA:Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in
X then U is open in X.
PROOF:
Let U ϵ 𝑟y. Then U = V ∩ Y, where V is open in X. Now V is open in X
and Y is open in
X. Therefore, V ∩ Y is open in X.
(i.e) U is open in X or U ϵ 𝑟.

Theorem :
If A is a subspace of X and B is a subspace of Y, then the product topology
on A  B is the same as the topology A  B inherits as a subspace of X  Y.

Proof:
The set U  V is the general basis element for X  Y, where U is open
in X and V is open in Y.
(U  V)  (A  B) is the general basis element for the subspace topology
on A  B.
Now (U  V)  (A  B) = (U  A)  (V  B)
 Since U  A and V  B are the general open sets for the subspace
topologies on A and B respectively. The set (U  A)  (V  B) is the general
basis element for the product topology on A  B.The conclusion we draw is that
the basis for the subspace topology on A  B and for the product topology on
A
 B are the same.

Hence, the topologies are the same.

EXAMPLE:
Let X=R
Let Y = [0,1] 𝖴 {2}. In the subspace topology of Y, the one point set {2} is
open, because {2} = (3/2,5/2) ∩ Y, where (3/2,5/2) is open in X.
If we consider Y with the ordered topology, the set {2} is not open
because any basis element of the ordered topology on Y that contains 2 is of the
form {x / x ϵ Y and x ≤ 2}, (i.e) such a set consist of points other than 2.
REMARK:
Let X be an ordered set in the ordered topology and Y be a subset of X.
The order relation on X when restricted to Y makes Y into an ordered
set.
However the resulting ordered topology on Y need not be same as a
topology that Y inherits as a subspace of X.
The above example illustrates this fact.In some cases both the topologies
may be the same.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the subset Y =[0,1] of the Real line R in the subspace topology.
The subspace topology has as basis of all open sets of the form (a,b) ∩ Y.
where (a,b) is an open interval in R such a set is one of the following types:

By definition each of those sets in open in Y, but sets of the second and
third type are not open in the large space R.
Note that the set of the above form is a basis for the ordered topology on
Y.
Thus we see that in the case of the set Y = [0,1]. The subspace topology and
its order topology are the same.
CONVEX SET:
Let X be an ordered set, a subset Y of X is convex in X if for each pair of
points a < b of Y, the entire interval (a,b) of points of X lies in Y.
Note that the intervals and rays in X are convex in X.
EXAMPLE:
Let X = R, let P= [0,1] 𝖴 {2} here 1/2, 2 ϵ P
. But (1/2, 2) of R ⊄ P.
So P is not covex in R.
THEOREM: Let X be an ordered set in the ordered topology.Let Y be a subset of
X, that is convex in X. Then the order topology on Y
is the same as the topology of Y inherits as a
subspace of X.
PROOF:
Let 𝑟 be the order topology on Y and let 𝑟y be the subspace topology.
Consider the ray (a,+∞) in X.
Then (a,+∞) ∩ Y ={ x /x ϵ Y, x > a } if a ϵ Y.
= Y, if a ∉ Y and a is lower bound of Y.
= ɸ, if a ∉ Y and a is upper bound of Y.
Similarly,
(-∞, a) ∩ Y = { x / x ϵ Y, x < a}
= Y, if a ∉ Y and a is an upper bound of Y.
= ɸ, if a ∉ Y and a is an lower bound of Y.
The sets (a,+∞) ∩ Y and (-∞, a) ∩ Y form a subbasis for the topology on
Y.
Since the open rays of Y are a subbasis for the ordered topology on X.
This topology contains the subspace topology.
(i.e) 𝑟y ⊆ 𝑟 → (1)
To prove the reverse,
Any open ray of Y equals the intersection of an open ray of X with Y. So it
is open in the subspace topology on Y, since the open rays of Y are a subbasis
is
contained in the subspace topology.
𝑟 ⊆ 𝑟y → (2)
From (1) and (2) we
have,
𝑟 = 𝑟y.
Hence the theorem.
CLOSED SETS AND LIMIT POINTS:
A subset A of a topological space X, is said to be closed if the set X – A is
open.
EXAMPLE:
X = {a,b,c}
𝑟 = {φ, X,{a,b}}.
Here the closed subsets of X are X – φ, X – X, X – {a,b}.
(i.e)., X, φ, {c}.
EXAMPLE:2
The subset [a,b] of R is closed because its complement.
R – [a,b] = (-∞,a) U (b,+∞) is open.
Similarly,
[a,+∞] is closed because its complement (-∞,a) is open.
This fact jusify our use of the terms “ closed intervals” and “closed rays”.
The subset [a,b) of R is neither open nor closed.
EXAMPLE:3
In the plane R2, the set {x x y / x ≥ 0 & y ≥ 0} is closed, because
its complement is the union of the two sets (-∞,0) x R and R x (-∞,
0)
Each of which is a product of open sets of R and is, therefore open in R2.
EXAMPLE:4
In the finite complement topology of a set X, the closed set consists of X
itself and all finite subsets of X.
Example : 5 Consider the following subset Y of the real line.
Let Y = [0,1] 𝖴 (2,3) in the subspace topology. In this space the set [0,1]
is open, since is the intersecion of the open sets
(-1/2, 3/2) of R with Y. Similarly, (2,3) is open
as a subset of Y it is even open as a subset of R.
Since [0,1] 𝖴 (2,3) are complement in Y of each other, they both
[0,1] and (2,3) are closed as subsets of Y.

