Munkres Solutions

Amit Rajaraman
Last updated March 31, 2021

Contents

2 Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions 2

2.13 Basis for a Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.16 The Subspace Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.17 Closed Sets and Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.18 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.19 The Product Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.20 The Metric Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.21 The Metric Topology (continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.22 The Quotient Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Connectedness and Compactness 9

3.23 Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.24 Connected Subspaces of the Real Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.25 Components and Local Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.26 Compact Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Countability and Separation Axioms 12

4.30 The Countability Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Munkres Solutions 2 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

§2. Topological Spaces and Continuous Functions

2.13. Basis for a Topology
Exercise 2.13.1. Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X. Suppose that for each x ∈ A, there is an open set U
containing x such that U ⊆ A. Show that A is open in X.
Solution
S
For each x ∈ A, denote by Ux an open subset of A that contains A. Then A = x∈A Ux . However, an arbitrary
union of open sets is open and thus, so is A.
Exercise 2.13.5. Show that if A is a basis for a topology on X, the topology generated by A equals the intersection
of all topologies that contain A. Prove the same if A is a subbasis.
Solution

Let T be the topology generated by A and T 0 be a topology that contains A. Let U ∈ T . Then U = i∈I Bi
S
for some (Bi )i∈I in A. However, each Bi is also in T 0 . Since an arbitrary union of open sets is open, U ∈ T 0 as
well. Therefore, T ⊆ T 0 , proving the result. The solution for the case where A is a subbasis is very similar and
so omitted.

2.16. The Subspace Topology

Exercise 2.16.1. Show that if Y is a subspace of X and A is a subset of Y , then the topology A inherits as a
subspace of Y is the same as the topology it inherits as a subspace of X.
Solution

The topology A inherits as a subspace of X is

T = {U ∩ A : U open in X}
= {(U ∩ Y ) ∩ A : U open in X}
= {V ∩ A : V open in Y },

which is the topology it inherits as a subspace of Y .

Exercise 2.16.2. If T and T 0 are topologies on X and T 0 is strictly finer than T , what can you say about the
corresponding subspace topologies on the subset Y of X.
Solution

It is easily seen that TY0 is finer than TY . We further see that it need not be strictly finer by considering the
example X = {a, b, c}, Y = {a, b}, T = {∅, X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, and T 0 as the discrete topology on X.
Exercise 2.16.3. Consider Y = [−1, 1] as a subspace of R. Which of the following is open in Y ? Which are open
in R?
 
1
A= x: <x<1
2
 
1
B= x: <x≤1
2
 
1
C= x: ≤x<1
2
 
1
D= x: ≤x≤1
2
E = x : 0 < x < 1 and 1/x 6∈ Z+

Munkres Solutions 3 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

Solution

A and B are open in Y and only A is open in R. This is reasonably straightforward to prove.
C is not open in Y (and so not R either) because there is no basis element U of the order topology such that
1/2 ∈ U ⊆ C. A similar argument holds for D as well.
E is open in both R and Y because it can be written as a union of basis elements
\  1 1

E= , .
+
n+1 n
n∈Z

Exercise 2.16.4. A map f : X → Y is said to be an open map if for every open U of X, f (U ) is open in Y . Show
that π1 : X × Y → X and π2 : X × Y → Y are open.

Solution

We shall only show that π1 is open, the other case is nearly identical. Let
[
U= Ui × Vi
i∈I

be open in X × Y for some indexing set I, where each Ui and Vi are open in X and Y respectively. Then,
!
[ [ [
π1 (U ) = π1 Ui × Vi = π1 (Ui × Vi ) = Ui
i∈I i∈I i∈I

is open in X.

2.17. Closed Sets and Limit Points

Exercise 2.17.1. Let C be a collection of subsets of set X. Suppose that ∅ and X are in C and that finite unions
and arbitrary intersections of elements of C are in C. Show that the collection T = {X \ C : C ∈ C} is a topology on
X.

Solution

Let (Ui )i∈I be in T with Ui = X \ Ci for each i. Then

[ \
Ui = X \ Ci = X \ C ∈ T
i∈I i∈I

for some C ∈ C. Closure under finite intersections is shown similarly. We trivially have ∅, X ∈ T because
X, ∅ ∈ C.

Exercise 2.17.2. Show that if A is closed in Y and Y is closed in X, then A is closed in X.

