Unit – III

Connected Spaces and Compact spaces

Connected space
Definition: Separation

Let X be a Topological space separation of X is a pair U, V of disjoint, non-empty open

subsets of X whose union is X.

U and V are open

The space X is said to be connected if they does not exist a separation of X.

Result

A Space X is connected iff the only subsets of X that are both open and closed in X are
the empty sets and X itself.

Proof:

Assume X be connected. Let X be connected.

Suppose is both open and closed

Let
( )

Then U and V form a separation for X, which is a contradiction.

Hence X is connected.

Conversely,

Let X is disconnected. Assume that the only sets of X which are both open and closed
are and X.

Since X is disconnected, there exist a separation, such that

Now A is open
 . So A is closed

Therefore the A is both open and closed and A is a proper subset of X which is a
contradiction.

Hence X is connected.

Hence the proof.

Note:

Connectedness is a Topological Property. Since it is formulated entirely in terms of the

collection open sets of X. If X is connected so is any space homeomorphic to X.

Examples:

1. Let * +

Let * + The indiscrete Topology on X. Then there exist no separation of X.

Therefore, X is connected.

2. Consider * +. Let * * +* +* +* +* +* ++

The discrete topology on X. This Topological space is not connected.

Since all subsets of X both open and closed and then there a exist a separation
* + * +

Lemma 1:

If Y is a subspace of X, a separation of Y is a pair of disjoint non-empty sets A and B

whose union is Y neither of which contains a limit point of the other. The space Y is
connected if there exists no separation of Y.

Proof

Suppose A and B form a separation of Y.

A is both open and closed in Y

̅

̅ ( )
̅ , ̅ ̅ ( )
̅

-
B contains no limit point of A.

Similarly A contains no limit point of /b.

Conversely, Suppose that A and B are disjoint non-empty sets whose union in Y,
neither of which contains the limit point of the other.
̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ( ) ( ̅ ) ( ̅)

A is closed in Y.

Similarly, ̅

B is closed in Y.

As and

Both A and B are open in Y. A and B Form a separation of Y.

The space Y is connected if there exist no separation of Y.

Example 1:

Let X denote a two pint space in the indiscrete topology. Obviously there is no
separation of X, So X is connected.

Example 2:

Let the real line such that

, ) ( -. Both [-1, 0) and (0, 1] are disjoint non-empty and their union us Y.
Both are open in Y [Not in R].

They form a separation of Y.

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
, ) , -
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( - , -

Note that none of these sets contains the limit points of the other.

Example 3:

Let , -

, - , -
This does not form separation of X, Since [-1, 0] is not open in X. Note that, here first
set contains a limit zero of the second. Indeed there is no separation of the space [-1,
1].

Example 4:

The rationals Q is not connected. The only connected subsets of Q are the 1-pt set. Let
Y be a subspace of Q containing two point p and q. In between p and q there always
exist a irrational a.

Consider ( ) and ( ). Both are disjoint non-empty open sets in Y,

whose union in Y.

Y has a separation and hence it is not connected.

Lemma 2:

If the sets C and D form a separation of X and if y is a connected subspace of X, then Y

lies entirely within either C or D.

Proof

Since C and D are both open in X. and D are both open in Y.

( ) ( ) ( )

(C ) ( ) ( )

If both and , then and with form a separation of Y but Y

is connected.

One of these should be empty.

If then

If D then

Lemma 3:

The union of a collection of connected subspaces of X, that have a point in common is

connected.

Proof:

Let * + be a collection of connected subspaces of X.

Let

Claim: is connected.

Suppose is a separation of Y.
Then

Suppose

Since is connected.

or (By Previous lemma)

because and .

for all A

which means ( )

is connected.

Theorem 4:

Let A be a connected subspace of X. If ̅ B is also connected.

Proof:

Let A is connected.

Given ̅

Claim: B is connected.

with

C and D are open.