THEOREM:
Let X be a topological space. Then the following condition holds:
(i) φ and X are closed.
(ii)Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is
closed. (iii)Finite union of closed sets is closed.
PROOF:
(i)φ and X are closed.
Because their complement X and φ are open in X.
(ii)Given a collection of closed sets {Aα}α ϵ I.
We see that,
X - ∩α ϵ I = Uα ϵ I ( X - Aα) since each Aα is closed each X -Aα is open.
Therefore, Uα ϵ I (X - Aα) is open.
(i.e) X - ∩α ϵ I Aα is open.
=> ∩α ϵ I Aα is
closed. Hence the
theorem.
(iii)Let A1,A2,…….,Am be closed sets.
X – Um A = ∩m (X – A) since each A is closed, (X – A) is open.
i=1 i i=1 i i i
Therefore, ∩m
( X- A) is open, i.e X - ∩m A is open.
i=1 i i=1 i

=>Umi=1 Ai is closed.
Hence the theorem.

THEOREM :
Let Y be a subspace of X. Then a set A is closed in Y iff it equals the
inersection of a closed set of X with Y.
PROOF:
Let A = C ∩ Y, where C is closed in X. Then X – C is open in X.
Therefore, ( X – C) ∩ Y = Y-A is open in Y.Then A is closed in Y.

Conversely,

Let A be closed in Y.

=>Y- A is open in Y.

=> Y – A = U ∩ Y, where U is open in X,

=>(X – U) is closed in X and (X – U) ∩ Y = A.

Thus A can be expressed as the intersection of a closed set of X with Y.

THEOREM:
Let Y be a subspace of X. If A is closed in Y and Y is closed in X.
Then A is closed in X.

PROOF:

Given, Y is closed in
X. Let A be closed in
Y.

Then A = C ∩ Y, where C is closed in X.

Now, C is closed in X and Y is closed in X (by hypothesis).

Intersection of a closed sest is closed.

Therefore, A is closed in

X. Hence proved.
 Closure and Interior of a set:
Definition:
Let (X, 𝑟) be a topological space and A be a subset of it. The interior of A
is defined as the union of all open sets contained in A.
The interior of A is denoted by Int A and Int A ⊆ A. Also Int A
is always open. [ Arbitrary union of open sets is open].
Definition:
The closure of A is defined as the intersection all closed sets containing A.
It is denoted by cℓ A or Ā.
Note that A ⊆ Ā and Ā is always closed. [Arbitrary intersection of
closed sets is closed]. Thus for any set A,
Int A ⊆ A ⊆Ā .
Note:
1) A is open iff Int A = A.
2) A is closed iff Ā= A.
3) Ā is smallest closed set containing A.

Example 1:

Let X= { a, b, c}
𝑟= {ϕ, X, {a}}
A= {a, b}
Int A = ϕ 𝖴 {a} = {a}
∴ Int A ⊆ A
Closed sets of (X, 𝑟) are X, ϕ, {b, c}.
∴ Ā = X, A ⊆ Ā .