Solution

Let U be open in X such that Y \ A = U ∩ Y . Then, we can write A as X \ ((X \ Y ) ∪ U ). Since X \ Y and U
are open in X, A is closed in X.

Exercise 2.17.3. Show that if A is closed in X and B is closed in Y , A × B is closed in X × Y .

Solution
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Observe that
(X × Y ) \ (A × B) = ((X \ A) × (Y \ B)) ∪ ((X \ A) × Y ) ∪ (A × (Y \ B)).
Since each of the sets on the right are open in X × Y , A × B is closed.
Exercise 2.17.4. Show that if U is open in X and A is closed in X, U \ A is open in X and A \ U is closed in Y .

Solution

This is easily seen on writing U \ A = U ∩ (X \ A) and A \ U = A ∩ (X \ U ).

Exercise 2.17.13. Show that if X is Hausdorff iff the diagonal ∆ = {x × x : x ∈ X} is closed in X × X.

Solution

Let us first show the forward direction. Let (x, y) ∈ (X × X) \ ∆. Then since X is Hausdorff, there are some
open U1 3 x, U2 3 y such that U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Since the open set U1 × U2 3 (x, y) does not intersect ∆, ∆ is
closed (no other point is in its closure).
For the backward direction, this means that for any (x, y) ∈ X ×X with x 6= y, there exists an open set U 3 (x, y)
such that U ∩ ∆ = ∅. We may further assume that U is a basis element of the product topology and can be
written as U1 × U2 . However, (U1 × U2 ) ∩ ∆ = ∅ iff U1 ∩ U2 = ∅, so the required follows.
Exercise 2.17.14. In the finite complement topology on R, what point or points does the sequence xn = 1/n
converge to?

Solution

We claim that xn converges to any point in R. Let x ∈ R and U 3 x be open. U contains all but finitely many
xi since we are in the finite complement topology and therefore, xn converges to x.
Exercise 2.17.19. If A ⊆ X, define the boundary of A by
Bd A = A ∩ X \ A.
(a) Show that A and Bd A are disjoint, and A = A◦ ∪ Bd A.
◦

(b) Show that Bd A = ∅ iff A is both open and closed.

(c) Show that U is open iff Bd U = U \ U .
◦
(d) If U is open, is it true that U = U ? Justify your answer.

Solution

(a) Let x ∈ A \ A◦ . Then for any open U 3 x, U 6⊆ A (otherwise, A◦ ∪ U ) A◦ is open and contained in A).
That is, U ∩ (X \ A) 6= ∅. However, this implies that x ∈ X \ A, that is, A \ A◦ ⊆ X \ A. Therefore,

A \ A◦ = (A \ A) ∪ (A \ A◦ ) ⊆ X \ A
A ⊆ A◦ ∪ X \ A
= A ∩ (A◦ ∪ X \ A)
= A◦ ∪ (A ∪ X \ A) = A◦ ∪ Bd A.

(b) If A is not closed, A ) A intersects X \ A ⊆ X \ A, contradicting Bd A = ∅. Similarly, X \ A is closed as

well, so A is both open and closed.
The other direction is similarly straightforward.

(c) If U is open, X \ U is closed so Bd U = U ∩ (X \ U ) = U \ U .

On the other hand, if U ∩ (X \ U ) = U ∩ X \ U , X \ U must be closed. Indeed, otherwise, X \ U \ (X \ U ) ⊆
Munkres Solutions 5 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

U ⊆ U , contradicting the equality.

◦
(d) No, this is not the case. Consider the open set U = (1, 2) ∪ (2, 3) ⊆ R. Then U = (1, 3).

2.18. Continuous Functions

Exercise 2.18.1. Suppose that f : X → Y is continuous. If x is a limit point of A ⊆ X, is f (x) necessarily a limit
point of f (A)?

Solution

No. Let f : R → R be the zero function, A = {1/n : n ∈ N}, and x = 0.

Exercise 2.18.8. Let Y be an ordered set in the order topology. Let f, g : X → Y be continuous.
(a) Show that the set {x : f (x) ≤ g(x)} is closed in X.
(b) Let h : X → Y be the function
h(x) = min{f (x), g(x)}.
Show that h is continuous.