Since A is a connected subset of B then by lemma,

“If the sets C and D form a separation of D and if Y is a connected subspace of X, then
Y lies entirely within either C or D.”

or

Suppose

Then ̅ ̅

Then ̅

̅
Since D contains no limit point of C.
̅

There exist no separation of B.

In otherwords B is connected.

Theorem 5:

The image of connected space under a continuous map is connected.

Proof

Let is continuous.

Then ( ( )) [since restriction to its range is continuous]

Let is a surjective continuous map.

Claim: Z is connected.

Suppose where

A and B are open in Z.

( ) ( ) [ g is surjective]

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) for, a separation of X

X is disconnected, which is a contradiction.

X has no separation.

Hence ( ) is connected.

Theorem 6:

A finite Cartesian product of connected spaces is connected.

Proof

Let us first prove for 2-spaces X and Y.

Choose a base point in .

The horizontal slice is connected, being homeomorphic with X, and vertical slice
is connected being homeomorphic with Y.

Each T- shaped space ( ) ( ) is connected.

Being the union of two connected spaces that have points a×b is common.

Now, Consider of all these T- shaped spaces.

Since a×b is a common point.

is connected.

But

is connected.

Claim: To prove is connected.

Let us use index on X.

If , the result is true.

Assume that the result for

is connected.

If now,
( ) is connected.

Since ( ) are connectd and product of 2-connected spaces are

connected.

Hence is connected.

Example 1:

Consider the Cartesian product in the box topology. We can write as the union of
the set A. Consisting of all bounded sequence of real numbers and the set B of all
unbounded sequence.

These sets are disjoint and each is open in the box topology for if a is a point of the
open set.
( ) ( )

Consider entirely of bounded sequences if A is bounded and of unbounded sequences

if a if unbounded.
Thus, eventhough is connected, is not connected in the box topology.

Example 2:

Now consider in the product topology.

Assuming that is connected. We show that is connected.

Let ̃ denote the subspace of . Consisting of all sequences ( ) such that

The Space ̃ is clearly homeomorphic to , so that it is connected.

By the preceeding theorem

It follows that the space i.e., the union of the space is ̃ is connected, for these
spaces have the point ( ) in common.

We show that the closure of equals all of , from which it follows that is
connected as well.

Let ( ) be a point of let ∏ be a basis element for the product

topology that contains .

We show that U intersects. There is an integer, N there exist then the

point

( ) of . Since for all i. for .

The argument just given generalizes to show that an arbitrary product of connected
spaces is connected in the product topology.

Definition: Totally Disconnected space

A space is totally disconnected if its only connected spaces are one point subsets.

Example:

if X has discrete topology then x is totally disconnected.

The set of Rationals Q is totally disconnected.

Connected subspaces of the real line

Linear Continuum:

A simply ordered set L having more than one element is called a linear continuum if the
following hold.
(i) L has the least upper bound property.

(ii) If there exist there exist .

Example:

R is a linear continuum.

is not a linear continuum.

Theorem 7:

If L is a linear continuum in the order topology, then L is connected and so are intervals
and rays in L.

Proof:

Let us prove that if Y is a convex subset of L. then Y is connected.

Let Y be a convex subset of L. Suppose Y is disconnected then where A and

B are disjoint non-empty sets each of which is open in Y.

Choose say with a<b the interval , - of points of L is contained in Y.

Hence , - is the union of disjoint sets.

, -
, -

Where and are each open in [a,b] in the subspace topology, which is the same as
the order topology.

The sets and are non-empty because and .

Thus and constitute a separation of [a,b].

Let

We show that C belongs neither to nor which contradicts the fact that [a,b] is the
union of and .

Case (i)

Suppose that then

So either or in either case it follows the fact that is open in [a,b] that
there is some intervals of the form ( -
If , we have contradiction at once for d is a smaller upper bound on , we have
contradiction at once for d is a smaller upper bound on than c. If c<b we note that
(c,b] does not intersect [because c is an upper bound on ]

Then ( - ( - ( - does not intersect

Again d is a smaller upper bound on then C contrary to construction.