Example 2:
Let X = {a, b, c}
𝑟 = { ϕ, X, {a},{b}, {a, b}}
A = {a, b}
 Int A = ϕ 𝖴 {a} 𝖴 {b} 𝖴 {a, b} = {a, b}
Int A ⊆ A [ here ( A= Int A) ]
Closed sets of (X, 𝑟) are
X, ϕ, {b, c}, {a, c},
{c} . Ā = X A⊆Ā
B = {b}

B = X {b, c} = {b, c}
B⊆B

Theorem :
Let Y be a subspace of X. Let A be a subset of Y. Let Ā denote the closure

of A in X. Then the closure of A in Y equals Ā  Y.

Proof:
Let B denote the closure of A in Y. Y Ā
To prove:
B= Ā  Y B
Ā is closed in Y.
Ā  Y is closed in Y. Also, A ⊆ Ā  Y

(i.e) Ā Y is a closed set in Y containing A.

But B is the smallest closed set in Y containing A.
B ⊆ Ā Y ……. (1)
Conversely,
B is closed in Y
B = C Y , where C is closed in X
C is a closed set in X containing
A.
( A ⊆ B ⊆ C Y )
Also Ā is a closed set in X containing A.
Ā⊆C
Ā Y ⊆ C Y
 Ā Y ⊆ B ……. (2)
From (1) & (2)
B = Ā Y
(i.e), closure of A in Y is Ā
 Y Hence proved.

Meaning of Intersects
A set A intersects a set B if A  B ≠ ϕ

Theorem :
Let A be a subset of the topological space X. Then x Ā iff every open
set U containing x intersects A.

Proof:
Let A be a subspace of the topological space X.
In order to prove the above statement, it is enough to prove the following
statement.
(i) x A iff there exist an open set U containing x that does not intersect A.
Let x Ā ∃∵
x  X – Ā (=U), say
Then U is an open set containing x. (∵Ā is closed) U=X-A

such that UĀ = ϕ (⸪UĀ is closed)

AĀ
The set U = X – Ā is an open set containing x
that does not intersect A.

Conversely, UA

Let U be an open set containing

x that does not intersect A.
(i.e) x  U and UĀ = ϕ
X-U is a closed set containing A
We know that,
Ā is a smallest closed set containing A.
Ā ⊆ X-U.
x Ā ( as x  U, x X-U )
Hence proved.
Note:
P  Q is same as not P  not Q .
Theorem :
Let A be a subspace of a topological space X. Suppose the topology of
X is given by a basis, then x  Ā iff every basis element B containing x
intersects A.
Proof:
Let x  Ā
every open set containing x intersects A.
every basis element containing x intersects A. ( By theorem )

Conversely
Suppose every basis element B containing x intersects A.
For every open set U there exist a basis element containing x
such that x B ⊆ U.
(i.e), BA ≠ ϕ UA ≠ ϕ
xĀ ( by theorem )
Hence the proof.

Note:
U is an open set containing x is equivalent to the phrase U is a
neighbourhood of X.
“ If A is a subset of the topological space, then x  Ā iff every neighbourhood
of X intersects A”.
Let X be the real line 𝑅.
1) Let A = (0,1]
 Then Ā = [0,1] for any neighbourhood of ‘0’ intersects A and every
point outside [0,1] has a neighbourhood disjoint from A.
2) B = { 1/n | nZ+ }
(i.e) B = { 1,1/2,1/3,…}
Then B = {0}  B
Because any open set in 𝑅 containing 0 intersects B.
3) C= {0}  (1,2) then C = {0}  [1,2] . 𝑅
4) If Q is the set of all rational numbers then Q = Q  Irrationals. ℝ
Q = ℝ. Z+.
5) If Z+ is the set of all positive integers then Z+ = Z+. 𝑅

6) If ℝ + is the set of all positive reals then ℝ+= ℝ+  {0} ℝ

0 ℝ+
Example 2:
Consider the subspace Y= (0,1] of the real line ℝ. Let A = (0,1/2) which
is a subset of Y. Now Ā = [0,1/2] (closure of A in X ).
□ closure of A in Y = Ā  Y = [0,1/2]  (0,1] [ ] ]
0 ½ 1
= (0,1/2].