Solution

(a) It suffices to show that V = {x : f (x) > g(x)} is open in X. Let x ∈ V . Since Y is Hausdorff, there are
open sets U1 , U2 such that f (x) ∈ U1 , g(x) ∈ U2 , and U1 ∩ U2 = ∅.
We can consider a basis element B1 ⊆ U1 that contains f (x) in lieu of U1 . That is, we may suppose wlog
that U1 and U2 are disjoint basis elements. Further, we may assume that U1 is of the form (a, ∞) (if it is of
the form (a, c) instead, we can replace it with (a, ∞)). Due to the disjointness assumption, this means that
we can consider U1 to be of the form (a, ∞) and U2 of the form (−∞, b) such that for any c ∈ U1 , d ∈ U2 ,
c>d
Now, let U = f −1 (U1 ) ∩ g −1 (U2 ) 3 x. f and g are continuous so U is open. Further, for any y ∈ U ,
f (y) > g(y) (by the above assumption), that is, U ⊆ V .
It follows that V is open (for any x ∈ V , there is an open V ⊆ U such that x ∈ V ).
(b) Let U1 = {x : f (x) ≥ g(x)} and U2 = {x : f (x) ≤ g(x)}. By (a), U1 and U2 are both closed. Since g is
continuous on U1 , f is continuous on U2 , and f = g on U1 ∩ U2 , we can use the pasting lemma to conclude
that h is continuous (h(x) = g(x) on U1 and f (x) on U2 ).

2.19. The Product Topology

Exercise 2.19.4. Show that (X1 × · · · × Xn−1 ) × Xn is homeomorphic to X1 × · · · × Xn .

Solution

Let the two topological spaces above be denoted by X and Y respectively. Consider the map f : X → Y with

f (x) = (π1 (π1 (x)), . . . , πn−1 (π1 (x)), π2 (x)).

We claim that f is a homomorphism.

If Ui is open in Xi for each i, then f −1 (U1 × · · · × Un ) = (U1 × · · · × Un−1 ) × Un is open in X (U1 × · · · × Un−1
is open in X1 × · · · × Xn−1 and Un is open in Xn ). Therefore, f is continuous.
On the other hand, if U is open in X1 × · · · × Xn−1 and Un is open in Xn , then f (U × Un ) = U1 × · · · × Un ,
where each Ui is open in Xi by Exercise 2.16.4.
Q
Exercise 2.19.6. Let x1 , x2 , . . . be a sequence of points in the product space Xα . Show that this sequence
converges to the point x iff the sequence πα (x1 ), πα (x2 ), . . . converges to πα (x) for each α. Is this true if we use the
box topology instead of the product topology?
Munkres Solutions 6 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

Solution

We first show the backward direction. Suppose (πα (xi )) converges to πα (x). LetQ U be an open set containing x
and B ⊆ U be a basis element of the product topology containing x. Let B = α Uα where Uα 6= Xα for the
finite set {α1 , . . . , αn }. Since (παj (xi )) converges to παj (x) for each j, each Uαj contains all but finitely many
πα (xi ). As a result, B contains all but finitely many xi and therefore, (xi ) converges to x.

On the other hand, let (xi ) converge to x. Let Uα beQ an open set in Xα containing πα (x). We wish toQ show that
it contains all but finitely many πα (xi ). Let U 0 = Uβ0 be a basis element containing x and V = Vβ , where
Vβ = Uβ0 for β 6= α and Vα = Uα ∩ Uα0 . Since V is an open set containing x, it contains all but finitely many xi .
In particular, Vα contains all but finitely many πα (xi ). The required follows.
Observe that the forward proof works even if we use the box topology instead, but the backward direction breaks.
To see that the result need not hold for the box, let the product space be Rω , πn (xi ) = n/i and πn (x) = 0 for
each i, n.

Exercise 2.19.7. Let R∞ be the subset of Rω consisting of all sequences that are eventually 0 (xi 6= 0 for finitely
many i). What is the closure of R∞ in Rω in the box and product topologies?

Solution

We claim that the closure under the product topology is Rω . Let x ∈ Rω and U = Un be a basis element
Q
containing x. We wish to determine when U ∩ R∞ 6= ∅. Consider y ∈ R∞ such that yn = xn if Un 6= R and 0
otherwise. Then y ∈ U ∩ R∞ , thus proving the result.
For the box topology, we claim that R∞ is closed. Indeed, for any x ∈ Rω \ R∞ , consider the open set U = Un ,
Q
where Un = (xn /2, 3xn /2) if xn 6= 0 and R otherwise. Then U ∩ R∞ is empty, completing the proof.