Case (ii):

Suppose that , then so either or Because is open in

[a,b]. There must be some interval of the form , ) .

Because of ordered property-2 of the linear continuum L, we can choose a point z of L

such that

Then , contrary to the fact that c is an upper bound for

Corollary:

The Real line is connected and so are intervals and says in

Proof:

We know that is linear continuum then by above theorem,

We can say that is connected and so are intervals and rays in .

Theorem 8: (Intermediate Value Theorem)

Let be a continuum map where X is a connected space Y is an ordered set in

the order topology. If a and b are two points of X and if r is a point of , lying between f(a)
and f(b) then there exist a point c of X such that ( ) .

Note: The Intermediate Value Theorem of calculus is a special case of this theorem that
occurs when we take X to be a closed interval in and Y to be .

Proof

Assume the hypothesis of the theorem the sets,

( ) ( ) and ( ) ( ) are disjoint ad they are non-empty.

Because one contains f(a) and other contains f(b)

Each is open in f(x), being the intersection of an open ray in Y, with f(x).

If there were no point c of X such that ( ) . Then f(x) would be the union of the sets
A and B.
Then A and B would constitute a separation of f(x), contradicting the fact that the image
of a connected space under a continuum map is connected.

Hence the proof.

Example 1:

One example of a linear continuum different from is the ordered sequence.

We check the least upper bound property (the 2nd property of the linear continuum is
trial to check) the A be a subset of .

Let ∏ ( )

If ∏ ( ) then A intersects the subset b×I of I×I.

Because b×I has the order type of I, the set ( ) will have a least upper bound
b×c which will be the least upper bound of A.

If ∏ ( ) then is the least upper bound of A, No element of the form with

can be an upper bound for A for then b’ would be an upper bound for ∏ ( ).

Example 2:

If X is a well ordered set then , - is a linear continuum in the dictionary order.

This set can be thought of an having been constructed by “fitting in” a set of the order
type of [0 , 1] immediately following each element of x.

Note:

Connectedness of intervals in given rise to an especially useful criterion for showing

that a space X is connected, namely the condition that every pair of points of X can be
joined by a path in X.

Definition 4:

Given points x and y of the space X a path in X from x to y is a continuum map

, - of some closed interval in the real line into X such that ( ) and
( )

A space X is said to be path connected if every pair of points of X can be joined by a

path in X.
Result:

Path connected connected.

Proof:

It is easy to see that a path connected space X is connected. Suppose is a

separation of X.

Let , - be any path in X. Being the continuum image of a connected set. The
set (, -) is connected.

So that, it lies entirely in either A or B.

Therefore, there is no path in X joining a point of A to a point of B, contrary to the

assumption that X is path connected.
Example 1:

Define the unit ball in by equation * + where

| | ( ) ’

The unit ball is path connected given any two points x and y of , the straight line path.

, - defined by ( ) ( ) lies in for if x and y are in and t is in

[0 , 1].

| ( )| ( )| |

A similar argument show that every open ball ( ) and every closed ball ̅̅̅̅( ) in
is path connected.

Example 2:

Define punctured Euclidean space to be the space * + where 0 is the origin

If this space is path connected given x and y different from O.

We can join x and y by the straight line path between them. If that path does not go
through the origin otherwise we can choose a point z, not on the line joining x and y and
take the broken line path from x to z and then z to y.

A connected space need not be a path connected.

Example 3:

The ordered square is connected but not path connected.

Being a linear continuum the order square is connected.

Let and

We suppose there is a path , - joining p and q and derive a contradiction.

The image set (, -) must contain every point of , by the intermediate value
theorem.

for each the set ( ( )) is non-empty subset of [a,b] by continuity it

is open in [a,b].