Definition: Limit Point

If A is a subset of a topological space and if x is a point of X, then x is
a limit point of A if every neighbourhood of x intersects A in some points
other than x itself. Limit

point 0
Example 3:
.1) Consider the real line ℝ if A = (0,1] then the point 0 is a limit point of A
and so is the point 1/2 . In fact every point of the interval [0,1] is a limit point
of A, but no other point of ℝ is a limit point of A.
2) If B= {1/n | nZ+ } then 0 is the only limit point of B. Every other point x
 of ℝ has a neighbourhood that either does not intersect B at all or
it intersects B only in the point x itself.
3) If C = {0} (1,2), then the limit point of C are the points of the interval
[1,2].
4) If Q is the set of rational numbers, every point of ℝ is a limit point of Q.
5) If Z+ is the set of positive integers, no point of ℝ is a limit point of Z+ .
6) If R+ is the set of positive reals, then every point of {0}  R+
is a limit point of R+ .

Theorem :
Let A be a subset of the topological space X, let A be the set of all
limit points of A. Then Ā = A A.
Proof:
If xA then x Ā (Since A⊆Ā).
If x  A, every neighbourhood of x intersects A
(in a point different from x)
x Ā ( Since x Ā iff every open set U containing x intersects
A) It follows that,
A A ⊆ Ā
Conversely,
To Prove: Ā ⊆ A A
Let x Ā. If x happens to lie in A, it is trivial that x  A A
Suppose that x A
Since x Ā, every neighbourhood U of x intersects A.
Because x A, the set U must intersect A in a point different from x.
Then x  A
x  A A
Ā ⊆ A A
i.e Ā =A A
Hence the proof.
Corollary:
Statement:
A subset of a topological space is closed if and only if it contains all its
limit points.
Proof:
The set A is 𝐴̅
closed iff A = Ā
iff A= Ā = A  A ( By previous theorem)
 A ⊆ A.
Hence the proof.
Definition: Convergent Sequence
In an arbitrary topological space the sequence x1, x2,…. of points of the
space X converges to the point x of X provided that corresponding to each
neighbourhood U of X there is a positive integer N such that xn ∈ U ∀ n  N.
Definition: Hausdorff Space
A topological space X is called Hausdorff space if for each pair x1, x2 of
distinct points of X, there exist neighbourhoods U1 and U2 of x1 and x2
respectively, that are disjoint.
(i.e) U1  U2 = ϕ x2
x1U1 U2

Theorem :
Every finite point set in a Hausdorff Space X is closed.
Proof:
First let us prove every one-point set {x0} is closed.
Let x  X such that x ≠ x0.
Then since X is Hausdorff, we have disjoint neighbourhood U and V of x and x0
respectively.
Since U is an open set of X which does not intersect {x0}.
 x  {x0} X0 x
Since x  X is arbitrary, U V
no point of X (other than x0) is an element of {x0}.

Therefore{x0} = {x0}

{x0} is closed.

Let A= {x0, x1, …, xn} be a finite set of X.

Then A= {x0}  {x1} … {xn}.

Since finite union of closed sets is closed, A is closed.

(i.e), Any finite point set in a Hausdorff space is closed.

Definition: T1 – axioms :

A space in which finite point sets are closed is said to satisfy T1 – axiom.

Theorem :

Let X be a space satisfying the T 1 – axiom. Let A be a subset of X. Then

the point x is a limit point of A iff every neighbourhood of x contains infinitely
many points of A.

Proof:

If every neighbourhood of x intersects A in infinitely many points it

certainly intersects A in some point other than x itself so that x is a limit
point of A.

Conversely A U

Suppose that x is a limit point of A and x

suppose some neighbourhood U of x intersects A
in only finitely many points then U also intersects

A –{x} in finitely many points.

Let {x1, …, xm} be the points of U (A –{x}).

The set X- {x1, …, xm} is an open set of X, since the finite point set
 {x1, …, xm} is closed. Then U (X- {x1, …, xm}) is neighbourhood of

x that intersects the set A –{x} not at all.

This contradicts the assumption that x is a limit point of A.

Theorem :

If X is a Hausdorff space, then a sequence of points of X, converges to

atmost one point of X.

Proof:

Suppose that xn is a sequence of points of X that converges to x.

If y ≠ x let U and V be disjoint neighbourhoods of x and y respectively.

Since U contains xn for all but finitely U V

x
many values of n, the set V cannot. y

Therefore xn cannot converge to y. U  V =ϕ

Theorem :
Every simply ordered set is a Hausdorff Space in the order topology.
The product of two Hausdorff space is a Hausdorff space. A subspace of
a Hausdorff space is a Hausdorff space.