2.20. The Metric Topology

Exercise 2.20.3. Let X be a metric space with metric d.
(a) Show that d : X × X → R is continuous.

(b) Let X 0 denote a space having the same underlying set as X. Show that if d : X 0 × X 0 → R is continuous, the
topology of X 0 is finer than the topology of X.
This means that if X has a metric d, the metric topology induced by it is the coarsest topology with respect to which
d is continuous.

Solution

(a) Let x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ X × X and for some ε > 0, U = B(f (x), ε) be a basis element of R containing f (x).
Consider the open sets U1 = Bd (x1 , ε/4) and U2 = Bd (x2 , ε/4). If y1 ∈ U1 and y2 ∈ U2 , then

d(y1 , y2 ) ≤ d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x1 , y1 ) + d(x2 , y2 ) ≤ f (x) + ε/2.

Therefore, d(y1 , y2 ) ∈ U . As a result, U1 × U2 is an open set such that x ∈ f (U1 × U2 ) ⊆ U and d is

continuous.
(b) Consider the continuous function g : X 0 → X 0 × X 0 given by y 7→ (x, y) (we proved continuity in Exer-
cise 2.16.4). Since the composition of continuous functions is continuous, so is d ◦ g : X 0 → R. Note that for
any ε > 0, (d ◦ g)−1 ((0, ε)) = Bd (x, ε). It follows that Bd (x, ε) is open in X 0 and therefore, the topology on
X 0 is finer than that on X.
Exercise 2.20.5. Let R∞ be the subset of Rω consisting of all infinite sequences that are eventually 0. What is the
closure of R∞ in Rω in the uniform topology?
Munkres Solutions 7 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

Solution

We claim that the closure of R∞ is the set of all sequences that converge to 0. Let x ∈ Rω .

ˆ Case 1. The sequence x does not converge to 0. There is then some ε > 0 such that for infinitely many n,
|xn | > ε. We may assume that ε < 1. Consider the open set U = Bρ (x, ε). We claim that U ∩ R∞ = ∅.
Indeed, for any y ∈ R∞ , |xn − y| > ε for infinitely many n so y 6∈ Bd (x, ε), thus proving that x 6∈ R∞ .
ˆ Case 2. The sequence x converges to x. Let Bρ (x, ε) be an arbitrary basis element containing x. Then
there exists N ∈ N such that for all n > N , |xn | < ε/2. Consider the element y ∈ R∞ such that yn = xn
for n ≤ N and yn = 0 otherwise. Then y ∈ Bρ (x, ε), thus proving that x ∈ R∞ .

Exercise 2.20.6. Let ρ be the uniform metric on Rω . Given x = (x1 , x2 , . . .) ∈ Rω and 0 < ε < 1, let

U (x, ε) = (x1 − ε, x1 + ε) × · · · × (xn − ε, xn + ε) × · · · .

(a) Show that U (x, ε) is not equal to Bρ (x, ε).

(b) Show that U (x, ε) is not even open in the uniform topology.
(c) Show that [
Bρ (x, ε) = U (x, δ).
δ<ε

Solution

(a) Consider
x0 = (x1 + ε/2, x2 + 2ε/3, . . . , xn + nε/(n + 1), . . .).
Obviously, x0 ∈ U (x, ε). However, ρ(x, x0 ) = sup{nε/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} = ε, so x0 6∈ Bρ (x, ε).
(b) Let x0 be as in the previous part. Suppose that U (x, ε) is open in the uniform topology. Then, there is a
δ > 0 such that Bρ (x0 , δ) ⊆ U (x, ε). In particular, (x0n − δ, x0n + δ) ⊆ (x − ε, x + ε) for any n. This yields
a contradiction since it would imply that δ < ε/(n + 1) for any n and therefore, U (x, ε) is not open in the
uniform topology.
(c) Let y ∈ U (x, δ) for some δ < ε. Then ρ(x, y) ≤ δ < ε, so y ∈ Bρ (x, ε). One direction of the inclusion follows.
For the other, let y ∈ Bρ (x, ε) and δ = ρ(x, y). Since δ < ε, we can choose a δ 0 such that δ < δ 0 < ε. Then,
y ∈ U (x, δ 0 ), thus proving the result.