Choose for each a rational number belonging to . Since the sets are
disjoint the map is an injective mapping of I into Q. This contradicts the fact that
the interval I is countable.

Example 4:

Let S denote the following subset of the plane

* ( ) +

Because S is the image of the connected set (0 ,1] under a continuum map, S is
connected.

Its closure ̅ in is also connected.

The Set ̅ is a classical example in Topology called the Topology’s sine curve

It equals the union of s and the vertical interval , -

We show that ̅ is not path connected. Suppose there is a path , - ̅ beginning

at the origin and ending at the point of S.

The Set of those t for which ( ) , - is closed, so it has a largest element b.

Then , - ̅ is a path that maps b into the vertical interval , - and maps
the other points of , - to points of S.

Replace [b ,c] by [0 ,1] for convenience let ( ) , ( ) ( )-. Then ( ) , while

( ) and ( ) 0 ( )1 for t>0. We show that there is a sequence of points .
Such that ( ) ( ) .

Then the sequence ( ) does not converge, contradicting continuity of . To find , we

proceed as follows given n, choose u with . / such that . / ( ) Then
use the intermediate value theorem to find with such that ( ) .

Compact Spaces
A collection of subsets of a space X is said to cover X if the union of elements of is
equals to X.

Here A is called the covering of X.

* + where X for all I and

Open Covering

The covering of X is called an open covering of X if its elements are open subsets of X.

Compact Space

A Space X is said to be compact if every open covering A of X contains a finite sub

collection that also covers X.

Example 1:

The real line is not compact

Consider the open covering of . *( ) +. This contains no finite

collection.

Example 2:

Consider the subspace * + 2 3 of . This is compact in . Given an open

covering of X there is an element U of containing zero The Set U contains all but
finitely many points 1/n.

Choose for each point of X not in U and element of containing it. The collection
consisting of these elements of along with the element U is a finite sub collection of
that covers X.

Example 3:

Any space X containing only finitely many points is necessarily compact ( ) every
covering of X in this case is finite.

Example 4:

The interval (0 ,1] is not compact.

Soln:

The open covering 2. 1 3 contains no finite sub collection that covers

(0,1]
Lemma 9:
Let Y be a subspace of X then Y is compact iff every covering of Y by sets open in X
contains a finite sub collection covering of Y.

Proof:

Suppose Y is compact. Let * + is a covering of Y. By sets open in X, then

the collection,
* + is a covering of Y By sets open in Y.

Since Y is compact there exist a finite sub collection

{ } which covers Y.

4 5

and

Y=Y

Then there exist a finite sub collection { }which covers Y.

Conversely, Suppose the given condition holds. Let * + be an open covering of

Y by sets open in Y.

For each there exist an which is open in X.

Such that

Ie,

( )

. /

By hypothesis there exist a finite sub collection { } that covers Y

{ } is a sub-collection of * + which covers Y.

 Y is compact.

Hence the proof.

Theorem 10:

Every closed subspace of a compact space is compact.

Proof:

Let Y be a closed subspace of the compact space X.

Claim: Y is compact.

Let * + be an open covering of Y, By sets open in X.

Now, since Y is closed, X-Y is open and * + * + is an open covering for X.

Since X is compact, a finite sub-collection of covers X.

If this sub-collection contains the set X-Y, discard X-Y.

Otherwise leave the sub-collection alone the resulting sub-collection is a finite sub
collection of * + which covers Y.

Y is compact.

Hence the proof.

Theorem 11:

Every compact space of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Proof:

Let Y be a compact subspace of the Hausdorff space X.

Claim: Y is closed.

i.e, X-Y is open.

Let for each point y of Y.

Let us choose disjoint neighbourhood and of the points and y respectively. This
is possible became the space X is Hausdorff.

Now the collection { } is an open covering of Y, by sets open in X. Since Y is

compact, a finite sub collection covers

Note that V is an open set containing Y.

Considering the intersection of the corresponding neighbourhood of ,
where U is an open set containing .

for

for some i

for some i

Then U is a neighbourhood of disjoint from Y.