2.21. The Metric Topology (continued)

Exercise 2.21.2. Let X and Y be metric spaces with metrics dX and dY respectively. Let f : X → Y such that for
any x1 , x2 ∈ X,
dY (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) = dX (x1 , x2 ).
Show that f is an imbedding. It is called the isometric imbedding of X in Y .

Solution

Let x ∈ X and V = BdY (f (x), ε) be a basis element in Y containing f (x). Then U = BdX (x, ε) is an open
set in X containing x such that f (U ) ⊆ V . Therefore, f is continuous. Showing that f is open is similarly
straight-forward.

Exercise 2.21.3. Let Xn be a metric space with metric dn for each n ∈ Z+ . Let di = min{di , 1}. Show that

D(x, y) = sup{di (xi , yi )/i}

Q
is a metric for the product space Xi .
Munkres Solutions 8 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

Solution
Q
Let U = Ui be a basis element of the product topology, where Ui 6= Xi for i = α1 , . . . , αn . Let x ∈ U . For
each j, let Bdα (xαj , εj ) ⊆ Uαj . Let ε = min{εj /2αj }. Then x ∈ BD (x, ε) ⊆ U , so the metric topology is finer
j
than the product topology.
For the other direction, let ε > 0 and U = BD (x, ε). WeQwant to show that there is an element of the product
topology containing x that is contained in U . Let V = Vi , where Vi = Bdi (xi , iε/2) for each i. Note that V
is a basis element of the product topology since Vi = Xi for i > 2/ε. Since x ∈ V ⊆ U , the product topology is
finer than the metric topology, thus proving the result.

2.22. The Quotient Topology

Exercise 2.22.2.

(a) Let p : X → Y be a continuous map. Show that if there is a continuous map f : Y → X such that p ◦ f equals
the identity map on Y , then p is a quotient map.
(b) If A ⊆ X, a retraction of X onto A is a continuous map r : X → A such that r(a) = a for all a ∈ A. Show that
a retraction is a quotient map.

Solution

(a) It is obvious that p is surjective since for any y ∈ Y , p(f (y)) = y. Let U ⊆ Y . We want to show that if
p−1 (U ) is open, then so is U . Indeed, we then have U = (p ◦ f )−1 (U ) = f −1 (p−1 (U )) is open since p−1 (U )
is open and f is continuous.
(b) It is clear that r is surjective. Let U ⊆ A. We want to show that if r−1 (U ) is open, then U is open in A.
Indeed, note that U = r−1 (U ) ∩ A, so is open in A by definition.

Exercise 2.22.3. Let π1 : R × R → R be the projection on the first coordinate. Let A be the subspace of R × R
consisting of all points x × y for which x ≥ 0 or y = 0. Let q : A → R be obtained by restricting π1 . Show that q is
a quotient map that is neither open nor closed.

Solution

Consider the function r : A → R × {0} that maps x × y ∈ A to x × 0 ∈ R2 is a retraction, and therefore a

quotient map. Also note that r = g ◦ q, where g is the trivial (identity-like) homemorphism from R to R × {0},
proving the result.
Consider the open set [1, 2) × (1, 2) in A. Then q(A) = [1, 2) is not open. On the other hand, consider the closed
set {x × y ∈ R2 : xy = 1 and x > 0} in A, having image (0, ∞], which is open (Projection maps need not be
closed in general and this counter-example works even for π1 ).
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§3. Connectedness and Compactness

3.23. Connected Spaces
Exercise 3.23.1. Let T and T 0 be two topologies on X. If T 0 ⊇ T , what does connectedness of X in one topology
mean about connectedness in the other?
Solution

If T 0 is connected, then so is T . Indeed, if T is disconnected and has separation X = U ∪ V , then U ∪ V serves

as a separation of X under T 0 as well. The converse need not be true, as can be seen on considering the discrete
and indiscrete topology on X.

Exercise
S 3.23.2. Let {An } be a sequence of connected subspaces of X such that An ∩ An+1 6= ∅ for all n. Show
that An is connected.