Then

Hence the proof.

Lemma 12:

If Y is a compact subspace of the Hausdorff space X and is not in Y, there exist

disjoint open sets U and V of X, containing and Y respectively.

Proof:

This proof follows from the previous theorem.

Example:

The intervals of the type (a , b), [a, b), [a, b] are not compact in . Because they are not
closed in the Hausdorff space

Theorem 13:

The image of compact space under a continuous map is compact.

Proof:

Let be continuous and X be compact.

Claim: f(x) is compact.

Let * + be an open covering by sets open in Y.

* ( ) + is an open covering of X, by sets open in X.

Since f is continuous.

i.e., ( )
 ( ) [ is compact ]

( ) . ( )/

( ) 0 . ( )/ 1

( ) is compact.

Theorem 14:

Let be a bijective continuous function. If X is compact and Y is a Hausdorff

then f is a homeomorphism.

Proof:

Given that f is one-one and onto and continuous.

To prove that f is a homeomorphism.

It remains to prove that f is an open map (or) is continuous for this it is enough to
prove that the image under of each closed set is closed.

Let A be a closed subset of X which is compact.

A is compact.

( ) is compact.

Since f is continuum. [ closed subset of compact set is compact and continuum image
of a compact set is compact]

f(A) is compact subset of Y.

( ) is closed.

Since compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.

is a homeomorphism.

Theorem 15:

The product of finitely many compact spaces is compact.

Proof:

We prove this theorem for 2-spacesthen it follows for finitely many spaces.

By induction hypothesis

Step 1:

The tube lemma

Consider the product space X×Y, where Y is compact.

If N is an open set of X×Y, containing the slice of . The N contains some

tube W×Y about where W is an neighbourhood of in X.

Proof:

X and Y are tow spaces where Y is compact. Let be a point of X and N be an open
subset of X×Y containing the slice .

To prove there exist a neighbourhood W of in X. such that N contains W×Y.

W×Y is called a Tube about first, let us cover by a basis elements U×V for
the topologies of X×Y lying in N.

Given Y is compact, the space is homeomorphic to Y and therefore it is compact.

Each open cover of by finitely many such basis elements (U×V)

, ,...,

We assume that each basis elements intersects .

Define

Then W is open since are open also W

Since intersects .

We claim that the sets which cover the slice actually covers the tube
W×Y.

For let

Consider the point of .

Now for some i.

But for all j [ -

Since all the sets they cover W×Y. We have .

Step 2:

Let X and Y be compact spaces to prove is compact.

Let be an open covering of . Let Then the slice is homeomorphic

to Y, Y is compact.

Each open covers of has a finite number of elements of say ( )

If

Then

By step -1 the open set N contains a tube W×Y about where W is open in X then
W×Y is covered by finitely many elements.

( ) of thus for each in X.

We can choose a neighborhood of x, such that the tube can be covered by

finitely many elements of .

The collection of all such neighbourhood is an open covering of X.

Since X is compact, there exist a finite sub cover for X.

Namely * + the union of the tube * + equals X×Y

ie., there exist a finite such cover for X×Y.

X×Y is compact.

We can extent this result to a finite number of spaces.

( ) by using induction hypothesis.

Suppose are compact. To Prove that is compact.

The result is true for n=2.

is compact.

Assume the result to be true for

( ) is compact.

Now ( ) is compact, and is compact.

( ) is compact.
( ) is compact.

Definition:

A collection of subsets of X is said to have the finite intersection property if for every
finite sub collection * + of .

The intersection is non empty.

Theorem 16:

Let X be a topological space then X is compact iff every collection of closed sets in X
having the finite intersection property. The intersection of all the elements of is
non-empty.

Proof:

Given a collection of subsets of X.

Let * + be the collection of their compliments then the following

statements hold.

is a collection of open sets iff is a collection of closed sets.