Solution
S
Let A = An . Suppose instead that A = U ∪ V is a separation. Since A1 is connected, we may assume without
loss of generality that A1 ⊆ U . We shall now show by induction that for any n, An ⊆ U . Indeed, if An ⊆ U
for some n ≥ 1, then since An+1 is connected, An+1 ⊆ U or An+1 ⊆ V . However, ∅ 6= An ∩ An+1 ⊆ U , so
An+1 ⊆ U as well. This contradicts the non-emptiness of V , completing the proof.

Exercise 3.23.3. Let {Aα } be a collection

S of connected subspaces of X and A a connected subspace of X. Show
that if Aα ∩ A 6= ∅ for all α, then A ∪ Aα is connected.

Solution

Denote the space by Y . Suppose instead that Y = U ∪ V is a separation. Since A is connected, we may assume
wlog that A ⊆ U . For any α, Aα ⊆ U or Aα ⊆ V . However, A ∩ Aα 6= ∅ so Aα ⊆ U . This contradicts the
non-emptiness of V , proving the result.

Exercise 3.23.4. Show that if X is an infinite set, it is connected in the finite complement topology.

Solution

Suppose otherwise and let X = U ∪ V be a separation. Then X \ U and X \ V are finite, so (X \ U ) ∪ (X \ V )

is finite. Then, its complement U ∩ V is infinite (in particular, non-empty), contradicting the disjointedness of
U and V .
Exercise 3.23.8. Determine whether or not Rω is connected in the uniform topology.

Solution

Let S be the set of all bounded sequences. Then it is not too difficult to show that both S and Rω \ S are open,
so Rω is disconnected.
Exercise 3.23.9. Let A ( X and B ( Y . If X and Y are connected, show that (X × Y ) \ (A × B) is connected.

Solution

Denote the space of interest by S. Suppose instead that S = U ∪ V is a separation. Let x × y, z × w ∈ S.

Suppose that x × y ∈ U . Consider the connected subspaces A = {x} × Y ⊆ S and B = X × {w} ⊆ S. Since
their intersection is non-empty (it contains x × w), their union is connected as well. Further, because x × y ∈ U ,
A ∪ B ⊆ U . In particular, w × z ∈ U . Since our choice of w × z was arbitrary, this contradicts the non-emptiness
of V , proving the result.

Exercise 3.23.11. Let p : X → Y be a quotient map. Show that if each p−1 ({y}) is connected and Y is connected,
then X is connected.
Munkres Solutions 10 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

Solution

Suppose otherwise and let X = U ∪ V be a separation. For any y, either p−1 ({y}) ⊆ U or p−1 ({y}) ⊆ Y (due
to connectedness). That is, U and V are saturated. But then, Y = p(X) = p(U ) ∪ p(V ) is a separation of Y ,
yielding a contradiction and proving the result.

3.24. Connected Subspaces of the Real Line

Exercise 3.24.2. Let f : S 1 → R be a continuous map. Show that there exist a point x of S1 such that f (x) = f (−x).

Solution

Consider the continuous map g : S 1 → R given by x 7→ f (x) − f (−x). Choose an arbitrary x ∈ S1 . If g(x) = 0,
then we are done. Otherwise, let y = −x be the diametrically opposite point to x. Then g(y) = −g(x). Since
S 1 is connected and 0 lies between g(x) and g(y), it follows that there exists some x0 ∈ S 1 such that g(x0 ) = 0.

Exercise 3.24.3. Let f : X → X be continuous. Show that if X = [0, 1], there is a point x such that f (x) = x.
What happens if X = [0, 1) or (0, 1]?

Solution

Consider the continuous map g : X → R given by x 7→ f (x) − x. Observe that g(0) ≥ 0 or g(1) ≤ 0. If equality
holds at either place, we are done. Otherwise, 0 lies between them. Since X is connected, the claim follows.
The claim need not hold if X = [0, 1) or (0, 1]. Indeed, consider the functions x 7→ (x + 1)/2 and x 7→ x/2.

3.25. Components and Local Connectedness

Exercise 3.25.1. What are the components and path components of R` ? What are the continuous maps R → R` ?