The collection covers X iff

covers

Take complements on both sides,

( ) [By Demorgan’s Law]

The finite subcollection * + of covers X iff

 if the finite sub collection covers X.

( )

Suppose X is compact, that

Each open cover of X has a finite sub cover.

If is a family of open sets in X such that covers X then some finite sub
collection of covers X.

If no finite sub-collection of covers X then also does not cover X.

Let * +

Then by (1) is a family of closed sets.

By (3), No finite sub collection of covers X, means

* + of .

By (2) does not cover X means

is a collection of closed sets satisfying the finite intersection

property then .

Refracting the steps we can prove this converse.

Note:

A special case of the above theorem occurs when we have a nested sequence.

of closed sets in a compact space X. If each of the sets is

non-empty then the collection * +

Automatically has the finite intersection property then the intersection is non-empty.

Compact Subspaces of Real line:

Theorem 17:
Let X be a Simply ordered set having the Least upper bound property in the ordered
topology, each closed interval in X is compact.

Proof:

Let

Consider the interval , - in X. Let be an open covering of , - by sets openin , -

in the subspace topology which is the sane as the ordered topology.

To prove that there exist a finite sub-collection of which covers (a,b] will be compact.

Step 1:

To prove that “If x is a point of [a,b], . Then there exist a point in [a,b] such
that [x,y] can be covered by atmost two elements of A”.
Suppose x has an immediate successor in X, then [x,y] consists of the two points x and
y.

[x,y] can be covered by atmost two elements of .

Suppose x has a no-immediate successor in X. Then choose an element

containing x.

Now and A is open.

A contains an interval of the form , ) for some , -. Choose a pint y in , ).

Then , - is covered by .

Step 2:

Let be the set of all points of [a,b] such that [a,y] can be covered by finitely
many elements of .
* , -( - +

Apply step 1, by taking . Then there exist atleast one such y.

is not empty. Let C be the least upper bound of . Then .

Step 3:

To prove that

To prove that [a,c] can be covered by finitely many elements of . Choose an element
containing C.

A is open A contains an interval of the form (d , c] for some d in [a,b].

Suppose .
Then there is a point such that ( - (for otherwise d would be a smaller
upper bound of than .

Since , [a , z] can be covered by finitely many elements of (By definition of ).

Say n elements .

Now , - lies in the single element

, - , - , -

[a,c] can be covered by finitely many elements (n+1 elements of )

to our assumption that .

Step 4:

Claim:

Suppose

Apply step 1 by taking

Then there exist a point of , -.

Such that [c,y] can be covered by finitely many elements of .

By step 3,

, - can be covered by finitely many elements of

, - , - , -
, - can be covered by finitely many elements of

This is a contradiction to the fact that C is the least upper bound of

, - can be covered by finitely many elements of

, - is compact.

Corollary:
Prove that closed interval in is compact.

Proof:

The is linearly ordered set with least upper bound property.

Every closed interval in is compact.

Theorem 18: Characterization of Compact subset of

A subspace A of is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded in the Euclidean

metric d or the square metric .

Proof:

We know that ( ) ( ) √ ( ).

A is bounded under iff it is bounded under d.

Let us consider the metric

(i) Suppose A is compact.

To prove that A is closed and bounded is Hausdorff.

A is closed.

[ Compact subset of Hausdorff space is closed.]

It remains to prove that A is bounded.

Consider the collection of open sets { ( ) } whose union is all

i.e., This is an open covers for

A is a subset of

We can consider this is an open covers for A, also A is compact.

There exist a finite subcover for A.

( ) for some M.

Suppose . Then ( )

( ) and
( )

( ) ( ) ( )

A is bounded under the metric . Then A is closed and bounded.

(Ii) Suppose A is closed and bounded under

To prove that A is compact

A is bounded, let us assume that ( ) for all pair

Choose a point of A and let ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Let

Consider , - . Then A is a subset of , - .

, - is a compact.