Solution

It is obvious that any singleton in R` is connected and path-connected. We claim that these are the only
non-empty connected (and path-connected) subspaces. Let A ⊆ R` have at least two elements. Let x, y ∈ A
with x < y. Then (−∞, y) ∩ A and [y, ∞) ∩ A forms a separation of A, so it is not connected, and thus not a
component. Therefore, the components of R` are the singletons.
Recall that any continuous maps connected subspaces to connected subspaces. In particular, any continuous
map R → R` maps R to a connected subspace of R` . However, this must be a singleton and therefore, the
continuous maps R → R` are the singletons.

Exercise 3.25.8. Let p : X → Y be a quotient map. Show that if X is locally connected, so is Y .

Solution

Let y ∈ Y and U be a neighbourhood of Y . Let C be a component of U .

It suffices to show that p−1 (C) is open in X. Consider the collection of components of p−1 (U ) that intersect
p−1 (C). Observe that each of these components is open (by the local connectedness of X). Therefore, their
union is open as well. Let D be one of these components.
It suffices to show that D ⊆ p−1 (C). Let d ∈ D. Then p(d) ∈ p(D) ∩ C. However, C is a component, so
p(D) ⊆ C. It follows that D ⊆ p−1 (p(D)) ⊆ p−1 (C), completing the proof.

3.26. Compact Spaces

Exercise 3.26.1.
(a) Let T and T 0 be two topologies on the set X. Suppose that T 0 ⊇ T . What does compactness of X under one
of these topologies imply about compactness under the other?
Munkres Solutions 11 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

(b) Show that if X is compact Hausdorff under both T and T 0 , either T and T 0 are equal or they are not comparable.

Solution

(a) If X is compact under T 0 , then it is compact under T . Indeed, any open cover under T is an open cover
under T 0 , and compactness implies the existence of a finite subcover.
The converse need not hold, as can be seen with the example of X = R, T 0 as the discrete topology, and T
as the indiscrete topology.
(b) Suppose T ⊆ T 0 . Let U ∈ T 0 . Then X \ U is closed, and thus compact under T 0 . By a method similar
to part (a), X \ U is also compact under T , and thus closed in T . This implies that U is open in T , and
therefore T 0 ⊆ T , proving the claim.

Exercise 3.26.2.
(a) Show that in the finite complement topology on R, every subspace is compact.
(b) If R has the topology consisting of all sets A such that R \ A is either countable or all of R, is [0, 1] a compact
space?

Solution

(a) Let A ⊆ R and A be an open cover of A. Let U ∈ A. Then (R \ U ) ∩ A is finite, suppose it is equal to
{x1 , . . . , xn }. For each 1 ≤ i ≤ n, let Ui ∈ A such that xi ∈ Ui . Then {U, U1 , . . . , Un } forms a finite subcover
of A.
(b) No, consider the open cover

A = {R \ (Q ∩ [0, 1]) ∪ {x} : x ∈ Q ∩ [0, 1]}.

It is easy to show that A has no finite subcover.

Exercise 3.26.3. Show that a finite union of compact subspaces of X is compact.

Solution
S
Let U1 , . . . , Un be compact subspaces of X, U = 1≤i≤n Ui , and A be an open cover of U . For each 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
let Ai be aSfinite subcover of A of Ui (such a subcover exists because Ui is compact and A is an open cover of
Ui ). Then 1≤i≤n Ai forms a finite subcover of U , proving the required.

Exercise 3.26.5. Let A and B be disjoint compact subspaces of the Hausdorff subspace X. Show that there exist
disjoint open subsets U and V containing A and B respectively.

Solution

For each a ∈ A, let Ua and Va be disjoint open subsets containing {a} and B respectively.
S T {Ua : a ∈ A}
Then
forms an open cover of A, so has a finite subcover, say {Ua1 , . . . , Uan }. Then 1≤i≤n Uai and 1≤i≤n Vai are
disjoint open subsets containing A and B respecitvely, completing the proof.

Exercise 3.26.6. Show that if f : X → Y is continuous, where X is compact and Y is Hausdorff, then f is a closed
map.

Solution

Let A be a closed subspace of X. Then A is compact, and since f is continuous, so is f (A). Recall that compact
subspaces of Hausdorff spaces are closed. Therefore, f (A) is closed, so f is closed.
Munkres Solutions 12 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

§4. Countability and Separation Axioms

4.30. The Countability Axioms
Exercise 4.30.1.
(a) A Gδ set in a space X is a set A that equals the countable intersection of open sets of X. Show that in a
first-countable T1 space, every one-point set is a Gδ set.
(b) There is a familiar space in which every one-point set is a Gδ set, which nevertheless does not satisfy the first
countability axiom. What is it?

Solution
T
(a) Let {x} be a one-point set in X and B a countable basis at x. We claim that U := B∈B B = {x}. Let
y ∈ X be distinct from x. Since X is T1 , there is an open V such that x ∈ U 63 y. Letting B be a basis
element such that x ∈ B ⊆ U , we see that y 6∈ B. Therefore, y 6∈ W and W = {x}.

(b)

Exercise 4.30.2. Show that if X has a countable basis (Bn ), then every basis C of X contains a countable basis for
X.

Solution

For each m, n, if possible, choose Cn,m ∈ C such that Bn ⊆ Cn,m ⊆ Bm . We claim that this (countable) subset
of C is a basis. Let x ∈ X and Bm a basis element that contains x. Since C is a basis, there is some C ∈ C such
that x ∈ C ⊆ Bm . Since (Bn ) is a basis, there exists n such that x ∈ Bn ⊆ C. Now, since Bn ⊆ C ⊆ Bm , we
have Cn,m such that x ∈ Cn,m ⊆ Bm , proving the claim.

Exercise 4.30.3. Let X have a countable basis; let A be an uncountable subset of X. Show that uncountably many
points of A are limit points of A.

Solution

Let A0 be the set of limit points of A in A and suppose instead that it is countable. For each x ∈ A \ A0 , let Bx
be a basis element such that x ∈ Bx and Bx ∩ A = {x}. It follows that for x 6= y, Bx 6= By . But since A \ A0 is
countable, this contradicts the second countability of X, proving the claim.

Exercise 4.30.4. Show that every compact metrizable space X has a countable basis.

Solution
S
Let An be a finite covering of XS by open (1/n)-balls – such a covering exists because X = x∈X B(x, 1/n).
Consider the countable set B = n∈N An . We claim that B is a basis of X. Let x ∈ X and δ > 0. We wish to
show that there is some B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊆ B(x, δ). Fix a N > 2/δ and let B ∈ AN contain x. Then
x ∈ B ⊆ B(x, δ). Indeed, for any y ∈ B, d(y, x) ≤ 2/N < δ, so y ∈ B(x, δ).

Exercise 4.30.5.
(a) Show that every metrizable space with a countable dense subset has a countable basis.
(b) Show that every metrizable Lindelöf space has a countable basis.

Solution

(a) Let X be a metrizable space and D a countable dense subset. Let B = {B(x, 1/n) : n ∈ N, x ∈ D}. It is not
too difficult to show that B is a countable basis similar to the solution to the previous question.
Munkres Solutions 13 / 13 Amit Rajaraman

(b) This is identical to the previous question, except that An is a countable covering of X by open (1/n)-balls.
Exercise 4.30.9. Let A be a closed subspace of X. Show that if X is Lindelöf, A is Lindelöf. Show by example
that if X has a countable dense subset, A need not have a countable dense subset.

Solution

Let A be an open cover of A. We must show that it has a countable subcover. Consider the open cover
A0 = {U ∪ (X \ A) : U ∈ A} of X (Why are these sets open?). Then A0 has a countable subcover, say S 0 , which
gives a countable subcover S = {V ∩ A : V ∈ S 0 } of A.
For the second part, consider X = R` × R` and A = {x × (−x) : x ∈ R` }.

Exercise 4.30.10. Show that if X is a countable product of spaces having countable dense subsets, then X has a
countable dense subset.

Solution

Let (Xn ) be spaces having countable dense subsets (An ). For each n, fix an arbitrary xn ∈ Xn . Consider the
subset A of X defined by
[ nY o
A= Un : Un = An for finitely many n and is {xn } otherwise .

This set is countable because

Q the set of finite subsets of N is countable and each of the inner sets is countable.
Now, let x ∈ X and V = Vn be a basis element containing x such that each Vn is open in Xn and Vn = Xn
for all but finitely many n. For each n, if Vn 6= Xn , choose a yn ∈ (An ∩ Vn ) (such a yn exists since An is dense
in Xn ). Otherwise, let yn = xn . Then (yn ) ∈ (A ∩ V ), proving that A is dense in X.