So A is closed compact subset of a compact space is compact.

Theorem 19: (Extreme value theorem)

Let be continuous where Y is an ordered set in the order topology. If X is

compact, then there exist points c and d in X such that

( ) ( ) ( ) for every .

Proof:

Given is continuous and X is compact.

( ) is compact.

Let ( ) is compact.

Let ( )

To prove that A has a largest element M and a smallest element m.

Suppose A has no larger element ,

Then the collection

*( ) + is an open covering for A.

A is compact. Therefore there exist a finite sub cover.

ie., the finite subcollection * ( )( ) ( )+ covers A.

Suppose * +. Then must belong to A.

But A has no larger element which is a contradiction.

Therefore, A has a largest element.

Similarly we can prove that A has a smallest element.

Hence A has a larger element M and a smallest element m.

i.e.,

We have ( ) and ( ) for some

( ) ( ) ( ) for all

Hence the proof.

Definition: The distance from x to A

Let ( ) be a metric space. Let A be a nonempty subset X. For each , We define

the distance from to A by the equation.
( ) * ( ) +

Definition:

The diameter of a bounded subset A of a metric space ( ) is the number

* ( ) +.

Lemma 20:

The lebesque number lemma.

Let be an open covering of the metric space ( ). If X is compact, there is a

such that for each subset of X having diameter less than , there exist an element of
containing it. The number δ us called a lebesgue number for the covering .

Proof:

Let be an open covering of X. Suppose Then any positive number is a

lebesgue number for . So assume

As X is compact, there exist a finite Sub-collection * + of that covers X.

Let ,

Define by

( ) ∑ ( )

Then ( ) for all x, for if . Choose so that . Then choose the

neighbourhood of that lies in .
Then ( )

( )

Since is continuous it has a minimum value δ.

Claim: is one required lebesque number. Let B be a subset of X of diameter less than
δ.

Let .

Now B lies in the Neighbourhood of . Now,

( ) , ( ) ( ) ( )-

( )

where ( ) is the largest of the numbers ( ).

Now the neighbourhood of is contained in of the covering .

Definition: Uniformly Continuous

A function from the metric space ( )is said to be uniformly continuous if given
there is a such that for every pair of points , of .

( ) ( ( ) ( ))

Theorem 21:

Uniform Continuity Theorem

Let be a continuous map of the compact metric space ( ) to the metric

space ( ) Then f is uniformly continuous.

Proof:

Given take the open covering of Y. By balls ( ) of radius

Let be the open covering of X by

{ ( ( )) } Let r be the lebesgue number for the covering . To prove is

uniformly continuous. Let such that ( ) . Then the set { } has
diameter less than δ.

So that there exist some element in { ( ( )) } such that

* + ( ( ))
 (* +) . /

( ) ( ) . /

( ( )) .

Now

( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ) ( ( ))

( ) ( ( ) ( ))

are arbitrary.

f is uniformly continuous.

Definition: Isolated Point

If X is a space a point of is said to be an isolated point of X. If the one point set * +

is open in X.

Theorem 22:

Let X be a non-empty compact Hausdorff space. If X has no isolated points then X is

uncountable.

Proof:

Step 1:

We show first that given any non-empty openset U of X and any point of X there exist
a non-empty open set such that ̅

Choose a point of of different from

If then U * + as x is not an isolated point of X.There exist y

If then as U , there exist y .

Now and X is Hausdorff. disjoint non-empty open sets and about and
respectively.

Let . Then V is open (being intersection of open sets).

as (y ).
̅ (as there exist a neighbourhood of )
Step 2:

To Prove: X is uncountable.

To Prove is not surjection.

Let ( ) .

Now and take

By step 1, there exist an open set

̅.

Now and is open in , there exist such that there exist an

oopen set

and ̅

Consider the nested sequence.

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ of non-empty closed sets.

Therefore they satisfy finite intersection property ̅ .

By theorem.

Let ̅

̅ for all n and ̅ for all n.

for any n.

There exist no principle for x under

is not surjective.

is not bijective and so.

X is uncountable.

Limit Point Compactness

Definition:

A space X is said to be limit point compact, if every infinite subset of X has a limit point.

Theorem 23:

Compactness implies limit point compactness but not conversely.

Proof:
Let X be a compact space. Given a subset of X, we wish to prove that if is infinite,
then has a limit point.

We prove the contrapositive if has no limit point, then must be finite.

So, suppose has no limit point. Then contains all its limit points so that is closed.

Furthermore, for each . We can choose a neighbourhood of a such that

intersects in the point a alone.

The space X is covered by the open sets and the open sets being compact, it
can be covered by finitely many of there sets.

Since x-a does not intersect A and each set contains only one point of A, the set a
must be finite.

Example 1:

Let Y consists of two points give Y the topology consisting of T and the empty set then
the space, is limit point compact, for every non-empty subset of X has limit
point. It is not compact for the covering of X by the open sets,
* + has no finite subcollection covering of X.

Definition

Let X be a topological space. If ( ) is a sequence of points of X, and if

is an increasing sequence of positive integers then the sequence ( ) defined by
setting is called a subsequence of the sequence ( ).

The space X is said to be sequentially compact if every sequence of points of X has a

convergent subsequence.
Theorem 24:

Let X be a metrizable space. Then the following are equivalent.

(i) X is compact.

(ii) X is limit point compact.

(iii) X is sequentially compact.

Proof:

To Prove: (i) (ii)

Refer Theorem-23.
To Prove: (ii) (iii)

Assume X is a limit point compact.

To prove that X is sequentially compact. Given a sequence ( ) of points of X

Consider the set * +. If the set A is finite then there is a point x such that

For finitely many values of n.

In this case, the sequence ( ) has a subsequence that is constant.

Converges trivially.

If A is infinite, then A has limit point x.

We define a subsequence of ( ). Converging to .

First Choose , ( )

Suppose that the positive integers is given. Because the ball . / intersects A in
infinitely many points.

We can choose such that

( )

U contains for all .Then the subsequence , converge to

To Prove: (iii) (i)

First we show that X is sequentially compact then the lebesgue number lemma holds for
X. Let A be an open covering of X. Assume that there is a δ>0 such that each set of
diameter less than δ has an element of containing it and derive a contradiction our
assumption.

In Particular that for each positive integers n there exist a set of diameter less than1/n
that is not contained in any element of .

Let be such a set. Choose a point for each n. By hypothesis,

Some subsequence ( ) of the sequence ( ) converges say to the point

Now belongs to some element A of the collection , because A is open.

We may choose an such that ( )

It is large enough that . Then the set lies in the - neighbourhood of .

If is also chosen large enough that

( )

Then lies in the -neighbouhood of A.

Contrary to hypothesis

Second we show that if X is sequentially compact given there exist a finite covring
of X by open -balls.

Once again we proceed by contradiction, Assume that there exist an such that X
cannot be covered by finitely many -balls.

Construct a sequence of points of X follows

First we choose to be any point of X Nothing that the ball ( ) is not all of X/

Otherwise X could be covered by a single ball.

Choose be a point off X not in ( ).

In general, given . Choose point not in the union.

( ) ( ) ( ). Using the fact that these balls do not cover X.

Note by construction ( ) for i=1,2,…,n.

The sequence ( ) can have no convergent subsequence.

In fact any ball of radius can contain for at least one value n which is a
contradiction.

Finally, we show that if X is sequentially compact X is compact.

Let A be an open covering X because is sequentially compact. Then the open

covering A has a lebesgue number Let Use sequential compactness of X to
find a finite converging of X by open balls.

Each of these balls has diameter at most so lies in an element of .

Choosing one such element of for each of those balls; we obtain a finite sub
collection of covers .

X is compact.

Hence the proof.

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